Definition Of Terms

prime mover ( or motive power ) – any source of energy used to produce motion.

shaft – is a rotating or stationary straight member which is circular in cross section either solid or hollow. It is used to
transmit power and mounted on it are power transmitting elements such as gears, sprockets, pulleys, rotor,
belts, chains, cam, flywheels, cranks, and rolling bearings.

shafting – a system of connected shafts for transmitting motive power in a machine.

main or line shaft – a main shaft of considerable length, in a shop or factory, usually bearing a number of
pulleys by which machines are driven, commonly by means of countershafts.

drive shaft – a shaft which transmits power from a motor or engine to the rest of a machine.

axle – is a stationary member primarily loaded in bending with gears, pulleys, and wheels rotating on it.

spindle – is a short axle or shaft.

counter shaft or jackshaft – is a shaft intermediate between a line shaft and a driven machine.

main power transmitting shaft – is a shaft that is used to transmit power between the source and machine absorbing
the power.

machine shaft – a shaft forming an integral part of the machine itself.

[9]
 Materials used for shafting

For the service requirements are too severe.

– hot rolled, plain carbon steel, the least expensive material

– for maximum machinability, a normalizing or annealing treatment may be necessary to improve the grain
structure and to secure uniformity.

– cold drawn bars have a smooth, bright finish and have diameters held to tolerance of a few thousandths of an
inch; it is sometimes erroneously called cold rolled shafting, available in both plain carbon and alloy
compositions; widely used in the field of general power transmission.

– cold drawing improves the physical properties, it raises the values for tensile strength and the yield point.
– for greater strength needed, use a steel of somewhat high carbon content.
– for forged shaft, such as used in internal combustion engine and railroads cars, the carbon content is usually
0.45 or 0.50 % the widely used steel for such service is plain carbon steel 1045.

For the service requirements and more severe, or certain desirable physical properties are to be obtained.

– alloy steel can be used.

– general purpose alloy steels: chromium - molybdenum steel 4140, and chromium - nickel - molybdenum 4340
– when heat treated to high strength and hardness, alloy steels are tougher, more ductile, and better adopted to
shock and impact loads.

For the service requirements demand resistance to wear rather than extreme strength.

– It is customary to harden only the surface of a shaft.

– The case hardening or carburizing process is in wide use.

ASME Code Recommendation for Commercial Shafting ( without any definite specifications for
physical and chemical properties of material ).

– maximum working shear stress, 8,000 psi

– range of ultimate strength: 4,500 to 70,000 psi
– elastic limits: 22,500 to 55,000 psi
– when there is keyway at the section for which the stress calculations are made, the working stress is to be
reduced to 75 % of the value for a solid circular shaft.

Commercial Shafting

1. Transmission shafts are commonly made of cold rolled stock.

2. Hot rolled is used for diameters over 3 inches.
3. Forged stock is generally used for diameters over 6 inches.
4. Cold rolled shafting is stronger than hot rolled off the same analysis, but with the same resistance to deformation.

Sizing for cold rolled shafting

Increment of 1/16" from 1/2 to 2 1/2"

Increment of 1/8" from 2 1/2" to 4"
Increment 1/4" from 4" to 6"

Standard sizing for transmission shaft

Increment of 1/4" from 5/16" to 2 7/16"

Increment of 1/2" from 2 7/16" to 5 15/16"
Standard length for transmission shaft: 16 ft, 20 ft and 24 ft

[10]
 Common Shaft sizes

Common shaft sizes in inches, for circular shaft in English ( Eng’g ) Units

1/2 1 1/16 1 5/8 2 3/16 2 15/16 3 7/8 5 1/4

9/16 1 1/8 1 11/16 2 1/4 3 3 15/16 5 7/16
5/8 1 3/16 1 3/4 2 5/16 3 1/8 4 5 1/2
11/16 1 1/4 1 13/16 2 3/8 3 1/4 4 1/4 5 3/4
3/4 1 5/16 1 7/8 2 7/16 3 3/8 4 7/16 5 15/16
13/16 1 3/8 1 15/16 2 1/2 3 7/16 4 1/2 6
7/8 1 7/16 2 2 5/8 3 1/2 4 3/4
15/16 1 1/2 2 1/16 2 3/4 3 5/8 4 15/16
1 1 9/16 1 1/8 2 7/8 3 3/4 5

Common shaft sizes in mm, for circular shaft in MKS ( SI ) Units

4 12 40 75 110 180
5 15 45 80 120 190
6 17 50 85 130 200
7 20 55 90 140 220
8 25 60 95 150 240
9 30 65 100 160 260
10 35 70 105 170 280

Theories of Failure

Failure is generally perceived to be fracture or complete separation of a member, but it may also occur due to
excessive deformation ( elastic or inelastic ) or a variety of other reasons. Most of the theories were based on the
assumption that failure occurs when some physical variable such as stress, strain, or energy reaches a limiting value.

Differences and similarities of the Theories of Failure

Guest - Tresca Theory ( Maximum Shear Stress Theory ) – states that the failure can be assumed to occur when the
maximum shear stress in the complex stress system is equal to the value of maximum shear stress in simple tension.

Rankine Theory ( Maximum Normal Stress Theory ) – states that a brittle material will fail when the maximum
principal stress exceeds some value, independent of whether other components of the stress tensor are present.
Experiments in uniaxial tension and torsion have corroborated this assumption.

von Mises Theory ( Maximum Distortion Energy Theory ) – is based on a limiting energy of distortion, i.e. energy
associated with shear strains. Strain energy can be separated into energy associated with volume change and energy
associated with distortion of the body.

The Maximum Normal Stress Theory predicts failure for brittle materials. The rest of the two theories are applicable
for ductile materials. The Distortion Energy Theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress conditions
but needs the value of Poisson’s ratio of the material, which is often not readily available. The Maximum Shear Stress
Theory is conservative.

[11]
Torsional ( Shearing ) Stress

Shaft subjected by torsional ( twisting ) load

Illustration:

Design/Allowable/Permissible shearing stress due to torsional ( twisting ) load

Twisting moment T
SS = =
Polar section modulus of torsion ZP

where:
Polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral section J J
ZP = = =
distance from center of gravity to extreme fiber c D/2

T Tc
SS = =
ZP J

16 T
SS = ( for solid shaft )
π D3

16 T Do
SS = ( for hollow shaft )
π ( Do4 – Di4 )

where:
SS = torsional ( shearing ) stress
T = torque or twisting moment
ZP = polar section modulus of torsion = J/c
c = distance of the farthest or outermost fiber from neutral axis = D/2
J = polar moment of inertia

b h3
J= ( for rectangular cross section )
6

π D4
J= ( for solid circular section )
32

π ( Do4 – Di4 )
J= ( for hollow circular section )
32

D = shaft diameter of the solid shaft

Di = inside diameter of the hollow shaft
Do = outside diameter of the hollow shaft

[12]
Bending ( or Flexural ) Stress

Mc
Sf =
I

32 M
Sf = ( for solid shaft )
π D3

32 M Do
Sf = ( for hollow shaft )
4 4
π ( Do – Di )

where:
S = bending ( or flexural ) stress
M = bending moment
c = distance of farthest fiber from the neutral axis
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis ( second moment of area )

b h3
I= ( for rectangular cross section )
12

π D4
I= ( for solid circular section )
64

π ( Do4 – Di4 )
I= ( for hollow circular section )
64

D = shaft diameter of the solid shaft

Di = inside diameter of the hollow shaft
Do = outside diameter of the hollow shaft
Note:

Sf M E for bending load at the center of the beam:

= = E = Young's modulus of elasticity
c I R R = radius of curvature of the beam

Combined Torsional and Bending ( Flexural ) Stresses

for solid shaft:

16 Te 32 Me
( Allowable shearing stress ), Ssmax = ; ( Allowable stress in tension ), Stmax =
π D3 π D3

for hollow shaft:

16 Te Do 32 Me Do
( Allowable shearing stress ), Ssmax = ; ( Allowable stress in tension ), Stmax =
π ( Do4 – Di4 ) π ( Do4 – Di4 )
where:

Equivalent Twisting Moment: Te = √ M2 + T2 ( based on Maximum Shear Stress Theory )

M + Te M + √ M2 + T2
Equivalent Bending Moment: Me = = ( based on Maximum Normal Stress Theory )
2 2
[13]
Combined Axial and Bending ( Flexural ) Stresses

F Mc
S= ±
A I

4F 32 M
S= ± ( for solid shaft )
π D2 π D3

4F 32 M Do
S= ± ( for hollow circular section )
2 2 4 4
π ( Do – Di ) π ( Do – Di )

where:
S = combined axial and flexural stress
F = axial load ( tensile or compressive )
M = bending moment
D = shaft diameter
Di = inside diameter of a hollow shaft
Do = outside diameter of a hollow shaft

Note: Use ( + ) when axial force is in tension and ( – ) when the axial force is in compression.

Combined Torsional and Axial Stresses

Maximum Shearing Stress induced by external shearing ( torsional ) and tensile loads:

SS max = √ ( St2/4 ) + SS2

where:
St = induced tensile stress due to axial load
SS = induced shearing stress due to torsion

Maximum Compressive Stress induced by external shearing ( torsional ) and compressive loads:

SC max = √ ( SC2/4 ) + SS2

where:
SC = induced compressive stress due to axial load
SS = induced shearing stress due to torsion
Note:
Induced stressed are those tensile, compressive and shear stresses induced within a body by application of
external forces and/or torques into the body.

Maximum Resultant Stresses induced by external shearing ( torsional ) and tensile loads:

St
S max = + SS max
2
St
S max = + √ ( St2/4 ) + SS2
2

[14]
 Maximum Resultant Stresses induced by external shearing ( torsional ) and compressive loads:

SC
S max = – SC max
2
SC
S max = – √ ( SC2/4 ) + SS2
2

Variable Stresses
1 Sm Sa
= +
N Sy Sn

where:
N = Design Factor ( Factor of Safety )
Sy = yield stress for ductile material
Sn = endurance ( fatigue stress ) stress
Sm = mean stress = ( Smax + Smin )/2
Sa = variable component stress ( alternating stress ) = ( Smax – Smin )/2

1 Sm Sa
= +
N Su Sn

where:
N = Design Factor ( Factor of Safety )
Su = yield stress for brittle material
Sn = endurance ( fatigue stress ) stress
Sm = mean stress = ( Smax + Smin )/2
Sa = variable component stress ( alternating stress ) = ( Smax – Smin )/2

Size of shaft could also be determined in terms of torsional and lateral rigidity or deflections. Torsional rigidity or
deflection of transmission shafts, as a rule of thumb, should be limited to 10 in 20 Diameters. The lateral deflection
caused by bending should not to exceed 0.01 inch per foot of length.

Permissible angle of twist:

θ
for drive shaft of machine tools, = 0.080 per foot
L
θ
for line shafts, = 0.750 to 1.00 per foot
L

1. Torsional deflection or Angle of twist

The total torsional deflection or angle of twist ( in radians ) for both solid and hollow circular shaft could be
determine by the use of the following equations:

1/4
TL 32 T L 32 T L
for solid shaft, θ= = and D =
JG π D4 G πGθ

[15]
 TL 32 T L
for hollow shaft, θ= =
JG π ( DO4 – Di4 ) G

where:
θ = angle of twist or angular or torsional deflection, radian
D = shaft diameter
DO = outside diameter of hollow shaft
Di = inside diameter of hollow shaft
G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity in shear
for steel: 11.5 x10 6 psi or sometimes 12 x 10 6 psi
L = length of shaft

2. Empirical equations from Machinery’s Handbook ( any edition )

for maximum angular deflection of shaft diameter: allowable twist not exceeding 0.08 degree per foot length

Eng'g units:

D = 0.29 ( T ) 1/4 or D = 4.6 ( P/N ) 1/4

where:
D = shaft diameter, inches
T = torque, in - lb
P = transmitted horsepower, hp
N = shaft speed, rpm

for maximum angular deflection of shaft diameter: allowable twist not exceeding 0.26 degree per meter length

SI units:

D = 2.26 ( T ) 1/4 or D = 125.7 ( P/N ) 1/4

where:
D = shaft diameter, mm
T = torque, N - mm
P = transmitted power, kW
N = shaft speed, rpm

for maximum angular deflection of shaft diameter: for allowable twist not exceeding 1 degree per 20 D length

Eng'g units:

D = 0.1 ( T ) 1/3 or D = 4 ( P/N ) 1/3

where:
D = shaft diameter, inches
T = torque, in - lb
P = transmitted horsepower, hp
N = shaft speed, rpm

for short, solid shaft subjected only to heavy transverse shear

D = ( 1.7 V/SS ) 1/2

where:
D = shaft diameter, inches
V = maximum transverse shearing loads, lb

[16]
maximum limit of linear deflection of line shaft: 0.01 inch per foot length

L = 8.95 ( D ) 2/3 ( no bending action on the shaft except its own weight )

L = 5.2 ( D ) 2/3 ( shaft subjected to bending action of pulleys )

where:
L = maximum distance between bearings, ft
D = shaft diameter, inches

Power/Torque transmitted

Eng’g units:
( T, in - lb ) ( n, rev/min )
P= , hp
63,000 in - lb/hp - min

( P, hp ) ( 63,000 in - lb/hp - min )

T= , in - lb
n, rev/min

SI units:
2 p ( T, kN - m ) ( n, rev/min )
P= , kW
60 s/min

( T, N - m ) ( n, rev/min )
P= , kW
9.55 x 103 N - s/ kN - min

( P, kW ) ( 9.55 x 103 N - s/ kN - min )

T= ,N-m
n, rev/min

therefore:

for solid shaft ( Eng’g units )

5.1 ( P, hp ) ( 63,000 in - lb/hp - min )

Ss = , lb/in2
3
( D, in ) ( n, rev/min )

( 321,300 in - lb/hp - min ) ( P, hp )

Ss = , lb/in2
3
( D, in ) ( n, rev/min )

for solid shaft ( SI units )

5.1 ( P, kW ) ( 9.55 x 103 N - s/ kN - min )

Ss = , kPa
( D, m )3 ( n, rev/min ) ( 1 000 N/kN )

( 48.7 s/min ) ( P, kW )
Ss = , kPa
( D, m )3 ( n, rev/min )

[17]
• If the size of the shaft ( diameter ) is required but no material and design stress given, use the design or
allowable stresses that are used in practice.
for main power transmitting shafts: Ss = 4,011.669 psi ( 282 kg/cm2 ) ( 27.6 MPa )
for line shafts carrying pulleys: Ss = 6,017.504 psi ( 423 kg/cm2 ) ( 41.5 MPa )
for small, short and counter shafts: Ss = 8,521.141 psi ( 599 kg/cm2 ) ( 58.7 MPa )

Eng’g units:
for main power transmitting shafts

( D, in )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , hp
80 in3/hp - min

80( P )
D= 3 , in
n

for line shafts carrying pulleys

( D, in )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , hp
53.5 in3/hp - min

53.5( P )
D= 3 , in
n

for small, short and counter shafts

( D, in )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , hp
38 in3/hp - min

38( P )
D= 3 , in
n

SI units:
for main power transmitting shafts

( D, mm )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , kW
1.755 x 106 mm3/kW - min

1.755 x10 6 ( P )
D= 3 , mm
n

for line shaft carrying pulleys

( D, mm )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , kW
1.1738 x 106 mm3/kW - min

1.1738 x10 6 ( P )
D= 3 , mm
n

for small, short and countershafts

( D, mm )3 ( n, rev/min )
P= , kW
0.837 x 106 mm3/kW - min
[18]
Examples:

1) What would be the diameter of a line shaft to transmit 10 horsepower if the shaft makes 150 rpm?
Solution:
53.5( P )
D=3
n

53.5(10)
D= 3 = 1.53in
150

2) What horsepower would a short shaft, 2 inches in diameter, carrying two pulleys close to the bearings
transmit, if the shaft makes 300 rpm?
Solution:
( D, in ) 3 ( n, rev/min )
P=
38 in3/hp - min

( 2) 3 (300)
P= = 63.16hp
38

3) What would be the diameter of a power transmitting shaft to transmit 150 kW at 500 rpm?
Solution:
1.755 x10 6 ( P )
D= 3
n

1.755 x10 6 (150)

D= 3 = 80.75mm
500

4) What power would a short shaft, 50 millimeters in diameter, transmit at 400 rpm?
Solution:
( D, mm )3 ( n, rev/min )
P=
0.837 x 106 mm3/kW - min

(50) 3 ( 400)
P= = 59.74kW
0.837 x10 6

5) What would be the diameter of a line shaft to transmit 7.5 kW if the shaft makes 150 rpm?
Solution:
1.1738 x10 6 ( P )
D= 3
n

1.1738 x10 6 (7.5)

D= 3 = 38.86mm
150

6) What power would a short shaft, 50.8 mm in diameter, carrying two pulleys close to the bearings
transmit, if the shaft makes 300 rpm?
Solution
( D, mm )3 ( n, rev/min )
P=
0.837 x 106 mm3/kW - min

(50.8) 3 (300)
P= = 46.99kW
0.837 x10 6

[19]
Combined Torsional and Bending ( Flexural ) Stresses

In some applications the shaft are simultaneously subjected to bending moment ( M ) and torque ( T ). The bending
moment comes on the shaft due to gravity or inertia loads. So the stresses are set up due to bending moment and
torque. For design purposes it is necessary to find the principal stresses, maximum shear stress, whichever is used as a
criterion of failure. So equivalent bending moment is a bending moment which, acting alone, and produce in a
circular shaft a normal stress of the same magnitude as the maximum normal stress produced by a given bending
moment and a given twisting moment acting simultaneously. Let ME be the equivalent bending moment, then due to
bending.

• Based on the Maximum Shear Stress Theory ( MSST )

16 Te 16
for solid shaft, SS (max) = = √ M2 + T2
π D3 π D3

16 Do Te 16 Do
for hollow shaft, SS (max) = = √ M2 + T2
π ( Do4 – Di4 ) π ( Do4 – Di4 )

where:
Te = Equivalent Twisting Moment, Te = √ M2 + T2

SS (max) = maximum shear stress

0.5 Sy Sys
SS (max) = = ( based on yield strength )
N N

0.5 Sn Sns
SS (max) = = ( based on endurance strength )
N N

N = Factor of Safety

• Based on Maximum Normal Stress Theory ( MNST )

32 Me 16
for solid shaft, Smax = = M + √ M2 + T2
3 3
πD πD

32 ME Do
for hollow shaft, Smax =
π ( Do4 – Di4 )

16 Do
Smax = M + √ M2 + T2
π ( Do4 – Di4 )

where:
M + Te
Me = Equivalent bending moment, Me =
2
Smax = maximum normal stresses caused by induced stresses

[20]
 Sy
Smax = ( based on yield strength )
N

Sn
Smax = ( based on endurance strength )
N

• Based on Octahedral Shear Stress Theory or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

32
óc = √ M2 + 3/4 T2
3
πD

where:
Sy
óc = Equivalent Octahedral Shear Stress ( based on yield strength )
N

Sn
óc = Equivalent Octahedral Shear Stress ( based on endurance strength )
N

Shaft under Torsion and Bending Loads considering Shock and Endurance ( or Fatigue ) Factors based
on ASME Standards on shafting design

• Shaft under Torsion only

T 16 kt T
for solid shaft, SS = =
J π D3

Tc 16 kt T Do
for hollow shaft, SS = =
J π ( Do4 – Di4 )

• Shaft under Bending only

Mc 32 km M
for solid shaft, Sf = =
I π D3

Mc 32 km M Do
for hollow shaft, Sf = =
I π ( Do4 – Di4 )

where:
kt = combined shock and endurance factor for torsion
km = combined shock and endurance factor for bending

[21]
Variable Stresses considering changes in section and/or shape

Basic stress analysis calculations assume that the components are smooth, have a uniform section and no
irregularities.

In practice virtually all engineering components have to have changes in section and/or shape. Common examples are
shoulders on shafts, oil holes, keyways and screw threads. Any discontinuity changes the stress distribution in the
vicinity of the discontinuity, so that the basic stress analysis equations no longer apply. Such 'discontinuities' or 'stress
raisers' cause local increase of stress referred to as " stress concentration ".

Soderberg Equation Endurance ratio ( for steel )

1 Sm Sa Sn
= + kf = 0.23 to 0.65 ( use: 0.4 )
N Sy Sn Su

Goodman Equation Gerber Equation

2
1 Sm Sa Sm Sa
= + kf 1= + kf
N Su Sn Su Sn

where:
N = Design Factor ( or Factor of Safety )
Sy = yield stress for ductile material
Su = yield stress for brittle material
Sn = endurance ( or fatigue stress ) stress
Sm = mean or average stress = ( Smax + Smin )/2
Sa = variable component stress ( or alternating stress ) = ( Smax – Smin )/2
kf = fatigue-strength reduction factor ( or fatigue notch factor )

Illustration:

kf = 1 + q ( kt – 1 )

where:
kt = theoretical stress concentration factor could be determine
from Figure AF 12 Design of Machine Elements by Faires

kt = Ss max/Ss

but:
Ss max = maximum shear stress
Ss = allowable ( or average ) shear stress

[22]
 q = notch sensitivity or sensitivity index could be determine
from Figure AF 7 Design of Machine Elements by Faires

1
q=
1 + ( a/r )

but:
a = factor dependent upon the ultimate stress of the
material
r = radius of the stress raiser

Definition Of Terms

1. It is a straight line joining the endurance limit to the yield strength of a tested specimen.
A. Soderberg line B. Line of safe stress C. Goodman line D. Line of tangency

2. It is a straight line joining the endurance limit to the ultimate strength of a tested specimen.
A. Soderberg line B. Line of safe stress C. Goodman line D. Line of tangency

3. The result of any discontinuity or change of section, such as scratches, holes, notches, grooves, or bends is ______.
A. fatigue strength reduction B. notch sensitivity
C. stress raiser D. stress concentration

discontinuity – a lack of continuity, regularity or sequence; a break or gap.

stress raiser – a notch, hole, or other discontinuity in contour or structure which causes localized stress concentration.

notch – an angular or V -shaped cut, indentation, or slit in an object, surface, or edge.

stress concentration – a condition in which a stress distribution has high localized stresses; usually induced by an
abrupt change in the shape of a member; in the vicinity of notches, holes, changes in diameter
of a shaft, and so forth, maximum stress is several times greater than where there is no
geometrical discontinuity.

Failure Theory – is the science of predicting the conditions under which solid materials lose their strength under the
action of external loads. The failure of a material is usually classified into brittle failure ( fracture )
or ductile failure ( yield ).

Maximum Shear Stress Theory ( also known as the TrescaTheory ) – this theory postulates, that failure will occur in
machine part if the magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the
shear strength of the material determined from uniaxial testing.

Maximum Normal Stress Theory – this theory postulates, that failure will occur in machine part if the maximum
normal stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the material as determined
from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory – this theory postulates that failure will occur when the strain energy per unit
volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain energy per unit
volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.

Distortion energy – is the amount of energy that is needed to change the shape.

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory ( also known as the Shear Energy Theory or von Mises - Hencky Theory) – this
theory postulates that failure will occur when the distortion energy per unit
volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the distortion energy per unit
volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.

Coulomb - Mohr theory or Internal Friction Theory – assumes that the critical shearing stress is related to internal
friction.
[23]