Ms.

Amna Riaz
Lecturer, Department of Statistics, UOG
Email: amna.riaz@uog.edu.pk

Chapter 2: Presentation of Data

Sher Muhammad Ch.
Presentation of Data:

Displaying data to have a clear picture of what it is describing is called Presentation of Data. There

are three ways to present the data:

1. Classification
2. Tabulation
3. Graphical Display
Classification:
The term is classification is defined as the process of dividing set of observations or objects into
classes or groups in such a way that

(i) observations in same group are homogeneous,

(ii) Observations in each group are heterogeneous.

For example a class divided into groups on the basis of Gender having group-1 as “Male” and
Group-2 as “Female”.

1- One way Classification

2- Two way Classification

3- Cross Classification

One way Classification:

When the data are sorted according to one/ single criterion only, it is called Simple Classification or
one way Classification.

For example a total of 50 students, is divided into groups on the basis of “Area”.

Area (50)

Rural (30) Urban (20)

Two Way Classifications:

When the data are sorted according to two criteria only, it is called two-way Classification. For

example a total of 50 students, is divided into groups on the basis of “Area and Gender”.

Area (50)

Rural (30) Urban (20)

Male (25) Female (5) Male (10) Female (10)

Cross Classification:

When the data are classified according to more than two criteria it is called Cross Classification or
Manifold Classification.

For example a total of 50 students, is divided into groups on the basis of “Area and Gender and Age”.
Area (50)

Rural (30) Urban (20)

Male (25) Female (5) Male (10) Female (10)

<20 >20 <20 >20 <20 >20 <20 >20

Tabulation:

The arrangement of Data in form of rows and columns is called Tabulation.

Main parts of Table 1-

Title

The main heading of the table is called “Title”.

A title should be self-explanatory. Abbreviation

should not be used.
Title should be written in capitals throughout.
1. Boxhead

The main heading of the columns is called “Boxhead”.

2. Column Caption

The Heading of each column is called “Column Caption”.

3. Stub

The main heading of the rows is called “Stub”.

4. Row caption

The heading of each row is called “Row Caption”.

5. Body

The Information provided with in the cells of the table is Called “Body”.

6. Footnotes

Footnotes are used to clarify anything given in the table by giving a fuller description.

7. Source Notes

The Source notes include the compiling agency, publication, Date of Publication and Page
Number, used for reference. Source notes are always given below the table.

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION OF STUDENTS (Title)

Gender (Boxhead)
Male (Column Caption) Female(Column Caption)
Rural (Row Caption) 25*
5
Area (Stub) (Body)
Urban (Row Caption)
10 10
Footnotes …. *
Source notes “Determinants of Student’s Career Choices”, Lamberts Company Germany 9.
Frequency Distribution:

The organization of a set of data in a table showing the distribution of the data into classes or
groups together with the number of observations in each class or group is called Frequency
Distribution. The number of observations falling in a particular class is referred to as the Class
Frequency or simply Frequency and is denoted by f. Data presented in the form of Frequency
distribution is also called grouped data while the data in the original form are referred as
ungrouped data. The data are said to be arranged in an array when arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude.
A fairly common frequency pattern is the rising to a peak and then declining. In terms of its
construction, each class or group has
1- Class Limits
2- Class Boundaries
3- Class Mark / Mid-point
4- Class Width / Interval
5- Tally Mark
6- Class Frequency
7- Cumulative Frequency
8- Relative Frequency
1- Class Limits

The class limits are defined as the numbers or the values of the variables which describe the
classes; the smaller number is the lower class limit and larger number is upper class limit.
For example the variable of age is classified as
1---5, 6---10, 11---15
Sometimes a class has either no lower class limit or no upper class limit. Such a class is called
open-end class. The open-end classes, if possible, should be avoided.
<50, ≥85

2- Class Boundaries

The class boundaries are the precise numbers which separate one class from another. The selection
of these numbers removes the difficulty, if any, in knowing the class to which a particular value
should be assigned.
For example:
0.5---5.5, 5.5---10.5,10.5 --- 15.5
The upper boundary of a class coincides the lower class boundary of the next class.
 3- Class Mark (x)

A class mark is also called class midpoint, is that number which divides each class into two parts. It
is obtained by dividing either the sum of lower and upper class limits or lower and upper boundaries
by two. For Example: x = (0.5 +5.5)/2 = 3 or x = (1+ 5)/ 2 = 3
4- Class Width / Interval (h)

The class interval or width of a class is equal to the difference between the class boundaries.
h = U.C.B – L.C.B
For Example: h = 5.5 – 0.5 = 5
It may also be obtained by finding the difference between either between two successive lower class
limits, or between two successive lower class marks
It is a point to be noted that lower limit of a class should not be subtracted from its upper limit to get
the class interval,

5- Class Frequency

The number of observations falling in a particular class is referred to as the Class Frequency or
simply Frequency and is denoted by f.
Frequency Distribution
Class Class mark Class Tally
Class- Relative frequency
Classes Boundaries Mid-point Interval f C.f
limits r.f =f/ ∑ 𝒇
C-B (x) (h)
<50 <50 F <49.5 0 0 0/23=0
(50+54)/2=52
54.5-
50-54 50-54 D 49.5-54.5 (49.5+54.5)/2= | 1 0+1=1 1/23
49.5=5
52
55-59 55-59 C 54.5-59.5 57 5 ||| 3 1+3=4 3/23
60-64 60-64 C+ 59.5-64.5 62 5 ||| 3 4+3=7 3/23
65-69 66-69 B- 64.5-69.5 67 5 || 2 7+2=9 2/23
70-74 70-74 B 69.5-74.5 72 5 ||| 3 9+3=12 3/23
75-79 75-79 B+ 74.5-79.5 77 5 ||| 3 12+3=15 3/23
80-84 80-84 A 79.5-84.5 82 5 |||| 4 15+4=19 4/23
≥85 ≥85 A+ ≥84.5 |||| 4 19+4=23 4/23

𝒇 = 𝟐𝟑 23/23=1

Marks of students
55 60 59.5 70 70.5 98 78 87 78.5 83 83.5 72 56 55 76 64 67 82 84 89 91 65 52
55-54=1/2=0.5