Tephra and Ballistic Projectiles

Tephra

When a volcano erupts it will sometimes eject material such as rock fragments into the
atmosphere. This material is known as tephra. Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments
of any size and origin. It is a synonym for "pyroclastic material." Tephra refers to
volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into the air by explosions or carried
upward by eruption column's hot gases or lava fountains.

Tephra ranges in size from :

 Ash
Very fine-grained fragments (< 2 mm), generally dominated by broken glass
shards, but with variable amounts of broken crystal and lithic (rock) fragments.
 Lapilli
Pea- to walnut-size pyroclasts (2 to 64 mm). They often look like cinders. In
water-rich eruptions, the accretion of wet ash may form rounded spheres known
as accretionary lapilli.
 Blocks and Bombs
Fragments >64 mm but differ in source material. Bombs are ejected as
incandescent lava fragments which were semi-molten when airborne, thus
inheriting streamlined, aerodynamic shapes. Blocks are ejected as solid
fragments with angular shapes.  Bombs are derived from fresh magma while
blocks are chips of the walls of the volcanic vent.

Ballistic Projectiles

It is a special kind of tephra. Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano may
hurl into the air. Blocks and bombs are normally shot ballistically from the volcano.
Because these fragments are so large, they fall out near their source. Blocks and
bombs as large as 8-30 tons have fallen as far away as 1 km from their source. Small
blocks and bombs have been known to travel as far away as 20-80 km. Some of these
blocks and bombs can have velocities of 75-200 m/s.

Types of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles can be classified according to size, appearance,
origin, composition, and texture.

According to size:

 Ash
<2 mm in diameter; mix of broken glass and pulverized rock
  Lapilli
2 to 64 mm in diameter; bigger pumice fragments mixed with finer ash
 Blocks and Bombs
>64 mm in diameter; Bombs from fresh magma that when ejected, they assume
various shapes upon cooling. Blocks are large broken pieces or chips from the
walls of the volcanic vent.

According to Origin, Composition, and Texture

Pumice Scoria
Origin Plinian eruptions Strombolian eruptions
Composition Rich in silica Poor in silica
Texture Frothy Vesicular
 Pumice fall
Its deposits are derived from Plinian eruptions like the type which occured in
1991 eruption of Pinatubo.
 Scoria fall
Its deposits are products of Strombolian eruptions of basaltic to andesitic
volcanoes like Taal

According to appearance:

 Pele’s Tears
Lapilli-size fragments of basaltic lava may cool quickly while airborne, to form
glassy teardrop-shaped lapilli.
 Pele’s Hair
During strong winds, these molten fragments are drawn out into fine filaments.

Dangers of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Consequence Health Effect Preventive Measures

Respiratory
Inhalation of ash less <100  µm: Irritation of Initiate cleanup of ash. Advise public
than 100  µm the upper airways. to reduce their exposure and wear
(microns) in diameter <10  µm: Exacerbation an approved mask. Protect homes
of pre-existing lung and workplaces from ash ingress
diseases (e.g. asthma,
bronchitis)
Inhalation of respirable Prolonged exposure Initiate cleanup of ash. Advise public
crystalline silica in may raise risk of to reduce their exposure and wear
volcanic ash silicosis or other an approved mask. Protect homes
chronic lung diseases and workplaces from ash ingress
Ocular (eye)
Foreign bodies in eyes Corneal abrasion, Advise public to reduce exposure
 conjunctivitis and wear goggles.
Mechanical
Roof collapse due Trauma, including Advise public to prevent excessive
to ash accumulation death accumulation of ash on roofs

Automobile accidents Traffic control. Pre-eruption

from slippery roads notification of what to do during an
and poor visibility ash fall.

Tephra fall and ballistic projectiles endanger life and property by:

(1) The force of impact of falling fragments, but this occurs only close to an eruption.
Volcanic projectiles have temperatures above ignition points, while some pyroclastic
falls contain toxic gases, acids, salts, and chemicals.

(2) Loss of agricultural lands if burial is greater than 10 cm depth

(3) Producing suspensions of fine-grained particles in air and water which clogs filters
and vents of motors, human lungs, industrial machines, and nuclear power plants

(4) Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of buildings, break power and communication
lines and damage or kill vegetation.

(5) Even thin (<2 cm) falls of ash can damage such critical facilities as hospitals, electic-
generating plants, pumping stations, storm sewers and surface-drainage systems and
sewage treatment plants, and short circuit electric-transmission facilities, telephone
lines, radio and television transmitters.

(6) Airborne ash can reduce visibility to zero and turn day to night by blocking sunlight.

(7) Tephra can change rainfall/runoff relationships. Low permeability of fine ash
deposits leads to increased runoff, accelerated erosion, stream-channel changes and
hazardous floods. In contrast, thick, coarse-grained deposits closed to the source can
increase infiltration capacity and essentially eliminate surface runoff.

How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles Are Dispersed or Hazard Zoning

Ballistic projectiles are ejected with trajectory angles >45 deg, although there are
cases where it is lower than this. Ejection velocities are in the range of 75m/s to 320
m/s. How far projectiles go from the vent partly depends on the size of ejected
fragments.

Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic hazards but it is quite troublesome to
a larger number of people because of its tremendous reach. However, predicting where
the fragments will land, how big will these be, and how thick accumulations will be is a
very difficult task.

Mitigating the Effects

Before

 Protective clothing and high-efficiency dust masks should be made available and
placed in easily accessible points before volcano-related emergencies which are
likely to experience tephra fall.
 Design roof orientation and pitch to discourage thick tephra build ups.
 Strengthen roofs and walls to withstand loading and projectile impacts.

During

 Wear protective clothing and high-efficiency dust masks.

 If no approved mask is available, a fabric mask improvised from handkerchiefs,
cloth, or clothing will filter out the larger ash particles which may contribute to
throat and eye irritation. Dampering the fabric with water will improve its
effectiveness.
 Patients with chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma are advised to stay
inside and avoid unnecessary exposure to ash.
 Keep all doors closed when there is a heavy accumulation of ash.
 Keep a proper distance between vehicles when driving. Vehicular accidents are
more likely to occur because of reduced visibility.
 Clear tephra from roofs as it accumulates.
 Wear respirators or wet cloths over the mouth and nose to reduce inhalation of
tephra and gases. Tephra can contain harmful gases absorbed on particles as
acid aerosols and salt particles.

After

 Remove or stabilize tephra on the ground after a fall to prohibit reworking.

 Handle the ash in the open, well-ventilated areas, and wet the dust whenever
possible to prevent its movement.
 Wear goggles or corrective eyeglasses instead of contact lenses to protect eyes
from irritation caused by fine ash.
 Personnel not essential to the emergency should be kept inside and made to
strictly observe all safety precautions during cleanup.