*OUFSQPMBDJÐO

%BEB VOB DPMFDDJÐO EF EBUPT MB UFOUBDJÐO IVNBOB FT VUJMJ[BSMPT

DPNP GVFOUFT EF DPOPDJNJFOUP FO MVHBSFT EFTDPOPDJEPT &TQFDÊaDB
NFOUF EBEB VOB MJTUB EF DPPSEFOBEBT MJHBEBT B VO UJQP EF TVDFTP
VO FYQFSJNFOUP VOBT NFEJDJPOFTe
( xi , yi ) MP sOBUVSBMt FT JOUFOUBS
VUJMJ[BSMB QBSB EFEVDJS P QSFEFDJS FM WBMPS RVF UPNBSÊB MB y TJ MB x GVFSB
DVBMRVJFS PUSB &TUF FT FM BG¾O JOUFSQPMBEPS Z FYUSBQPMBEPS EFM IPNCSF
/P TF QVFEF IBDFS OBEB QBSB FWJUBSMP -P RVF TF QVFEF IBDFS FT DBMDV
MBS MBT NBOFSBT N¾T SB[POBCMFT EF MMFWBS B DBCP EJDIB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO
&O UPEP FTUF UFNB TF QBSUF EF VOB MJTUB EF EBUPT
x x0 x1 . . . x n −1 x n


y y0 y1 . . . y n −1 y n
RVF TF TVQPOF PSEFOBEB FO MBT DPPSEFOBEBT x RVF BEFN¾T TPO EJGF
SFOUFT xi < xi+1  &M PCKFUJWP FT FODPOUSBS GVODJPOFT RVF wEF BMHVOB
NBOFSBw UFOHBO SFMBDJÐO DJFSUB DFSDBOÊB
DPO EJDIB MJTUB EF EBUPT P
OVCF EF QVOUPT

 *OUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM B USP[PT

-B QSJNFSB JEFB TFODJMMB QFSP GVODJPOBM

FT VUJMJ[BS MB GVODJÐO
EFaOJEB B USP[PT FOUSF x0 Z xn RVF DPOTJTUF FO sVOJS DBEB QVOUP DPO FM
TJHVJFOUF DPO VOB SFDUBt &TUP TF EFOPNJOB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM B USP[PT
Ð TQMJOF MJOFBM TF EFaOJS¾ TQMJOF N¾T BEFMBOUF DPO HFOFSBMJEBE

%ģĥĨıĨĠĨʓı  -B GVODJÐO EF JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM B USP[PT EF MB UBCMB

FT MB GVODJÐO f : [ x0 , xn ] → R EFaOJEB EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
y − y i −1
f (x) = i ( x − xi−1 ) + yi−1 TJ x ∈ [ xi−1 , xi ]
x i − x i −1
FT EFDJS MB GVODJÐO EFaOJEB B USP[PT RVF DPOTJTUF FO MPT TFHNFOUPT
RVF VOFO ( xi−1 , yi−1 ) DPO ( xi , yi ) EFaOJEB EFTEF x0 IBTUB xn QBSB
i = 1, . . . , n
-B JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM UJFOF WBSJBT DBSBDUFSÊTUJDBT RVF MB IBDFO JO
UFSFTBOUF
• &T NVZ TFODJMMB EF DBMDVMBS

  */5&310-"$*°/

f (x)
JOUFSQPMBDJÐO
4

4 6 8 10

'ĨĦļķĝ  *OUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM EF VOB OVCF EF  QVOUPT

$PNQ¾SFTF DPO MB GVODJÐO PSJHJOBM FO WFSEF


• 1BTB QPS UPEPT MPT QVOUPT EF MB UBCMB EF EBUPT

• &T DPOUJOVB
1PS FTP TF VUJMJ[B DPO GSFDVFODJB QBSB SFQSFTFOUBS GVODJPOFT FT MP
RVF IBDF .BUMBC QPS EFGFDUP
QVFT TJ MB OVCF EF QVOUPT FT EFOTB MPT
TFHNFOUPT TFS¾O QFRVF™PT Z MBT FTRVJOBT TF OPUBS¾O QPDP
-B QFHB EF MB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM TPO QSFDJTBNFOUF MBT FTRVJOBT
RVF BQBSFDFO TJFNQSF RVF MB UBCMB EF EBUPT OP DPSSFTQPOEB B QVOUPT
EF VOB SFDUB

 ‚5FOESÊB TFOUJEP JOUFSQPMBS DPO QBS¾CPMBT

&TU¾ DMBSP RVF MB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM B USP[PT FTU¾ BCPDBEB B HF
OFSBS FTRVJOBT TJFNQSF RVF MB UBCMB EF EBUPT OP DPSSFTQPOEB B VOB
GVODJÐO MJOFBM &O HFOFSBM MB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO CVTDB OP TPMP VOB GVO
DJÐO RVF QBTF QPS UPEPT MPT QVOUPT TJOP RVF TFB SB[POBCMFNFOUF TVBWF
QPS NPUJWPT OP TPMP WJTVBMFT TJOP EF BQSPYJNBDJÐO B MB SFBMJEBE

4F QPESÊB JOUFOUBS NFKPSBS MB BQSPYJNBDJÐO MJOFBM DPO GVODJPOFT EF
HSBEP NBZPS FYJHJFOEP RVF MBT UBOHFOUFT FO MPT QVOUPT JOUFSNFEJPT
GVFSBO JHVBMFT 1PESÊB JOUFOUBSTF DPO TFHNFOUPT QBSBCÐMJDPT QVFTUP
RVF UJFOFO USFT HSBEPT EF MJCFSUBE BM TFHNFOUP iÆTJNP TF MF QVFEF
FYJHJS RVF QBTF QPS MPT QVOUPT ( xi−1 , yi−1 ) Z ( xi , yi ) Z RVF UFOHB MB
NJTNB EFSJWBEB FO xi RVF FM TJHVJFOUF &TUP QVFEF QBSFDFS SB[POBCMF
QFSP UJFOF DJFSUB QFHB EJGÊDJMNFOUF TBMWBCMF HFOFSB VOB BTJNFUSÊB JO
USÊOTFDB BM NÆUPEP TJ VOP QMBOUFB MBT FDVBDJPOFT EF EJDIP TJTUFNB
  41-*/&4 $·#*$04 $637"563" $0/5*/6" 

f (x)
TQMJOF DVBES¾UJDP
4

4 6 8 10

'ĨĦļķĝ  *OUFSQPMBDJÐO DVBES¾UJDB EF VOB OVCF EF 

QVOUPT $PNQ¾SFTF DPO MB GVODJÐO PSJHJOBM FO WFSEF


GBMUB FYBDUBNFOUF VOB QPS JNQPOFS QBSB RVF TFB DPNQBUJCMF EFUFSNJ
OBEP FTUP IBDF RVF TFB EJGFSFOUF FM DBTP EF VO OÖNFSP QBS EF OPEPT
Z VO OÖNFSP JNQBS P RVF MB GVODJÐO EF JOUFSQPMBDJÐO TFB BTJNÆUSJ
DB QBSB EBUPT TJNÆUSJDPT
 4JO FOUSBS FO EFUBMMFT QVFEF DPNQSPCBSTF
RVF FTUF TQMJOF DVBES¾UJDP OP FT PQUJNP BVORVF BQSPYJNF MB OVCF EF
QVOUPT EF NBOFSB RVF OP IBZB FTRVJOBT
5JFOF N¾T QSPCMFNBT QPS FKFNQMP MB DVSWB TF EFTWÊB NVDIP EF MB
OVCF EF QVOUPT TJ IBZ QVOUPT DFSDBOPT FO x QFSP MFKBOPT FO y FO TFO
UJEPT EJGFSFOUFT
 /P TF VUJMJ[B QS¾DUJDBNFOUF OVODB TBMWP FO DPOT
USVDDJÐO QPS FKFNQMP QVFT MPT BSDPT NVZ UFOEJEPT TF BQSPYJNBO DPO
QBS¾CPMBT
&M DBTP TJHVJFOUF FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP FT FM N¾T VUJMJ[BEP EF IFDIP FT
MP RVF MPT QSPHSBNBT EF EJCVKP WFDUPSJBM VUJMJ[BO QBSB USB[BS BSDPT
BVORVF OP DPO VOB UBCMB DPNP 
TJOP DPO EPT UBCMBT QVFT MBT
DVSWBT TPO QBSBNFUSJ[BEBT DPNP ( x (t), y(t))


 4QMJOFT DÖCJDPT DVSWBUVSB DPOUJOVB

1BSB BQSPYJNBS MB OVCF EF QVOUPT DPO QPMJOPNJPT EF HSBEP USFT
TF VUJMJ[B MB TJHVJFOUF EFaOJDJÐO
%ģĥĨıĨĠĨʓı  6O TQMJOF DÖCJDP EF MB UBCMB 
FT VOB GVODJÐO f :
[ x0 , xn ] → R UBM RVF
• -B GVODJÐO f FT VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP 3 FO DBEB TFHNFOUP
[ xi−1 , xi ] QBSB i = 1, . . . , n
  */5&310-"$*°/

f (x)
TQMJOF DÖCJDP
4

4 6 8 10

'ĨĦļķĝ  4QMJOF DÖCJDP EF VOB OVCF EF  QVOUPT $PN

Q¾SFTF DPO MB GVODJÐO PSJHJOBM FO WFSEF


• -B GVODJÐO f FT EFSJWBCMF EPT WFDFT DPO DPOUJOVJEBE FO UPEPT

MPT QVOUPT xi QBSB i = 1, . . . , n − 1
%F BRVÊ TF EFEVDF RVF TJ TF MMBNB Pi BM QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP 3 RVF
DPJODJEF DPO f FO [ xi−1 , xi ] FOUPODFT Pi ( xi ) = Pi+1 ( xi ) Z Pi ( xi ) =
Pi+1 ( xi ) FTUP KVOUP DPO FM IFDIP EF RVF Pi ( xi ) = yi Z Pi ( xi+1 ) = yi+1
JNQPOF 4 DPOEJDJPOFT QBSB DBEB QPMJOPNJP Pi TBMWP QBSB FM QSJNFSP
Z FM ÖMUJNP QBSB MPT RVF TPMP IBZ 3 FTUB FT MB TJNFUSÊB RVF QPTFFO MPT
TQMJOFT DÖCJDPT Z OP QPTFFO MPT DVBES¾UJDPT
 1PS UBOUP MBT DPOEJDJP
OFT EF TQMJOF DÖCJDP EFUFSNJOBO DBTJ VOÊWPDBNFOUF MPT QPMJOPNJPT
Pi  )BDF GBMUB VOB DPOEJDJÐO FO DBEB QPMJOPNJP FYUSFNBM FO P1 Z
Pn
QBSB EFUFSNJOBSMP UPUBMNFOUF &TUBT DPOEJDJPOFT QVFEFO TFS QPS
FKFNQMP
• 2VF MB EFSJWBEB TFHVOEB FO MPT QVOUPT FYUSFNPT TFB 0 "
FTUP TF MF EFOPNJOB FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP OBUVSBM QFSP OP UJFOF QPS
RVÆ TFS FM NFKPS QBSB VO QSPCMFNB DPODSFUP -BT FDVBDJPOFT
TPO P1 ( x0 ) = 0 Z Pn ( xn ) = 0
• 2VF MB EFSJWBEB UFSDFSB DPJODJEB FO MPT QVOUPT DBTJFYUSFNPT
P1 ( x1 ) = P2 ( x1 ) Z Pn ( xn−1 ) = Pn−1 ( xn−1 ) 4F EJDF RVF
FTUF TQMJOF FT FYUSBQPMBEP
• 2VF IBZB DJFSUB DPOEJDJÐO EF QFSJPEJDJEBE P1 ( x0 ) = Pn ( xn )
Z MP NJTNP DPO MB EFSJWBEB TFHVOEB P1 ( x0 ) = Pn ( xn ) &T
UP UJFOF TV JOUFSÆT QPS FKFNQMP TJ TF FTU¾ JOUFSQPMBOEP VOB
GVODJÐO QFSJÐEJDB
  41-*/&4 $·#*$04 $637"563" $0/5*/6" 

 &M D¾MDVMP EFM TQMJOF DÖCJDP VOB NBUSJ[ USJEJBHPOBM 1BSB
DBMDVMBS FGFDUJWBNFOUF FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP DPOWJFOF OPSNBMJ[BS MB OPUB
DJÐO $PNP BSSJCB TF MMBNBS¾ Pi BM QPMJOPNJP DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM TFH
NFOUP [ xi−1 , xi ] Z TF FTDSJCJS¾ SFMBUJWP BM QVOUP xi−1 
Pi ( x ) = ai + bi ( x − xi−1 ) + ci ( x − xi−1 )2 + di ( x − xi−1 )3 ,
EF NPEP RVF TF IBO EF DBMDVMBS MPT ai , bi , ci Z di B QBSUJS EF MB UBCMB EF
EBUPT (x, y) RVF TF TVQPOF EBEB DPNP BSSJCB 
 -B TJHVJFOUF OPS
NBMJ[BDJÐO DPOTJTUF FO FO MVHBS EF VUJMJ[BS DPOUJOVBNFOUF xi − xi−1
MMBNBS
hi = xi − xi−1 , QBSB i = 1, . . . , n
FT EFDJS VUJMJ[BS MB BODIVSB EF MPT n JOUFSWBMPT FO MVHBS EF MBT DPPS
EFOBEBT xi QSPQJBNFOUF EJDIBT

1BSB BDMBSBS UPEP FM SB[POBNJFOUP MPT EBUPT DPOPDJEPT TF FTDSJCJ
S¾O FO OFHSJUB
&M SB[POBNJFOUP FT DPNP TJHVF
• -PT ai TF DBMDVMBO EJSFDUBNFOUF QVFT Pi (xi−1 ) = ai Z UJFOF
RVF TFS JHVBM B yi−1  1PS UBOUP
ai = yi−1 QBSB i = 1, . . . , n
• 4F IB EF DVNQMJS RVF Pi (xi ) = yi BTÊ RVF VUJMJ[BOEP MB DPO
EJDJÐO BOUFSJPS Z MMFWBOEP yi−1 BM NJFNCSP EF MB EFSFDIB
RVFEB

bi h i + c i h i 2 + d i h i 3 = y i − y i − 1 .
QBSB i = 1, . . . , n &TUP EB n FDVBDJPOFT
• -B DPOEJDJÐO EF EFSJWBEB DPOUJOVB FT Pi (xi ) = Pi+1 (xi ) BTÊ
RVF

bi + 2ci hi + 3di hi 2 = bi+1 ,
QBSB i = 1, . . . n − 1 %F BRVÊ TBMFO n − 1 FDVBDJPOFT
• 'JOBMNFOUF MBT EFSJWBEBT TFHVOEBT IBO EF DPJODJEJS FO MPT
QVOUPT JOUFSNFEJPT BTÊ RVF

2ci + 6di hi = ci+1 ,
QBSB i = 1, . . . , n − 1 &TUP EB n − 1 FDVBDJPOFT
&O UPUBM TF PCUJFOFO BQBSUF EF MBT ai RVF TPO EJSFDUBT
3n − 2 FDVB
DJPOFT QBSB 3n JODÐHOJUBT MBT b, c Z d
 $PNP ZB TF EJKP TF JNQPOFO
DPOEJDJPOFT FO MPT FYUSFNPT QFSP BM aOBMJ[BS UPEP FM SB[POBNJFOUP
6OB WF[ FOVODJBEBT MBT FDVBDJPOFT TF SFBMJ[BO TJNQMJaDBDJPOFT
Z TVTUJUVDJPOFT QBSB PCUFOFS VO TJTUFNB N¾T JOUFMJHJCMF %F IFDIP TF
  */5&310-"$*°/

EFTQFKBO MBT d Z MBT b FO GVODJÐO EF MBT c Z RVFEB VO TJTUFNB MJOFBM FO

MBT c 4F QSPDFEF DPNP TJHVF
1SJNFSP TF VUJMJ[B MB FDVBDJÐO 
QBSB EFTQFKBS MBT di 
c − ci

d i = i +1
3hi
Z TVTUJUVZFOEP FO 
RVFEB IBTUB EFTQFKBS bi

yi − yi−1 c + 2ci

bi = − h i i +1 ;
hi 3
QPS PUSP MBEP TVTUJUVZFOEP FM di FO 
Z PQFSBOEP IBTUB EFTQFKBS bi
RVFEB

bi = bi − 1 + h i − 1 ( c i + c i − 1 ) .
QBSB i = 2, . . . , n "IPSB OP IBZ N¾T RVF VUJMJ[BS MB FDVBDJÐO 
QBSB
i Z QBSB i − 1 F JOUSPEVDJSMB FO FTUB ÖMUJNB EF NBOFSB RVF TPMP RVFEFO
c 5SBT VOB DPMFDDJÐO EF PQFSBDJPOFT TJNQMFT TF PCUJFOF RVF

 
yi − yi−1 yi−1 − yi−2
hi−1 ci−1 + (2hi−1 + 2hi )ci + hi ci+1 = 3 −
hi hi−1
QBSB i = 2, . . . , n
&O GPSNB NBUSJDJBM ZB TJO VUJMJ[BS OFHSJUBT QBSB OP SFDBSHBS

RVFEB VO TJTUFNB EF FDVBDJPOFT Ac = α EPOEF A FT


⎛ ⎞
h1 2( h1 + h2 ) h2 0 ... 0 0 0
⎜0 h2 2( h2 + h3 ) h3 . . . 0 0 0⎟
A=⎜ 
⎝        ⎟
⎠
      
0 0 0 0 . . . h n −1 2 ( h n −1 + h n ) h n
Z c JOEJDB FM WFDUPS DPMVNOB EF c1 , . . . , cn NJFOUSBT RVF α FT FM WFDUPS
DPMVNOB ⎛ ⎞
α2
⎜ α3 ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎝  ⎠
αn
DPO  
y i − y i −1 y i −1 − y i −2
αi = 3 − .
hi h i −1
$PNP TF WF FTUF TJTUFNB FT DPNQBUJCMF JOEFUFSNJOBEP MF GBMUBO EPT
FDVBDJPOFT QBSB UFOFS TPMVDJÐO ÖOJDB
 -BT FDVBDJPOFT TF TVFMFO JN
QPOFS DPNP TF FYQMJDÐ DPNP DPOEJDJPOFT FO MPT FYUSFNPT 1PS FKFN
QMP FM TQMJOF OBUVSBM TJHOJaDB RVF c1 = 0 Z RVF cn = 0 BTÊ RVF A TF
  41-*/&4 $·#*$04 $637"563" $0/5*/6" 

DPNQMFUBSÊB QPS BSSJCB DPO VOB aMB (1 0 0 . . . 0) Z QPS BCBKP DPO PUSB
(0 0 0 . . . 1) NJFOUSBT RVF BM WFDUPS α TF MF B™BEJSÊB VOB QSJNFSB
DPNQPOFOUF JHVBM B 0 Z VOB ÖMUJNB UBNCJÆO JHVBM B 0 $PO FTUBT n
FDVBDJPOFT TF DBMDVMBSÊBO MBT ci Z B QBSUJS EF FMMBT VUJMJ[BOEP MBT FDVB
DJPOFT 
Z 
TF DBMDVMBO MPT WBMPSFT EF MBT EFN¾T WBSJBCMFT
&M TJTUFNB EF FDVBDJPOFT EF VO TQMJOF DÖCJDP TPNP TF WF QPS MB
FDVBDJÐO 
FT USJEJBHPOBM FTUP TJHOJaDB RVF TPMP UJFOF FMFNFOUPT
EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP FO MB EJBHPOBM QSJODJQBM Z FO MBT EPT EJBHPOBMFT
BEZBDFOUFT &TUP FT DJFSUP QBSB FM TQMJOF OBUVSBM Z QBSB DVBMRVJFSB
RVF JNQPOHB DPOEJDJPOFT FO c1 Z cn EJSFDUBNFOUF
 &TUPT TJTUFNBT TF
SFTVFMWFO NVZ G¾DJMNFOUF DPO VOB GBDUPSJ[BDJÐO LU wP CJFO QVFEF
JNQMFNFOUBSTF EJSFDUBNFOUF MB TPMVDJÐO DPNP VO BMHPSJUNP FO GVO
DJÐO EF MBT αi Z MBT hi  &O DVBMRVJFS DBTP FTUF UJQP EF TJTUFNBT USJEJB
HPOBMFT FT JNQPSUBOUFT SFDPOPDFSMPT Z TBCFS RVF TV GBDUPSJ[BDJÐO LU
FT SBQJEÊTJNB QVFT TJ TF QJFOTB FO FM BMHPSJUNP EF (BVTT DBEB PQF
SBDJÐO EF IBDFS DFSPT TPMP SFRVJFSF IBDFSMP FO VOB aMB QPS EFCBKP EF MB
EJBHPOBM


 &M BMHPSJUNP TFODJMMP SFTPMWJFOEP TJTUFNBT MJOFBMFT 5SBT

UPEP MP EJDIP QVFEF FOVODJBSTF FM BMHPSJUNP QBSB DBMDVMBS FM TQMJOF
DÖCJDP RVF JOUFSQPMB VOB UBCMB EF EBUPT x, y EF MPOHJUVE n + 1 x =
( x0 , . . . , xn ) y = (y0 , . . . , yn ) FO MB RVF xi < xi+1 Z QPS UBOUP UPEPT
MPT WBMPSFT EF x TPO EJGFSFOUFT
DPNP JOEJDB FM BMHPSJUNP 

 6OB DPUB TPCSF MB BQSPYJNBDJÐO &M IFDIP EF RVF FM TQMJOF

DÖCJDP TFB HS¾aDBNFOUF TBUJTGBDUPSJP OP TJHOJaDB RVF TFB UÆDOJDBNFOUF
ÖUJM &O SFBMJEBE MP FT N¾T EF MP RVF QBSFDF 4J VOB GVODJÐO TF sDPN
QPSUB CJFOt FO MB DVBSUB EFSJWBEB FOUPODFT FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP MB BQSP
YJNB SB[POBCMFNFOUF CJFO Z NFKPS DVBOUP N¾T FTUSFDIPT TFBO MPT
JOUFSWBMPT FOUSF OPEPT
 &O DPODSFUP

5ģijķģİĝ  4FB f : [ a, b] → R VOB GVODJÐO EFSJWBCMF 4 WFDFT DPO

DPOUJOVJEBE Z TVQÐOHBTF RVF | f 4) ( x )| < M QBSB x ∈ [ a, b] 4FB h FM N¾YJNP
EF MBT BODIVSBT xi − xi−1 QBSB i = 1, . . . , n 4J s( x ) FT FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP QBSB
MPT QVOUPT ( xi , f ( xi )) RVF TBUJTGBDF RVF f  ( x0 ) = s ( x0 ) Z f  ( xn ) = s ( xn )
FOUPODFT
5M 4
|s( x ) − f ( x )| ≤ h .
384
&TUF SFTVMUBEP QVFEF TFS EF HSBO VUJMJEBE QPS FKFNQMP QBSB DBM
DVMBS JOUFHSBMFT P QBSB BDPUBS FSSPSFT FO TPMVDJPOFT EF FDVBDJPOFT EJ
GFSFODJBMFT RVF WJFOF B TFS MP NJTNP RVF JOUFHSBS WBZB

  */5&310-"$*°/

"MHPSJUNP  $¾MDVMP EFM TQMJOF DÖCJDP

*OQVU VOB UBCMB EF EBUPT x, y DPNP TF FTQFDJaDB BSSJCB Z EPT DPO

EJDJPOFT TPCSF FM QSJNFS OPEP Z FM ÖMUJNP VOB FO DBEB VOP

0VUQVU VO TQMJOF DÖCJDP RVF JOUFSQPMB MPT QVOUPT EF EJDIB UBCMB

&TQFDÊaDBNFOUF VOB MJTUB EF n DVBUFSOBT ( ai , bi , ci , di ) UBMFT RVF MPT
QPMJOPNJPT Pi ( x ) = ai + bi ( x − xi−1 ) + ci ( x − xi−1 )2 + di ( x − xi−1 )3
DPOTUJUVZFO VO TQMJOF DÖCJDP QBSB MB UBCMB
*ıĨĠĨij
ai ← yi−1 QBSB i EFTEF 1 IBTUB n
hi ← xi − xi−1 QBSB i EFTEF 1 IBTUB n
i←1
XIJMF i ≤ n EP
JG i > 1 BOE i < n UIFO
Fi ← (0 · · · 0 hi−1 2(hi−1 + hi ) hi 0 · · · 0)
αi = 3(yi − yi−1 )/hi − 3(yi−1 − yi−2 )/hi−1
FMTF
Fi ← MB aMB DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B MB FDVBDJÐO QBSB Pi
αi FM DPFaDJFOUF DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B MB DPOEJDJÐO QBSB Pi
FOE JG
i ← i+1
FOE XIJMF
M ← MB NBUSJ[ DVZBT aMBT TPO MBT Fi QBSB i = 1 IBTUB n
c ← M−1 α SFTPMWFS FM TJTUFNB Mc = α

i←1
XIJMF i < n EP
bi ← (yi − yi−1 )/hi − hi (ci+1 + 2ci )/3
di ← (ci+1 − ci )/(3hi )
i ← i+1
FOE XIJMF
bn ← bn − 1 + h n − 1 ( c n + c n − 1 )
dn ← (yn − yn−1 − bn hn − cn h2n )/h3n
SFUVSO ( a, b, c, d)

 %FaOJDJÐO EF TQMJOF HFOFSBM 4F QSPNFUJÐ JODMVJS MB EFaDJ

OJÐO HFOFSBM EF TQMJOF
%ģĥĨıĨĠĨʓı  %BEB VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT DPNP 
VO TQMJOF EF
HSBEP n QBSB n > 0 RVF MPT JOUFSQPMB FT VOB GVODJÐO f : [ x0 , xn ] → R
UBM RVF
• 1BTB QPS UPEPT MPT QVOUPT f ( xi ) = yi
• &T EFSJWBCMF n − 1 WFDFT
  */5&310-"$*°/ %& -"(3"/(& 

• &O DBEB JOUFSWBMP [ xi , xi+1 ] DPJODJEF DPO VO QPMJOPNJP EF

HSBEP n
&T EFDJS FT VOB GVODJÐO QPMJOPNJBM B USP[PT EF HSBEP n RVF QBTB QPS
UPEPT MPT QVOUPT Z FT EFSJWBCMF n − 1 WFDFT TF FOUJFOEF RVF TFS EFSJ
WBCMF 0 WFDFT TJHOJaDB TFS DPOUJOVB

%F IFDIP MPT RVF TF VUJMJ[BO TPO MPT EF HSBEP 1 Z 3

 &M QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF VO TPMP QPMJOPNJP

QBSB UPEPT MPT QVOUPT
)BTUB BIPSB TF IBO FTUVEJBEP TQMJOFT GVODJPOFT RVF TPO QPMJOÐ
NJDBT B USP[PT QBSB JOUFSQPMBS MPT EBUPT EF VOB UBCMB DPNP 
JNQP
OJFOEP MB DPOEJDJÐO EF RVF MB GVODJÐO JOUFSQPMBEPSB QBTF QPS UPEPT
MPT QVOUPT EF MB UBCMB
4F QVFEF QMBOUFBS FM QSPCMFNB sMÊNJUFt CVTDBS VO QPMJOPNJP RVF
QBTF QPS UPEPT MPT QVOUPT /BUVSBMNFOUF TF QSPDVSBS¾ RVF TFB EF
HSBEP NÊOJNP QBSB FOUSF PUSBT DPTBT TJNQMJaDBS MB CÖTRVFEB
 &T
SFMBUJWBNFOUF TFODJMMP DPNQSPCBS RVF FYJTUF VOP EF HSBEP n IBZ SF
DVÆSEFTF n + 1 EBUPT
Z RVF FT ÖOJDP DPO FTUB DPOEJDJÐO &TUF FT FM
QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF
5ģijķģİĝ  EFM QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF
 %BEB VOB
MJTUB EF QVOUPT DPNP 
SFDVÆSEFTF RVF xi < xi+1
FYJTUF VO ÖOJDP QPMJ
OPNJP EF HSBEP n RVF QBTB QPS DBEB ( xi , yi ) QBSB i = 0, . . . , n
-B QSVFCB EFM SFTVMUBEP FT SFMBUJWBNFOUF FMFNFOUBM 5ÐNFTF VO
QSPCMFNB BMHP N¾T sTFODJMMPt EBEPT n + 1 WBMPSFT x0 < · · · < xn ‚TF
QVFEF DPOTUSVJS VO QPMJOPNJP pi ( x ) EF HSBEP n RVF WBMHB 1 FO xi Z DF
SP FO x j QBSB j = i $PO FTUBT DPOEJDJPOFT TF CVTDB VO QPMJOPNJP EF
HSBEP n RVF UFOHB n DFSPT ZB QSFaKBEPT FT PCWJP RVF IB EF TFS NÖM
UJQMP EF φi ( x ) = ( x − x0 )( x − x1 ) . . . ( x − xi−1 )( x − xi+1 ) . . . ( x − xn )
-P ÖOJDP RVF TF IB EF IBDFS FT NVMUJQMJDBS B φi ( x ) QPS VOB DPOTUBOUF
QBSB RVF WBMHB 1 FO xi  &M WBMPS EF φi ( x ) FO xi FT
φi ( xi ) = ( xi − x1 ) . . . ( xi − xi−1 )( xi − xi+1 ) . . . ( xi − xn ) = ∏ ( x i − x j ),
j  =i

BTÊ RVF TF IB EF UPNBS

∏ j  =i ( x − x j )

pi ( x ) = .
∏ j  =i ( xi − x j )
&TUPT QPMJOPNJPT QBSB i = 0, . . . , n TF MMBNBO QPMJOPNJPT EF CBTF $P
NP TF IB WJTUP DBEB VOP EF FMMPT WBMF 1 FO FM xi DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF Z 0
  */5&310-"$*°/

FO FM SFTUP BTÊ RVF QVFEFO QFOTBSTF DPNP MPT WFDUPSFT EF MB CBTF FT
U¾OEBS EF R n+1  &M WFDUPS (y0 , y1 , . . . , yn ) FT FM RVF TF RVJFSF FYQSFTBS
DPNP DPNCJOBDJÐO MJOFBM EF FTUPT WFDUPSFT BTÊ RVF FM QPMJOPNJP RVF
QBTB QPS MPT UPEPT QVOUPT ( xi , yi ) QBSB i = 0, . . . , n FT
n
P ( x ) = y0 p0 ( x ) + y1 p1 ( x ) + · · · + y n p n ( x ) = ∑ yi pi ( x )
i =0

n ∏ j  =i ( x − x j )
= ∑ yi ∏ .
i =0 j  =i ( xi − x j )

1BSB DPNQSPCBS RVF FT ÖOJDP CBTUB UFOFS FO DVFOUB RVF TJ IVCJFSB

PUSP MB EJGFSFODJB TFSÊB VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP n DPO n + 1 DFSPT BTÊ
RVF MB EJGFSFODJB TFSÊB FM QPMJOPNJP OVMP Z QPS UBOUP MPT EPT RVF
QBTBO QPS ( xi , yi ) TFSÊBO JHVBMFT

&M QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF UJFOF BMHVOBT WFOUBKBT QF
SP UJFOF VO QBS EF HSBWFT JODPOWFOJFOUFT
• -PT EFOPNJOBEPSFT RVF BQBSFDFO QVFEFO TFS NVZ QFRVF
™PT DVBOEP IBZ NVDIPT QVOUPT Z EBS MVHBS B FSSPSFT EF SF
EPOEFP
• &T EFNBTJBEP DVSWP
&M QSJNFS QSPCMFNB FT JOUSÊOTFDP QVFT MPT EFOPNJOBEPSFT RVF
BQBSFDFO IBZ RVF DBMDVMBSMPT &M TFHVOEP EFQFOEF FTFODJBMNFOUF EF
MB EJTUSJCVDJÐO EF QVOUPT 6O FKFNQMP GBNPTP F JNQPSUBOUF TF EFCF B
3VOHF Z FKFNQMJaDB FM GFOÐNFOP EF 3VOHF TJ TF VUJMJ[BO QVOUPT FRVJ
EJTUBOUFT QBSB JOUFSQPMBS VOB GVODJÐO DPO EFSJWBEBT HSBOEFT FO WB
MPS BCTPMVUP FM QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF TF EFTWÊB NVDIP
NVDIP SFBMNFOUF
EF MB GVODJÐO BVORVF QBTF QPS UPEPT MPT QVOUPT
EF JOUFSQPMBDJÐO &TUP OP MF PDVSSF B MPT TQMJOFT DÖCJDPT VO TQMJOF
DÖCJDP EF PODF QVOUPT EF MB GVODJÐO EF 3VOHF FT JOEJTUJOHVJCMF EF
FMMB QPS FKFNQMP

1BSB TPMWFOUBS FM QSPCMFNB EF MB DVSWBUVSB EFM QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQP
MBEPS EF -BHSBOHF DVBOEP TF USBUB EF JOUFSQPMBS VOB GVODJÐO DPOP
DJEB TF VUJMJ[BO NÆUPEPT CBTBEPT FO MB JEFB EF NJOJNJ[BS FM WBMPS
N¾YJNP RVF QVFEB UPNBS FM QPMJOPNJP

P( x ) = ( x − x0 )( x − x1 ) . . . ( x − xn ),

FT EFDJS TF CVTDB VOB EJTUSJCVDJÐO EF MPT QVOUPT xi RVF SFTVFMWB VO

QSPCMFNB EF UJQP NJOJNBY NJOJNJ[BS VO N¾YJNP
 4JO FOUSBS FO EF
UBMMFT UÆDOJDPT EBEP FM JOUFSWBMP [−1, 1] TF UJFOF RVF
  */5&310-"$*°/ "1309*."%" 

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
1
f ( x ) = 1+12x 2

0 QPMJO JOUFSQ

−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

'ĨĦļķĝ  'FOÐNFOP EF 3VOHF FM QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQP

MBEPS EF -BHSBOHF SPKP
TF BMFKB JMJNJUBEBNFOUF EF MB
GVODJÐO TJ MPT OPEPT FTU¾O FRVJFTQBDJBEPT -PT USB[PT
OFHSPT TJHVFO FM TQMJOF DÖCJDP JOEJTUJOHVJCMF EF f ( x )

-ģİĝ  -PT QVOUPT x0 , . . . , xn RVF NJOJNJ[BO FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP N¾YJNP

EFM QPMJOPNJP P( x ) FO FM JOUFSWBMP [−1, 1] WJFOFO EBEPT QPS MB GÐSNVMB
 
2k + 1 π
xi = cos
n+1 2
1PS UBOUP MPT QVOUPT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT QBSB FM JOUFSWBMP [ a, b] EPOEF a, b ∈
R TPO
( b − a ) xi + ( a + b )
x̃i = .
2
" MPT QVOUPT EFM MFNNB TF MFT EFOPNJOB OPEPT EF $IFCZDIFW EF VO
JOUFSWBMP [ a, b] 4PO MPT RVF TF IBO EF VUJMJ[BS TJ TF RVJFSF BQSPYJNBS
VOB GVODJÐO QPS NFEJP EFM QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF

 *OUFSQPMBDJÐO BQSPYJNBEB
&O QSPCMFNBT SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO FTUVEJPT FTUBEÊTUJDPT P FYQFSJNFO
UBMFT MPT EBUPT TF TVQPOFO TVKFUPT B FSSPSFT BTÊ RVF USBUBS EF JOUFSQP
MBS VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT QPS NFEJP EF GVODJPOFT RVF QBTBO QPS UPEPT
FMMPT QVFEF OP UFOFS OJOHÖO JOUFSFT EF IFDIP DBTJ OVODB MP UJFOF FO
FTUF DPOUFYUP
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JOEJDBS RVÆ TJHOJaDB JOUFSQPMBS QVFT DBEB QSPCMFNB QVFEF UFOFS VOB
JEFB EJTUJOUB EF MP RVF TJHOJaDB RVF VOB GVODJÐO TF QBSF[DB B PUSB &O
FM DBTP EJTDSFUP FO FM RVF TF UJFOF VOB UBCMB EF EBUPT DPNP 
MP
IBCJUVBM FT JOUFOUBS NJOJNJ[BS MB EJTUBODJB DVBES¾UJDB EF f ( xi ) B yi
  */5&310-"$*°/

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2 1
f ( x ) = 1+12x 2
QPMJO JOUFSQ
0
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

'ĨĦļķĝ  "QSPYJNBDJÐO EF MB GVODJÐO EF 3VOHF QPS FM

QPMJOPNJP EF -BHSBOHF VUJMJ[BOEP MPT OPEPT EF $IFCZ
DIFW &M FSSPS N¾YJNP DPNFUJEP FT NVDIP NFOPS

EPOEF f TFSÊB MB GVODJÐO EF JOUFSQPMBDJÐO 1FSP QPESÊB JOUFSFTBS BMHP

EJGFSFOUF QFK NJOJNJ[BS MB EJTUBODJB EF MB HS¾aDB EF f B MPT QVOUPT
( xi , yi ) VO QSPCMFNB EJGFSFOUF EFM BOUFSJPS
P DVBMRVJFS PUSP DSJUFSJP
wFM RVF NFKPS DPSSFTQPOEB B MPT EBUPT

 *OUFSQPMBDJÐO QPS NÊOJNPT DVBESBEPT &M NÆUPEP N¾T VUJ

MJ[BEP EF JOUFSQPMBDJÐO TJO EVEB BMHVOB FT FM EF NÊOJNPT DVBESBEPT
4F QBSUF EF VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT x, y EPOEF x F y TPO WFDUPSFT EF UB
NB™P n BSCJUSBSJPT FT EFDJS QVFEF IBCFS WBMPSFT SFQFUJEPT FO MBT x
Z FM PSEFO FT JSSFMFWBOUF
 %BEB VOB GVODJÐO f : R → R TF EFaOF
%ģĥĨıĨĠĨʓı &M FSSPS DVBES¾UJDP EF f FO FM QVOUP xi VOB DPNQPOFO
UF EF x
FT FM WBMPS ( f ( x ) − yi )2  &M FSSPS DVBES¾UJDP UPUBM EF f FO MB OVCF
EBEB QPS x F y FT MB TVNB
n
∑ ( f ( x i ) − y i )2 .
i =0

&M QSPCMFNB EF MB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO QPS NÊOJNPT DVBESBEPT DPOTJTUF

FO EBEB MB OVCF EF QVOUPT FODPOUSBS FO VO DPOKVOUP EFUFSNJOBEP EF
GVODJPOFT VOB RVF NJOJNJDF FM FSSPS DVBES¾UJDP UPUBM &M NBUJ[ EF sFO
VO DPOKVOUP EF GVODJPOFTt FT DSVDJBM %F IFDIP FO FTUBT OPUBT TF FTUV
EJBS¾ DPO QSFDJTJÐO FM QSPCMFNB FO VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM EF GVODJPOFT
Z TF USBUBS¾ EF NBOFSB BQSPYJNBEB FM EF BMHVOPT DPOKVOUPT RVF OP
TPO FTQBDJPT WFDUPSJBMFT
  */5&310-"$*°/ "1309*."%" 

1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

'ĨĦļķĝ  *OUFSQPMBDJÐO EF VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT QPS NÊ

OJNPT DVBESBEPT MJOFBMFT QPS VOB FDVBDJÐO EFM UJQP
y = ax + b

 .ÊOJNPT DVBESBEPT MJOFBMFT 4VQÐOHBTF RVF IB EF BQSPYJNBS

TF VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT EF UBNB™P N NFEJBOUF VOB GVODJÐO f RVF
QFSUFOFDF B VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM V EF GVODJPOFT Z RVF TF DPOPDF VOB
CBTF EF V f 1 , . . . , f n  4F TVQPOF TJFNQSF RVF N > n Z EF IFDIP IB
CJUVBMNFOUF N FT NVDIP NBZPS RVF n
 &T EFDJS TF CVTDB MB GVODJÐO
f ∈ V UBM RVF
N
∑ ( f ( x i ) − y i )2
i =1

FT NÊOJNP 1FSP QVFTUP RVF V FT VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM EJDIB GVODJÐO

FT VOB DPNCJOBDJÐO MJOFBM EF MPT FMFNFOUPT EF MB CBTF
f = a1 f 1 + a2 f 2 + · · · + a n f n .
: FO SFBMJEBE TF QVFEF QMBOUFBS FM QSPCMFNB DPNP MB CÖTRVFEB EF
MPT DPFaDJFOUFT a1 , . . . , an RVF IBDFO NÊOJNB MB GVODJÐO
N
F ( a1 , . . . , a n ) = ∑ ( a1 f 1 ( x i ) + · · · + a n f n ( x i ) − y i )2 ,
i =1

FT EFDJS EBEB F ( a1 , . . . , an ) VOB GVODJÐO EF n WBSJBCMFT TF IB EF DBM

DVMBS VO NÊOJNP -B FYQSFTJÐO EF F JOEJDB DMBSBNFOUF RVF FT VOB
GVODJÐO EJGFSFODJBCMF QPS UBOUP FM QVOUP RVF EÆ FM NÊOJNP SFTVFMWF
MBT FDVBDJPOFT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT B IBDFS MBT QBSDJBMFT JHVBMFT B 0 &T
  */5&310-"$*°/

EFDJS IBZ RVF SFTPMWFS FM TJTUFNB

∂F ∂F ∂F
= 0, = 0, . . . , = 0.
∂a1 ∂a2 ∂an
4J TF FTDSJCF MB QBSDJBM EF F DPO SFTQFDUP B a j RVFEB
N
∂F
= ∑ 2 f j ( xi )( a1 f 1 ( xi ) + · · · + an f n ( xi ) − yi ) = 0.
∂a j i =1

4J QBSB TJNQMJaDBS TF EFOPNJOB

N
yj = ∑ f j ( xi ) yi ,
i =1

VOJFOEP UPEBT MBT FDVBDJPOFT Z FTDSJCJFOEP FO GPSNB NBUSJDJBM TBMF

FM TJTUFNB
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
f 1 ( x1 ) f 1 ( x2 ) ... f1 (x N ) f 1 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x1 ) ... f n ( x1 ) a1
⎜ f 2 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x2 ) ... f2 (x N ) ⎟ ⎜ f 1 ( x2 ) f 2 ( x2 ) ... f n ( x2 ) ⎟ ⎜ a2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜     ⎟ ⎜     ⎟ ⎜  ⎟ =
⎝     ⎠⎝     ⎠⎝  ⎠
f n ( x1 ) f n ( x2 ) ... fn (xN ) f1 (x N ) f2 (x N ) ... fn (xN ) an

⎛ ⎞
y1
⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜  ⎟,
⎝  ⎠
yn

RVF QVFEF FTDSJCJSTF

XX t a = Xy
EPOEF TF TPCSFFOUJFOEF RVF MB NBUSJ[ X FT MB MJTUB QPS aMBT
EF MPT WB
MPSFT EF DBEB f i FO MPT QVOUPT x j Z MB y FT FM WFDUPS DPMVNOB (y0 , y1 , . . . , yn ) T
FT EFDJS
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f 1 ( x1 ) f 1 ( x2 ) . . . f 1 ( x N ) y0
⎜ f 2 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x2 ) . . . f 2 ( x N ) ⎟ ⎜ y1 ⎟
X=⎜ ⎝    ⎟ ⎠ , y=⎜
⎝  ⎟
⎠

 
f n ( x1 ) f n ( x2 ) . . . f n ( x N ) yn

&TUF TJTUFNB FT DPNQBUJCMF EFUFSNJOBEP TJ IBZ BM NFOPT UBOUPT QVO

UPT DPNP MB EJNFOTJÐO EF V Z MBT GVODJPOFT f i HFOFSBO aMBT JOEFQFO
EJFOUFT FO MB NBUSJ[ X
&T CBTUBOUF QSPCBCMF RVF FM TJTUFNB EBEP QPS 
OP FTUÆ NVZ
CJFO BDPOEJDJPOBEP
  $°%*(0 %& "-(6/04 "-(03*5.04 

 *OUFSQPMBDJÐO OP MJOFBM BQSPYJNBDJPOFT &O CBTUBOUFT DBTPT TF

SFRVJFSF BQSPYJNBS VOB OVCF EF QVOUPT QPS VOB GVODJÐO RVF QFSUF
OFD[B B VOB GBNJMJB RVF OP GPSNF VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM 6O FKFNQMP
DM¾TJDP FT USBUBS EF FODPOUSBS VOB GVODJÐO EFM UJQP
2

f ( x ) = aebx
RVF BQSPYJNF VOB DJFSUB OVCF EF QVOUPT -BT GVODJPOFT EF FTF UJQP
EBO MVHBS QBSB a, b > 0
B sDBNQBOBT EF (BVTTt &TU¾ DMBSP RVF EJ
DIBT GVODJPOFT OP GPSNBO VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM BTÊ RVF OP TF QVFEFO
BQMJDBS MBT UÆDOJDBT EFM BQBSUBEP BOUFSJPS
4JO FNCBSHP QVFEF JOUFOUBS USBTMBEBSTF FM QSPCMFNB B VOB GBNJMJB
MJOFBM BQSPYJNBS FTUB QPS NÊOJNPT DVBESBEPT Z DBMDVMBS MB GVODJÐO
PSJHJOBM FRVJWBMFOUF
1PS TFHVJS DPO FM FKFNQMP TJ TF UPNBO MPHBSJUNPT FO BNCPT MBEPT
EF MB FDVBDJÐO 
TF PCUJFOF MB FYQSFTJÐO
log( f ( x )) = log( a) + bx2 = a + bx2 ,
Z DPOTJEFSBOEP MBT GVODJPOFT 1 Z x2 TF QVFEF BIPSB BQSPYJNBS MB
OVCF EF QVOUPT x, log(y) FO MVHBS EF MB PSJHJOBM VUJMJ[BOEP NÊOJNPT
DVBESBEPT MJOFBMFT QVFT 1 Z x2 GPSNBO VO FTQBDJP WFDUPSJBM
 4J TF
PCUJFOF MB TPMVDJÐO log( a0 ) log(b0 ) FOUPODFT QVFEF QFOTBSTF RVF
2
g( x ) = e a0 eb0 x
TFS¾ VOB CVFOB BQSPYJNBDJÐO EF MB OVCF EF QVOUPT PSJHJOBM x, y 1F
SP FT JNQPSUBOUF TFS DPOTDJFOUF EF RVF FTUB BQSPYJNBDJÐO QPTJCMFNFOUF
OP TFB MB NFKPS SFTQFDUP EFM FSSPS DVBES¾UJDP UPUBM 1JÆOTFTF RVF BM
UPNBS MPHBSJUNPT MPT QVOUPT EF MB OVCF DFSDBOPT B 0 FTUBS¾O DFSDB
EF −∞ DPO MP DVBM UFOES¾O VO QFTP NBZPS RVF MPT RVF BM QSJODJQJP
FTU¾O DFSDB EF 1 RVF QBTBO B FTUBS DFSDB EF 0
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MPT FSSPSFT BCTPMVUPT Z SFMBUJWPT DBNCJBO EF NBOFSB OP MJOFBM .¾T
BVO TJ VOP EF MPT WBMPSFT EF x FT 0 FM QSPCMFNB OP QVFEF DPOWFSUJSTF
DPO FM MPHBSJUNP Z IB EF FMJNJOBSTF FTF WBMPS P DBNCJBSTF QPS PUSP
BQSPYJNBEPe

 $ÐEJHP EF BMHVOPT BMHPSJUNPT

 &M TQMJOF DÖCJDP OBUVSBM .BUMBC QPS EFGFDUP DBMDVMB TQMJ
OFT DÖCJDPT DPO MB DPOEJDJÐO OPUBLOPU RVF FT DJFSUB SFMBDJÐO FOUSF
MBT EFSJWBEBT UFSDFSBT FO MPT QVOUPT TFHVOEP Z QFOÖMUJNP 4PMP TF
QVFEFO DBMDVMBS TQMJOFT OBUVSBMFT DPO VO UPPMCPY &M DÐEJHP RVF TJHVF
JNQMFNFOUB FM D¾MDVMP EFM TQMJOF DÖCJDP OBUVSBM EF VOB DPMFDDJÐO EF
QVOUPT -B FOUSBEB FT
  */5&310-"$*°/

3 EBUPT
2
3e−2x
2

0
−2 −1 0 1 2

'ĨĦļķĝ  *OUFSQPMBDJÐO OP MJOFBM UPNBOEP MPHBSJUNPT

MB OVCF EF QVOUPT TF QBSFDF NVDIP B MB GVODJÐO f ( x )
QFSP MB JOUFSQPMBDJÐO MJOFBM UPNBOEP MPHBSJUNPT Z MVF
HP IBDJFOEP MB FYQPOFODJBM FT NVZ NBMB WFSEF
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CMFNB SFTJEF FO MPT WBMPSFT EF y NVZ DFSDBOPT B 0 BM
UPNBS MPHBSJUNPT BERVJFSFO VOB JNQPSUBODJB EFTQSP
QPSDJPOBEB

t MB MJTUB EF MBT DPPSEFOBEBT x EF MPT QVOUPT

v MB MJTUB EF MBT DPPSEFOBEBT y EF MPT QVOUPT
%FWVFMWF VO sPCKFUPt EF .BUMBC RVF TF EFOPNJOB QPMJOPNJP B USP
[PT RVF EFTDSJCF FYBDUBNFOUF VO PCKFUP QPMJOPNJBM EFaOJEP B USP[PT
MPT JOUFSWBMPT FO MPT RVF FTU¾ EFaOJEP WJFOFO EBEPT QPS FM WFDUPS t Z
TV WBMPS FO VO t RVF IBZ RVF DPNQVUBS VUJMJ[BOEP MB GVODJÐO TTpH

WJFOF EBEP QPS FM WBMPS EFM QPMJOPNJP DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM JOUFSWBMP

EF MBT t RVF DPOUJFOF B t
6O FKFNQMP EF VTP QPESÊB TFS FM TJHVJFOUF QBSB DPNQBSBS FM TQMJOF
DÖCJDP DPO MB HS¾aDB EF MB GVODJÐO TFOP
= t 4 HBMbT+2U@TB - TB - RyVc
= v 4 bBMUtVc
= 7 4 bTHBM2n+m#B+QUt- vVc
= m 4 HBMbT+2U@TB - TB - 9yyVc
= THQiUm- TTpHU7- mVVc ?QH/ QMc
= THQiUm- bBMUmV- ^`^Vc

 &M QPMJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF &M D¾MDVMP EFM 1P

MJOPNJP JOUFSQPMBEPS EF -BHSBOHF FO .BUMBC0DUBWF FT FYUSFNBEB
NFOUF TJNQMF DPNP TF QVFEF WFS NJSBOEP FM $ÐEJHP 
-B FOUSBEB FT MB TJHVJFOUF
  $°%*(0 %& "-(6/04 "-(03*5.04 

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74 ()c
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W p`B#H2b M/ +Q277B+B2Mib 7Q` i?2 HBM2` bvbi2K -

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7Q` F4R,M
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W Ub2+QM/ /2`BpiBp2b i 2M/TQBMib 4 yV
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W h?2b2 `2 i?2 Qi?2` +Q277B+B2Mib Q7 i?2 TQHvMQKBHb

W U Y #t Y +tk Y /tjV XXX AMBiBHBxiBQM
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