Name: Vishal Venkatarangan A Pyrheliometer is an instrument that measures the beam radiation falling on a surface

normal to the sun’s rays. In contrast to a Pyranometer, the black absorber plate is located at
Reg No.: 19BCM0011
the base of of collimating tube. The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with
MEE-1011-RES L27+L28 the help of the two-axis tracking mechanism and an alignment indicator. Thus the black plate
Mr. Raja Sekhar Y receives the only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the
acceptance angle of the instruments. Fig shows the Pyrheliometer used for measuring only
Lab Assignment-1 direct or beam radiation.
Aim: To conduct measurements to determine the different components of solar radiation
falling on a horizontal surface and plot graphs for global, diffuse, and Direct or beam
radiation. To estimate the error percentage in the measurements of beam radiation.

Apparatus required Shaded Ring Pyranometer:

The Pyranometer can also be used for the measurements of diffuse solar radiation. This is
Pyranometer, Pyranometer with the shaded ring, Pyrheliometer and done by mounting it at the center of a semicircular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in
multimeters. such a way that its plane is parallel to the plane of path of the sun’s daily movement across
the sky and it shades the thermopile element and the two glass domes of the Pyranometer at
all times from the direct radiation. Consequently, the Pyranometer measured only the diffuse
Theory: radiation received from the sky.

Pyranometer:
Formulae
It is an instrument that measures either global or diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal
surface over a hemispherical field. Pyranometer consists of a ‘black surface’ which heats up
when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar pyranameter reading (mV )  1000
radiation equal the rate of heat loss by convection and conduction and re-radiation. The hot Measured global solar flux, Ig = W/m2
Sensitivity of pyranometer
junctions of the thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are
located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly. As a result, an
emf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded, Pyreheliom eter reading (mV )
Measured direct solar flux, Ib =  3.1552  221.4
or integrated over a while and is a measure of the global radiation. 4.56 W/m2

 Shadedring pyranometer reading (V ) 

  4  125
Measured diffuse solar flux, Id =  0.47  W/m2

Estimated direct solar flux (Ib)= (Ig)Pyranometer reading– (Id)shaded ring pyranometer reading W/m2

Fig.1. Pyranometer Fig 2. Pyrheliometer Fig 3 Shaded ring pyranometer Error percentage (%) = (Ib measured ~ Ib estimated) / (Ib measured or / Ib estimated)which ever less (%)

Procedure
Pyrheliometer:
Assure the location where the instruments are to be kept is free from shading by trees and
buildings. The place has to be perfectly flat, clean, and free from dust.

1 2

1. Keep the instruments on a horizontal surface such that there is some distance
maintained between the instruments.
2. Connect the output of the instruments to multimeters. However, the output of shaded Observations
ring pyranometer is connected to an amplifier circuit such that the output signal is
amplified from micro to millivolts.
3. The output from the instruments is recorded for every 15 minutes ( interval). Tim Solar Flux (mV) Solar Flux (W/m2) Calculate Error
4. The flux recorded in millivolts should be converted to W/m 2 using the respective
e d Beam percenta
correlations. Global Diffuse Beam Global Diffuse Beam
(hrs Radiatio ge
radiatio d radiatio radiatio d radiatio
) n
n radiatio n n radiatio n
n n (W/m2)
(A) (C) (A) (C)
(B) (B) (A-B)

1 7.3 3.1 2.8 731.462 324.468 428.941 406.994 5.392

9 0 1

2 7.1 2.8 2.7 711.422 244.680 413.621 466.742 -21.4155

8 8 8

3 6.0 2.4 2.7 601.202 138.297 413.621 462.904 -11.916

4 8 8 6

4 5.1 4.0 2.5 511.022 563.829 382.983 -52.8077 113.78

0 7 1

5 6.7 2.8 2.7 671.342 244.680 413.621 426.661 -3.152

6 8 8 8

Model Calculations:

3 4
5 6

Graph: Plot graphs for (include soft copies of graph using MS Excel or any other
software)

1. Local time v/s Global, Diffused and Beam Radiation

2. Estimated Vs Measured beam solar radiation

7 8
Questions: Name: Vishal Venkatarangan Expt. No 02
Reg. No : 19BCM0011 Date : 25.02.2021
Q1: Explain the cosine response of the pyranometer? L27+L28
Ans: Ans When the beam is not normal to the surface, the intensity perpendicular to the surface is
now reduced and is FoCos(z). The cosine corrected response of the pyranometer means that the PERFORMANCE TEST ON SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL
output of the pyranometer is Fo for the case of normal incidence and for the case where the angle is
Aim
Z. A device with a good cosine response can estimate the direct irradiance by using the
To conduct performance test on the solar panel and to determine its efficiency
measurements at the surface and the zenith angle. Total I = I beam cos z+ I (diffused) Where Z =
at two different angles 20o and 30o.
Zenith Angle

Q2: Differentiate among pyranometer, pyrheliometer, and pyranometer with the shaded ring?
Ans 2: Difference between these 3 instruments lies in which parameter they measure Pyranometer
(without Shaded Ring): Measures Global Radiation Pyranometer (with Shaded Ring): Measures
Diffused Radiation Pyrheliometer: Measures Beam Radiation.
Q3: How do you measure diffused radiation when Pyranometer and pyrheliometer are provided to
you?
Ans 3: Pyrheliometer measures the direct beam radiation at the normal incidence. Pyranometer
measures the total Hemisphere radiation that is beam + diffused radiation. It essentially measures
beam radiation on a horizontal surface. We have to shade the pyranometer with a ring to measure
the diffused radiation. A Shaded ring Pyranometer can measure the diffused Radiation.
Q4: Explain the Seebeck effect in pyranometer?
Ans 4: Following the Seebeck effect, solar radiation can be measured. This thermopile effect is part
of a physical phenomenon called the thermoelectric effect, where a voltage difference is created by
the temperature difference between two different electrical conductors. The potential difference is
known as the Seebeck effect between the two conductors held at different temperatures.
Q5: What is the purpose of a shaded ring in a shaded ring pyranometer?
Ans 5: The shadow ring, also known as a shadow band, prevents direct radiation from reaching the
pyranometer, so only diffused radiation is measured by the shaded pyranometer. The ISO 9060:2018
standard calls the mixture of a shadow ring and a pyranometer a diffusometer.
Apparatus required
Photo voltaic panel, Pyranometer, Multimeters and a Measuring scale.
Description
Photovoltaic generation of power is produced by radiation on semiconductor
device that separate positive and negative charge carries in absorbing material. In presence of
electric field, these charges can produce a current for use in an electric circuit. Such fields exist
permanently at junction or into magnetic in materials as built in electric fields.
Semi-conductor Junction devices are usually known as Photo voltaic cell or Solar cells
although the term is a misnomer in the sense that it is the current that is produced by radiation
on photon and not the voltage. A majority of photo voltaic cells are silicon semiconductor
junction devices. Thus in order to study the photo voltaic cells, one should have an
understanding of the basics of semiconductors. A solar cell constitutes basic unit of PV
generator, which is in the main component of power generation.
Procedure
1. The dimensions of solar photovoltaic panel is determined using measuring scale.
2. The PV panel is kept facing either North-South or South-North direction.
3. Using trigonometry the panel is kept at an angle 200 and 30o from horizontal.
4. The voltage and current readings from the two PV panels are measured using a
Multimeter.
5. This procedure is repeated for every 5-10 min interval.
6. Using the correlation, the efficiency of panel is found at the respective positions.

Result and discussion: From this experiment, we were able to calculate the global and beam
radiation in different timings of a day and observe the pattern in the graph for a clear and cloudy Formulae
day.
Power
Efficiency, η = x 100
Area Solar flux

Power, P = voltage (V) × current (A)

Area, A = L × B = 0.94 ×0.46 m2

pyranameter reading(mV ) 1000

Solar flux, I = W/m2
12.56

9 5

Observations Model Calculations:

P η
I 20°
I

20°
30°
30°

Time Time

Fig.1 Model graph for PV performance

Observation Table:
1. Performance comparison of PV at 20-degree tilt angle:

Sr. Time Current Voltage Power Flux (I) Flux (I) Efficiency
No. (T) (A) (V) (W) (mV) (W/m2)  (%)
1 12.26 2.98 18.88 56.2624 11.29 899.69 25.57
2 12.36 2.88 18.88 54.3744 10.92 866.77 25.71
3 12.46 2.86 18.41 52.6526 11.0 875.71 25.46
4 12.56 2.82 18.74 52.8468 10.7 851.88 25.33
5 13.06 2.82 18.55 52.311 10.7 851.88 25.23
6 13.16 2.63 18.71 49.2073 10.7 851.88 23.61

2. Performance comparison of PV at 30-degree tilt angle:

Sr. Time Current Voltage Power Flux (I) Flux (I) Efficiency
No. (T) (A) (V) (W) (mV) (W/m2)  (%)
1 12.26 2.9 18.96 54.984 11.3 899.69 24.89
2 12.36 2.83 19.44 55.0154 10.92 867.23 25.73
3 12.46 2.9 18.91 54.839 11.0 875.82 25.66
4 12.56 2.83 19.24 54.4492 10.7 851.88 26.11
5 13.06 2.81 18.93 53.1933 10.7 851.88 25.23
6 13.16 2.63 19.22 50.5486 10.7 851.88 24.11

6 7
 8 9

Graph Results and discussions:

Plot graphs at 20o and 300 angles respectively for
1. Local time Vs Power
For a greater angle, the efficiency is seen to be marginally higher than that observed at lower
angles.
Questions:
Q1. Explain how solar cells work.
Some photons are absorbed while others are reflected when they strike a solar cell. When the
solar cell material absorbs enough photon energy, electrons inside the material dislodge from
their atoms. The electric field will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to the p-type
layer if this occurs. If you connect the n-type and p- type layers with a metallic wire, the
electrons will travel from the n-type layer to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone
and then go through the external wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

2. Local time Vs Insolation
3. Local time Vs Efficiency
Q2. Differentiate among polycrystalline, monocrystalline, and thin film based solar cells?
Polycrystalline panels are a relatively new invention. In a vat of molten silicon, the
panels begin as a silicon crystal ‘seed.' Rather than drawing the silicon crystal seed up as in
mono, the silicon vat is simply allowed to cool. This is what gives the solar cell its grains
and distinct edges. In terms of efficiency polycrystalline solar panels are very close to
monocrystalline and continue to get better with time.
Solar panels are produced from a single continuous crystal structure are called
monocrystalline crystals. It has a single flat color that is distinctive. This is the most
advanced and oldest of the three inventions. This panel is the typical solar panel, with a
simple, aesthetic, and sleek appearance.
Thin film solar panels are totally different the two mentioned above. Thin film panels is
ideal for houses with shading issues and requires more space and are a new technology. The
panels appear as flat sheets with zero lines running through the panels. When compared the
above solar panels, thin film solar panels are less efficient

Q3. What is the preferable orientation and tilt angle for PV panel in your location?

Solar panels must be pointed in the direction that captures the most sunlight to get the most out of them.
Solar panels in India should face south. Magnetic compasses do not always point north. There are only a
few locations on Earth where this happens. The compass needle points in the direction of magnetic north.
The angle formed by True North and Magnetic North is known as magnetic declination.

10 11
Q4. How do you measure efficiency of solar panel? Exp. No :3
To calculate the efficiency of the solar cell, it is necessary to know how much power Date : 21/03/21
the solar cell receives and how much power it produces. If the light source used was Name: Vishal Venkatarangan
Reg No: 19BCM0011
the sun on a cloudless day, the incoming power is approx. 1000 W / m2. Lab: L27+L28
Efficiency = Pout / Pin. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR PV MODULE USING
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate V-I and V-P characteristic of PV module with varying radiation and temperature level.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

PV module, DC Voltmeter, DC Ammeter, Variable rheostat, Halogen lamp (Indoor experiment)

THEORY
 PV module is characterized by V-I and V-P characteristic
 At a particular radiation and temperature, panel characteristic cure are shown in Fig.1.1
 In these curves, maximum current at zero voltage is called short circuit current (Isc) and maximum
voltage at zero current is called open circuit voltage (Voc).
 In P-V curve, there is a single maximum, called maximum power point (MPP).
 The voltage and current corresponding to MPP are notated as V mp and Imp and the corresponding
power point is notated as Pmp.

Maximum
Isc Short Circuit Current Maximum
Power Point
Power Point
Vmp & Imp

Imp

Current (A)

Power (W)
Vmp

Voltage (V) Voc Voltage (V)

Open Circuit Voltage

Fig.1.1 Characteristics of PV module at particular environmental condition

12

 Voc decreases in increase in temperature but I sc remains almost same (only little variation). The
percentage of reduction in V oc depends on the materials. For crystalline silicon SPV cells, the A

reduction is about 0.5% per oC.

Pot
 Isc decreases in radiation level and there is small decreases compared to I sc in Voc. V meter
 Fill factor: It is an essential measure of quality of the solar cell. It is calculated by comparing the
maximum power to the theoretical power.
P max Im pVmp
FF = = ………………………………………………… (1.1)
Ptheoratical IscVoc Fig.1.3 Circuit diagram to measure the characteristics
 It is the graphical method in Fig.1.2. A large fill factor is desirable and corresponds to V-I sweep
that is squarer like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82 FF is commonly represented in G =700 (W/m2)
G =700 (W/m2)
G =500 (W/m2)
percentage.
Module Power (W)

G =300 (W/m2)
Module Current (A)

G =500 W/m2)

Ptheoretical
M G =300 W/m2)

Imp Pmp Important Notes

Module Voltage (V) Module Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Characteristics at different radiation levels

Vmp

T = 25oC
Voltage (V)
Module Current (A)

Module Power (W)

T = 35oC
Fig.1.2. Calculation of Fill factor (FF)
T= 25oC T = 50oC
PROCEDURE
T = 35oC
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig.1.3.
T = 50oC
 Measure the open circuit voltage and short circuit current using multimeter.
 By varying rheostat values in steps, measure the voltage and current in each step.
Module Voltage (V) Module Voltage (V)
 Repeat the same for different levels of radiation can be changed by changing the position of the
panel using tilting stand.
Characteristics at different temperature levels
 Calculate power for all the readings. Fig.1.4.Model Graphs
 Draw the graphs for different sets. Important Notes
 Calculate the fill factor for different set of readings using equation (1.1) and Fig.1.2. Check  Experiment can be conducted indoor using halogen lamp as source or panel may be kept outside
whether the value falls in the range (0.5 to 0.8). for receiving natural source of radiation.
 For getting smooth curves, the readings can be entered in excel and curve filling tool can be used.  Reading of one set should be taken within 1-2 minutes. In case of indoor, temperature of the panel
 Model graphs are shown in Fig.1.4. gets changed as radiation source id halogen lamp. For confirming the uniform illumination on the
PV Module
 panel the halogen lamp position should not be changed & it must be connected through auto
SET-3
transformer to keep the input voltage to it is constant.
 In outdoor experiments also reading should be taken fast because both radiation & temperature S.No.
Radiation Temperature(oC) Voltage(V) Current(A) Power(W)
(W/m2)
may be varied due to change in weather conditions.
 Connection should be right. 1 0.9 0.15 0.136
 Short circuit current is directly proportional to radiation level. By referring data sheet values given 2 5.5 0.13 0.72
2 o 3 120 35.6 15 0.11
by the manufacturer at STC (radiation level, G= 700 W/m ; T=25 C; Air mass= 1.5) conditions, 1.7
4 18.2 0.09 1.64
radiation level is calculated. For example if Isc = 2.55A at STC, then the radiation level is
5 19.1 0.08 1.53
calculated as follows:
2
 Measured Isc = 2A, the corresponding G = 1000 x = 784.3W/m2. SET-4
2.55
 Temperature can be measured using surface mounted temperature sensor which has been fixed Radiation Temperature(oC) Voltage(V) Current(A) Power(W)
S.No.
(W/m2)
back side of the PV module.

1 1 0.16 0.16
OBSERVATIONS:
SET-1 2 6 0.14 0.84
145 35.9
3 10 0.12 1.2
Radiation Temperature(oC) Voltage(V) Current(A) Power(W)
S.No. 4 18.9 0.09 1.7
(W/m2)
5 19 0.08 1.50
1 1 0.13 0.13
2 5.9 0.12 0.70
69.4 33.2
3 10.7 0.12 1.28
4 15.9 0.12 1.90
5 18.6 0.11 2.05

SET-2

Radiation Temperature(oC) Voltage(V) Current(A) Power(W)

S.No.
(W/m2)

1 1 0.14 0.14
2 5 0.12 0.6
94.6 34.4
3 18.4 0.11 2.03
4 18.9 0.1 1.9
5 19 0.09 1.71

Model Calculations:

9 10
 V-I characteristic graph
Graphs:

V-I characteristic graph

V-P characteristic graph

V-P characteristic graph

Results and discussions: From the above graphs, the V-I and V-P
Characteristic curves of PV Module with varying radiation and temperature levels
have been demonstrated and determined.


11 12

Expt. No :4
Date : 29-03-21
Name : Vishal Venkatarangan
Reg No : 19BCM0011
Lab Slot : L27+L28

POWER CURVE FOR AN WIND TURBINE SYSTEM: DETERMINATION OF

CUT-IN WIND SPEED

Aim

Draw the turbine Power versus wind speed curve by determining the cut-in speed of windturbine experimentally.
.
Equipment Required
Wind Energy simulation setup having Power generation unit and Power conditioning
unit with necessary accessories such as Tachometer and Anemometer.

Background and Theory

The wind systems that exist over the earth’s surface are a result of variations in air pressure.
These are in turn due to uneven solar heating. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to take its
place. Wind is merely the movement of air from one place to another. There are global wind
patterns related to large scale solar heating of different regions of the earth’s surface and
seasonal variations in solar incidence. Also Coriolis Effect will impact the complexity of the
wind flow and its direction. There are also localized wind patterns due the effects of temperature
differences between land and seas, or mountains and valleys. Wind speed generally increases
with height above ground. This is because the roughness of ground features such as vegetation
and houses cause the wind to be slowed. Wind speed data can be obtained from wind maps or
from the meteorology office. Unfortunately the general availability and reliability of wind
speed data is extremely poor in many regions of the world. However, significant areas of the
world have mean annual wind speeds of above 4-5 m/s which makes small-scale wind powered
electricity generation an attractive option.
The power in the wind can be derived from the Kinetic energy equation for wind flow. The
power in the wind is proportional to:
● The area swept by the rotor
● The cube of the wind speed
● The air density - which varies with altitude

The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is:

Power =
13 1
P = ½.ρ.A.V3 wind speed, rpm and other power parameters at the different branches of system. Wind
Where, P is power in watts (W), ρ is the air
generating unit and wind turbine are placed in an enclosure and fix onto the pillars. These pillars
3
density (kg/m ),
are fixed with the base of enclosure. Anemometer and tachometer sensors are placed near the
A is the swept rotor area (m2),
turbine for measuring the wind speed and rotor RPM. Control unit can be attached and detached
V is the wind speed (m/s)
from the turbine unit as it is connected with the turbine components (generator) with the help
Terminology of Wind Energy
of banana connectors. This control unit can be moved here and there as it is having wheels.
● Power curve: This curve gives an idea of the power output that can be obtained at
different wind speeds. This small system consists of different components viz. battery, charge controller, inverter and
generator. These components are connected as shown in following figure.
● Cut-in speed: the wind speed at which a wind turbine begins to generate electricity.
● Rated speed: The wind speed at which the turbine starts to operate at its rated power
output
● Cut-out wind speed: the high wind speed at which the turbine must shut down and turn
perpendicular to the wind to protect itself from being overpowered.
● Variable blade pitch: many turbines can change the angle of their blades to optimize
performance.

This training system is made of three parts viz. artificial wind generation unit, Wind turbine
and control unit or measuring unit. There are three units in this system viz. wind generating
unit, Wind turbine and control unit. Wind generating unit consists of an induction motor with
a fan-hub sub unit and Variable frequency drive (VFD). This unit will generate different wind
speed with the change in frequency of motor input supply (with the help of VFD). This unit
consists of a fan (of 7 blades) which generates the wind for turbine movement. Wind turbine
unit consists of three rotor blades fixed on the hub and a small PMSG generator. This unit will Wind turbine generator generates 3 phase power in delta connection which is connected to

generate 3 phase electrical power of variable frequency. Control unit consists of different charge controller. Charge controller converts the variable frequency power to the variable

meters viz. voltmeters, ammeters, power analyzers, tachometer and anemometer. This unit also amplitude of DC power. This DC power is converted into AC power with the help of inverter.

consists of charge controller, battery and inverter. This unit can measure voltages, currents,
2 3

Battery will supply the power to load when there is shortage of power at generation point.
Different voltmeters and ammeter are placed with these components to measure the AC and
DC power and its quality.
In this system AC power quality can be analyzed at two points: turbine output and inverter
output but turbine output can be measured at high frequency (corresponding to high wind
speed). Voltages and currents can be measured at charge controller output for load, battery
terminals, inverter input and inverter output. Other than these measurements wind speed and
rotor speed can be measured with the help of anemometer and tachometer. System layout will
be same for each experiment but there are some changes in procedure of this experimentation.
In some experiments, we need power quality while in some we need wind speed, power and
Tabular Column:
rpm only. For performing the experiment we need to connect the control unit with wind turbine Wind Battery Battery DC load DC load
Inverter Inverter Dynamic
Actual
Input Input Wind
S.No Velocity V RPM RPS Current Voltage Current Voltage Power TSR Cp
unit and required load at the output of inverter. After making this simple arrangement, position (m/s) (A) (V) (A) (V)
current Voltage power
(W)
(A) (V) (W)
of anemometer and tachometer sensors will be set with the help of levers (present in turbine 1 2.4 332 5.53 0.06 12.7 2.1 5.2 1.49 12.55 10.334 0.762 1.451 0.0737
2 3.5 526 8.76 0.94 12.56 4.8 7.6 1.4 12.68 32.053 11.8064 1.578 0.3683
enclosure). 3 3.8 726 12.1 1.55 11.87 5.6 11.09 1.38 12.7 41.022 18.3985 2.006 0.4485
4 4.7 1088 18.13 2.12 11.2 6 12 1.35 12.85 77.618 23.744 2.43 0.3059
Power produced by wind turbine:
TSR Cp

1.451 0.0737
Where Cp Coefficeint of performance of wind turbine. 1.578 0.3683
2.006 0.4485
Cp = (Rotor power)/(Dynamic power) and
2.43 0.3059
can also be expressed as, Calculations

Cp = 4a(1-a2), 1. Battery power = battery current*battery voltage

Where, a is the fractional decrease in the wind velocity between the free stream and the rotor 2. Load power = load current*load voltage

plane. a= (U_1-U_2)/U_1 . U1 is the wind speed of the free stream at a distance from the rotor. 3. Turbine power = √3*current*voltage*power factor

4. Charge controller efficiency with battery only = (load power/battery power)*100

U2 is the wind speed just near the rotor plane. The maximum theoretical Cp is determined by
5. Charge controller efficiency with battery as well as turbine = 100*(battery power + loadpower)/turbine power
taking the derivative of the power coefficient with respect to a and setting it to zero, yielding
6. DC power at output of charge controller (DC power) = (DC load voltage*DC loadcurrent) + (battery
a=1/3, Thus: Cp,max= 16/27 = 0.5926, which is called as the betz limit. The practical value is
always lesser than this value.
Procedure:
For this experiment, anemometer and tachometer will be placed at right position and readings
will be noted down with these meters at different wind velocities. Wind speed and shaft rpm
corresponding to starting of turbine shaft rotation and power generation is noted. These wind
velocities will be called start-up speed and cut-in speed.

4
 voltage*battery current) 0.06 12.7 0.762
0.94 12.56 11.806
OR 1.55 11.87 18.398
2.12 11.2 23.744
7. DC power at output of charge controller (DC power) = (inverter i/p current*inverter i/pvoltage) + (battery

voltage*battery current)
2. Load power= 4.8*7.6= 36.48
8. Generated power by wind turbine = DC power*charge controller efficiency
DC load DC load DC load
9. Coefficient of performance = Generated power*100/Wind power Current Voltage Power
(A) (V) (W)
10. Start-up speed and Cut-in speed are found as follows: 2.1 5.2 10.92
4.8 7.6 36.48
● Start-up speed = ............. m/s (at which turbine starts to rotate) 5.6 11.09 62.104
6 12 72
● Cut-in speed = .................. m/s (at which turbine starts to generate some power)

● TSR (λ) = 3. Charge controller efficiency with battery only=(36.48/11.806)*100=308.99

● Note: Battery current will be used with negative sign if battery will supply the powerto the load.

DC load Battery Charge

Model Calculations: Power Power Controller
(W) (W) Efficiency
1. Battery Power= 0.94*12.56= 11.806: 10.92 0.762 1433.07
36.48 11.806 308.99
Battery Battery Battery 62.104 18.398 337.55
Current Voltage Power 72 23.744 303.234
(A) (V) (W) 4. Turbine Power= 0.94*12.56*0.8=9.445 W

2. Wind speed vs Actual power

5. DC Power output at output of charge controller =

(5.2*2.1) + (12.7*0.06)= 11.682W RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
6. DC power at output of charge controller= (12.55*1.47) +(12.7*0.06)=19.461 W 1. Write about the theoretical power and wind speed.
7. Generated power by wind turbine= 11.682*832.104= 9720.64
8. Coefficient of performance= 9720.64/10.92= 890.16*100= 89016 Ans: As the wind speed increases the power in the wind increases which increases the turbine power.
9. TSR= 34.76*0.1/2.4=1.45
10. Cp=0.76/10.92=0.0737
Graph:
2. Write about the actual power delivered by wind turbine versus wind speed.
Performance Curves includes : Performance Curves includes

1. Wind speed vs Wind power

Ans: As the wind speed increases the power delivered by wind turbine increases.

3. Write about the cut-in, rated and cut-off wind speed.

Ans: Cut-in speed: the wind speed at which a wind turbine begins to
generate electricity. Rated speed: The wind speed at which the
turbine starts to operate at its rated power output.
Cut-out wind speed: the high wind speed at which the turbine must shut down and turn perpendicular to the
wind to protect itself frombeing overpowered.

17
Expt. No : 05
Date : 29-03-21
Name : Vishal Venkatarangan
Reg No : 19BCM0011
Lab Slot : L27+L28
WIND TURBINE: DETERMINATION OF TIP SPEED RATIO AND COEFFICIENT
OF PERFROMANCE
Aim
To determine the tip speed ratio and coefficient of performance of a wind turbine using
simulation setup at different wind speeds experimentally.
Equipment Required
Wind Energy simulation setup having Power generation unit and Power conditioning
unit with necessary accessories such as Tachometer and Anemometer.
Background and Theory
The wind systems that exist over the earth’s surface are a result of variations in air pressure.
These are in turn due to uneven solar heating. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to take its
place. Wind is merely the movement of air from one place to another. There are global wind
patterns related to large scale solar heating of different regions of the earth’s surface and
seasonal variations in solar incidence. Also Coriolis Effect will impact the complexity of the
wind flow and its direction. There are also localized wind patterns due the effects of temperature
differences between land and seas, or mountains and valleys. Wind speed generally increases
with height above ground. This is because the roughness of ground features such as vegetation
and houses cause the wind to be slowed. Wind speed data can be obtained from wind maps or
from the meteorology office. Unfortunately the general availability and reliability of wind
speed data is extremely poor in many regions of the world. However, significant areas of the
world have mean annual wind speeds of above 4-5 m/s which makes small-scale wind powered
electricity generation an attractive option.
The power in the wind can be derived from the Kinetic energy equation for wind flow. The
power in the wind is proportional to:
● The area swept by the rotor
● The cube of the wind speed
● The air density - which varies with altitude
The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is:
Power =
1 2
wind speed, rpm and other power parameters at the different branches of system. Wind
generating unit and wind turbine are placed in an enclosure and fix onto the pillars. These pillars
are fixed with the base of enclosure. Anemometer and tachometer sensors are placed near the
turbine for measuring the wind speed and rotor RPM. Control unit can be attached and detached
from the turbine unit as it is connected with the turbine components (generator) with the help
of banana connectors. This control unit can be moved here and there as it is having wheels.
This small system consists of different components viz. battery, charge controller, inverter and
generator. These components are connected as shown in following figure.
Wind turbine generator generates 3 phase power in delta connection which is connected to
charge controller. Charge controller converts the variable frequency power to the variable
amplitude of DC power. This DC power is converted into AC power with the help of inverter.
3 4
P = ½.ρ.A.V3
Where, P is power in watts (W), ρ is the air
density (kg/m3),
A is the swept rotor area (m2),
V is the wind speed (m/s)
Terminology of Wind Energy
● Power curve: This curve gives an idea of the power output that can be obtained at
different wind speeds.
● Cut-in speed: the wind speed at which a wind turbine begins to generate electricity.
● Rated speed: The wind speed at which the turbine starts to operate at its rated power
output
● Cut-out wind speed: the high wind speed at which the turbine must shut down and turn
perpendicular to the wind to protect itself from being overpowered.
● Variable blade pitch: many turbines can change the angle of their blades to optimize
performance.
This training system is made of three parts viz. artificial wind generation unit, Wind turbine
and control unit or measuring unit. There are three units in this system viz. wind generating
unit, Wind turbine and control unit. Wind generating unit consists of an induction motor with
a fan-hub sub unit and Variable frequency drive (VFD). This unit will generate different wind
speed with the change in frequency of motor input supply (with the help of VFD). This unit
consists of a fan (of 7 blades) which generates the wind for turbine movement. Wind turbine
unit consists of three rotor blades fixed on the hub and a small PMSG generator. This unit will
generate 3 phase electrical power of variable frequency. Control unit consists of different
meters viz. voltmeters, ammeters, power analyzers, tachometer and anemometer. This unit also
consists of charge controller, battery and inverter. This unit can measure voltages, currents,
Battery will supply the power to load when there is shortage of power at generation point.
Different voltmeters and ammeter are placed with these components to measure the AC and
DC power and its quality.
In this system AC power quality can be analyzed at two points: turbine output and inverter
output but turbine output can be measured at high frequency (corresponding to high wind
speed). Voltages and currents can be measured at charge controller output for load, battery
terminals, inverter input and inverter output. Other than these measurements wind speed and
rotor speed can be measured with the help of anemometer and tachometer. System layout will
be same for each experiment but there are some changes in procedure of this experimentation.
In some experiments, we need power quality while in some we need wind speed, power and
rpm only. For performing the experiment we need to connect the control unit with wind turbine
unit and required load at the output of inverter. After making this simple arrangement, position
of anemometer and tachometer sensors will be set with the help of levers (present in turbine
enclosure).
Power produced by wind turbine:
Where Cp Coefficeint of performance of wind turbine.
Cp = (Rotor power)/(Dynamic power) and
can also be expressed as,
Cp = 4a(1-a2),
Where, a is the fractional decrease in the wind velocity between the free stream and the rotor
plane. a= (U_1-U_2)/U_1 . U1 is the wind speed of the free stream at a distance from the rotor.
U2 is the wind speed just near the rotor plane. The maximum theoretical Cp is determined by
taking the derivative of the power coefficient with respect to a and setting it to zero, yielding
a=1/3, Thus: Cp,max= 16/27 = 0.5926, which is called as the betz limit. The practical value is
always lesser than this value.
Procedure:
For this experiment, anemometer and tachometer will be placed at right position and readings
will be noted down with these meters at different wind velocities. Wind speed and shaft rpm
corresponding to starting of turbine shaft rotation and power generation is noted. These wind
velocities will be called start-up speed and cut-in speed.
 Tabular Column: ● Cut-in speed = ................. m/s (at which turbine starts to generate some power)
Inverter Inverter Dynamic
Wind Battery Battery DC load DC load Actual
Input Input Wind
S.No Velocity V RPM RPS Current Voltage Current Voltage Power
current Voltage power ● TSR (λ) =
(m/s) (A) (V) (A) (V) (W)
(A) (V) (W)
1 2.4 332 5.53 0.06 12.7 2.1 5.2 1.49 12.55 10.334 0.762 ● Note: Battery current will be used with negative sign if battery will supply the power
2 3.5 526 8.76 0.94 12.56 4.8 7.6 1.4 12.68 32.053 11.8064
3 3.8 726 12.1 1.55 11.87 5.6 11.09 1.38 12.7 41.022 18.3985 to the load.
4 4.7 1088 18.13 2.12 11.2 6 12 1.35 12.85 77.618 23.744
Model Calculations:
TSR Cp
1. Battery Power= 0.94*12.56= 11.806:

1.451 0.0737 Battery Battery Battery

1.578 0.3683 Current Voltage Power
2.006 0.4485 (A) (V) (W)
2.43 0.3059 0.06 12.7 0.762
0.94 12.56 11.806
Calculations
1.55 11.87 18.398
1. Battery power = battery current*battery voltage 2.12 11.2 23.744

2. Load power = load current*load voltage

2. Load power= 4.8*7.6= 36.48
3. Turbine power = √3*current*voltage*power factor
DC load DC load DC load
4. Charge controller efficiency with battery only = (load power/battery power)*100 Current Voltage Power
(A) (V) (W)
5. Charge controller efficiency with battery as well as turbine = 100*(battery power + load 2.1 5.2 10.92
4.8 7.6 36.48
power)/turbine power
5.6 11.09 62.104
6. DC power at output of charge controller (DC power) = (DC load voltage*DC load 6 12 72

current) + (battery voltage*battery current)

OR 3. Charge controller efficiency with battery

7. DC power at output of charge controller (DC power) = (inverter i/p current*inverter i/p only=(36.48/11.806)*100=308.99

voltage) + (battery voltage*battery current)

8. Generated power by wind turbine = DC power*charge controller efficiency DC load Battery Charge
Power Power Controller
9. Coefficient of performance = Generated power*100/Wind power (W) (W) Efficiency
10.92 0.762 1433.07
10. Start-up speed and Cut-in speed are found as follows:
36.48 11.806 308.99
62.104 18.398 337.55
● Start-up speed = .............. m/s (at which turbine starts to rotate)
72 23.744 303.234
17 17

4. Turbine Power= 0.94*12.56*0.8=9.445 W

5. DC Power output at output of charge controller = WIND POWER VS WIND SPEED
(5.2*2.1) + (12.7*0.06)= 11.682W
90
80
6. DC power at output of charge controller= (12.55*1.47) +(12.7*0.06)=19.461 W
70
Dynamic Wind Power

7. Generated power by wind turbine= 11.682*832.104= 9720.64

8. Coefficient of performance= 9720.64/10.92= 890.16*100= 89016 60
9. TSR= 34.76*0.1/2.4=1.45 50
10. Cp=0.76/10.92=0.0737 40

Graph: 30
20
10
Performance Curves includes 0
11. TSR Vs Wind speed 0 1 2 3 4 5
12. Wind speed Vs Wind power Wind Speed
13. Coefficient of power Vs TSR

Model Graph:
TSR VS CP
3

2.5

2
TSR

1.5

0.5

0
0 0. 1 0. 2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5
Cp

Results and discussions

TSR VS WIND SPEED
5
1. Discuss about variation of tip speed ratio (TSR) with respect to Wind speed.
4.5 2. Discuss about variation of wind power with different TSR at different wind speeds.
4
3.5 3. Write about the theoretical power and wind speed.
Wind Speed

3
Ans: As the wind speed increases the power in the wind increases which increases the turbine power.
2.5
2
1.5
4. Write about the actual power delivered by wind turbine versus wind speed.
1
0.5 Ans: As the wind speed increases the power delivered by wind turbine increases.
0
0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3
TSR 5. Write about the cut-in, rated and cut-off wind speed.
Ans: Cut-in speed: the wind speed at which a wind turbine begins to
17 17
generate electricity. Rated speed: The wind speed at which the
turbine starts to operate at its rated power output.
Cut-out wind speed: the high wind speed at which the turbine must shut down and turn perpendicular to the Experiment No: 6
Date: 28-04-2021
wind to protect itself frombeing overpowered.
Name: Vishal Venkatarangan
Reg. No: 19BCM0011

Characteristics curves of the electrolyser for H2 production from

electrolysis to generate electricity using fuel cells
Aim:
Examine the characteristics curve of the fuel cell using a single cell and cells when
connected in series and in parallel.

Materials Required:
Solar module or D.C input source (1-3 amps), electrolyser, fuel cell assembly, Ammeter,
voltmeter, light source, distilled water.

Figure

17

Graph:

Procedure: 1. Current and voltage for different resistance and D.C input voltage:

 Set of the apparatus as shown in fig. as an alternative to the solar module you can
also use a DC power source.
 Note: The voltage across the DC power supply must not exceed 1.8 volts; the
current must not exceed 3 amps.
 Check that the gas tube between the electrolyser and the fuel cell are correctly
connected adjusts the rotary switch on the load module to OPEN.
 Make sure that both of the electrolyser gas storage cylinders are filled with
distilled water up to the 0 ml mark. Use the illuminated solar module to set a
constant current to the electrolyser (between 700 and 900 mA). The solar module
must be aligned towards the light source in such a way that gas production can be
clearly observed.
 Purge the entire system for 5 minutes with the gases generated. Then set the
rotary switch on the load module back to ‘OPEN’.

Tables of Measurement:

D.C Voltage Input: 1 to 3 volts; D.C. Current Input: 30 mA

2. Current and power for different resistance and D.C input voltage
(Table must be repeated for change in each D.C input voltage to the electrolyser)

S. No
Resistance (Ω) Voltage (mV) Current (mA) Power (mW)

1 0.3 0.45 0.86 0.387

2 0.5 0.54 0.564 0.30456
3 1.0 0.58 0.46 0.2668
4 2.0 0.66 0.24 0.1584
5 3.0 0.68 0.18 0.1224
6 5.0 0.70 0.157 0.1099
7 10.0 0.71 0.152 0.10792
8 20.0 0.77 0.05 0.0385
9 50.0 0.83 0.014 0.01162
10 100.0 0.81 0.021 0.01701
Result and discussion:

Different graphs have been obtained as asked. When Current and voltage for different resistance
and D.C input voltage is taken into consideration, the voltage keeps increasing when the
resistance is increased, but on the other hand, current keeps decreasing. Moreover, when current
and power for different resistance and D.C input voltage is taken into account, it is observed that
both current and power keeps on decreasing as the resistance is increased.

Conclusions:

Characteristic curve of the fuel cell using a single cell and cells when connected in series and in
parallel has been examined.