Workshop Manual

Practical Manual
For
WORKSHOP PRACTICE (TA C112)
By
K. S. Sangwan
Gajanand Gupta
Harpreet Singh
K. G. Daiya
Educational Development Division

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PILANI – 333031 (RAJASTHAN)
Preface
Constant demand from students for a practical manual with details of various tools
and equipments used as well as the comprehensive procedure for doing job assignments in
the various shops of workshop intensified the need for a new manual.
Recurring feedback from the first year Workshop Practice (ME F110) students and
encouragement from Prof. L. K. Maheshwari, Vice-chancellor, proved fruitful to give the
manual its current shape.
Workshop Practice students, shop instructors and practical instructors provided

befitting suggestions and final year Mechanical Engineering Group students, particularly,
Chidambaram C. T. (2004A4PS265), Roma Fatima (2003B5A4611), S. Sairam
(2004A4PS365) and Siddharth S. (2004A4PS375) spent long hours with me to give a
concrete shape to the concept form of this manual.
I acknowledge the support of all the students who came forward and gave valuable
feedback. I also acknowledge with regard the constant support provided by Prof. L. K.
Maheshwari, Vice-chancellor, during this endeavor. He not only spared his valuable time out
of his busy schedule to go through the concept form but also recommended the necessary
adaptations.
I hope this manual meets with the demands of students as well as shop instructors.
Suggestions for the improvement are always welcome in person or by mail at
kss@bits-pilani.ac.in
K. S. Sangwan
Chief, Workshop Unit
ii
Table of Contents
Preface ii
Instructions/Guidelines for Practical Class iv
1. Fitting shop 1
2. Welding shop 12
3. Smithy shop 24
4. Sheet metal shop 28
5. Carpentry shop 31
6. Machine shop – Lathe 39
7. Machine shop – Shaper 52
8. Machine shop – Milling 57
9. Demonstrations 61
10. Electroplating 66
11. Metrology 68
12. Foundry shop 81
13. Rolling 85
14. Power tools 87
15. Plumbing 89
16. CNC 97
iii
Instructions/Guidelines for Practical Class
1. General Instructions/Guidelines
1.1 Objective: The basic objective of the practical classes in workshop is to enrich
and supplement the theoretical knowledge acquired in the theory classes. The
various shops in which a student will work are fitting shop, welding shop, sheet
metal shop, smithy shop, carpentry shop, foundry shop, machine shop and
metrology shops. In addition electroplating, power tools and rolling jobs are also
included. Generally, in each shop the student is expected to learn the working,
use, functions and application of various equipments and tools to do the job
assignments in each shop. A short description of the various equipments and tools
used in different shops is given for each shop but students are advised to
supplement the knowledge by reading from the text book and reference books or
any other book on the subject. Complete knowledge of the topic at the required
level is important for the quiz and other evaluation components in practical as
well as theory. Go through the required section of the practical manual before
coming to the class.
1.2 Schedule: Students of each practical section are divided into eight groups. Each
group should follow the order as per the practical work schedule given in table 1.
Students should reach the particular shop in time as per the practical schedule and
mark their attendance. Put on the apron and start the work. Be attentive while the
shop instructor is demonstrating the working and use of various equipments and
tools. Later on, queries are welcome but do not expect the shop instructor to
repeat the whole instructions. If you have any doubt on the safety aspect, do not
take risk; take help of the shop instructor.
1.3 Make-up: Make-up will be given only for genuine cases with the prior
permission of shop/practical instructor. However, students have to finish their job
assignments during arrear classes only.
1.4 Discipline: The student should come to the class in time and should not leave the
workshop before time without the permission of the shop/practical instructor.
During practical hours students should remain in their respective shops.
1.5 Request for a new job: If a student spoils a job/workpiece, he/she should
approach the shop instructor for a new job. However, no extra time beyond the
arrear classes will be provided for such a case.
2. Safety Instructions/Guidelines
iv
Safety is an important aspect in workshop. It has been observed that injuries
happen because of the unsafe acts on the part of students. All students must observe the
safety instructions/guidelines given below while in the workshop. In addition, students
must understand and take care of precautions given for each shop.
Do’s
(i) Tie long hairs.
(ii) Always wear shoes in workshop. Students are not allowed in the workshop without
wearing shoes.
(iii) Always wear safety glasses to protect your eyes
(iv) Ask your instructor to explain to you the working of the machine.
(v) Learn to stop the machine first and then familiarize yourself with the operations. Do
not play with or operate machines that you are not familiar with.
(vi) Use face shields/goggles to protect eyes from flying metal chips/powder. Use
welding screen while watching/doing welding.
(vii) Use first aid available in the workshop for small injuries.
(viii) Keep the aisles and gangways clear and clean.
(ix) Before loading the job, make sure that the chuck, face plate or drive plate are
securely fastened to the machine.
(x) Stay alert, watch what you are doing and use commonsense when operating tools.
(xi) Adhere to safety instructions/guidelines.
Don’ts
(i) Never wear loose clothing in the workshop. Put on the protective overcoat provided
before you start working.
(ii) Don’t rub your eyes if you suspect some foreign element has fallen. Report
immediately to the instructor.
(iii) Avoid bracelets, finger rings and other jewelry.
(iv) Don’t look constantly on the moving spindles as you may feel giddy.
(v) While working, never talk to your fellow students.
(vi) Don’t touch sharp edges of the tools with bare hands
(vii) Don’t touch chips (cut metal pieces) with hands as these are very hot and sharp.
(viii) Don’t touch any moving machine part.
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3. Reference Books: In addition to the books specified in the course handout, following
books may be consulted for the practical classes:
 P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Metal Cutting & Machine Tools, TMH, New Delhi, 2000.
 P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Foundry, Forming & Welding, TMH, New Delhi, 2000.
 W. A. J. Chapman, Workshop Technology, Arnold, London, 1951.
 H. Gerling, All about Machine tools, Wiley, New Delhi, 1972.
vi
Table 1: Practical Schedule for the Semester
T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G
1 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3
2 W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E
I
3 N Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3
S
T A
4 R Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 R
U R
C E
5 T C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 A
I R
O S
6 N S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3
S
7 M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC
8 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3
Legends:
G Group C Carpentry M Metrology
T Turns ( Each turn is for 2 Hours) L Lathe W Welding
Mlg Milling & Grinding E Electroplating S Smithy
Fd Foundary CNC CNC Machining Sm Sheet Metal
Sh Shaper
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FITTING SHOP
Fitting shop is a place where we learn various hand operations to finish the work pieces to the
desired shape and size with accuracy. General fitting processes carried out in a fitting section are:
marking-out, sawing, scraping, filing, chipping, drilling, internal threading (tapping), external
threading (dieing) and reaming. Knowledge of fitting is important to prepare the work pieces to
join/assemble. The learning in the fitting shop provides the students knowledge about various
fitting operations and joints for hand assembly/joining. It also provides the students knowledge
about common fitting tools and equipments and their application.
COMMON FITTING TOOLS & EQUIPMENTS
Vices: The vice is an essential tool of any hand cutting/shaping operation and is used to hold the
workpiece firmly when the operation is carried out. There are various types of vices –
bench vice, hand vice, machine vice, tool makers vice, pin vice, pipe vice, etc. Vices are
specified by their weight and length of jaws.
Bench Vice: A bench vice is generally used for normal bench

work and is fitted on a bench. The bench vice consists of the
body, sliding jaw, handle, screw, nut, spring, cotter pin and
washer. The handle, screw, nut and washer are made of steel
whereas the main body and the sliding jaw are made of cast iron.
Separate cast steel plates (jaw plates), with serrations to hold the Bench Vice
job firmly, are fitted to the jaws. Most type of bench vices have a
quick release mechanism; by pressing a small lever the sliding jaw can be pulled or pushed
to the correct position. The threaded screw is made to pass through the movable jaw at the
outer end. It carries a handle at the outer end and a collar at the inner end. The collar
prevents the vice from coming out of the jaw when opening the vice. It also restricts
maximum openings of the vice. Since a bench vice is fitted on the bench, generally it is
not possible to change the height of the vice or the vice itself. Thus care is needed when
fitting a vice on the bench so that it is at a suitable and convenient height. For general light
work the height of the top of the bench vice should be at level with the elbow of the
worker. While working on a bench vice the following precautions should be taken:
 Always set the work piece in the centre of the jaws. The job should project out of the
jaw as little as possible and must be parallel to the jaws since they act as guide for
even working.
 In order to protect the finished surface of the work against damage by the teeth of the
vice jaws, copper, aluminum clamps are used. Copper clamps of “U” section and
wooden “V” blocks are suitable for holding finished circular work.
 Never use a vice for fitting or straightening the job.
 Length of the handle of the vice must be sufficient to tighten the job. Never use a
hammer or lever arm to tighten the job.
Hand Vice: A hand vice is used for gripping small jobs- such as for gripping screws,
rivets, small tools and work which cannot be conveniently held in bench vice or in hand.
Hand vices are specified by their weight only.
Machine Vice: The machine vice is used to hold the job on machines like drilling,
milling, shaping and slotting etc. It consists of various parts like handle, movable jaw,
fixed jaw, screw, nut, washer and springs like bench vice, but its base is provided with
1
slots through which it is fitted on the table of the required machine with the help of nuts
and bolts.
V Block: A V block is a very useful tool used by a fitter for supporting and holding round jobs on
surface plates in marking out. It is also used in conjunction with a U-clamp for holding
round bars for marking, centre drilling etc. To hold a round bar length is placed
longitudinally in V groove and the screw of the U-clamp is tightened. It grips the rod
firmly with its axis parallel to the axis of the V groove. V blocks are made of cast iron or
mild steel (case hardened). These are supplied in identical pairs, each pair stamped with
the same number or symbol. V blocks are specified by the maximum diameter of the work
piece which can be held between two identical blocks, when one is inverted over the other.
To find out the size of the pair of V blocks, place one over other, such that the two V form
a square. The size of the square thus formed is equal to the size of the V blocks.
C Clamp: The C-clamp is used for holding the jobs during assembly. It is
used to hold different jobs together to perform fitting operations like
assembly and marking. It has a frame having jaw nut for securing the
screw handle. C Clamp
Hacksaw: Hacksaw is generally used for parting off or for cutting metals approximately to size.
The saw consists of a mild steel frame with a suitable handle and a renewable blade of
high carbon or alloy steel. The frames of hacksaw may be fixed or adjustable. The fixed
type of frames takes only one length of blade whereas adjustable frame takes blades of
various lengths. The blade is positioned in the frame with the
teeth pointing away from the handle so that the saw cuts on its
forward stroke (cutting stroke). No cutting takes place during
backward stroke (idle stroke). The teeth of a hacksaw blade are
“set” so as to make a cut wider than the blade thickness, Hacksaw
Preventing sticking of the blade in the cut for proper frictionless
movement. The teeth are set by leaving one tooth straight, bending the second towards left
the third towards right and so on. Different hacksaw blades have different number of teeth
ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter. Blades having lesser number of teeth per centimeter
used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze etc. Blades having larger
number of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel.
Power Saw: Like ordinary saw it is also used for parting off work. It is provided with a
motor driven attachment which moves to and fro. The blade of a power saw is
comparatively longer, broader and thicker than an ordinary saw blade. The cutting speed
of power saw is more than ordinary saw and cutting time is less.
Hammer: A hammer is generally used for causing succession of blows to facilitate the
fitting/removal of any part/component like nails, rivets, punches, chisels etc. Hammers are
usually made of high carbon steel (faces are hardened and while centre is left soft).
Hammer handles are generally made of wood to absorb shocks. Hammers are specified by
the weight or the shape of the peen or head. Various types of hammers are – ball peen
hammer, cross peen hammer, straight peen hammer, soft face hammer.
Ball peen hammer: A ball peen hammer is most widely used in

fitting work. One side of the head of the ball peen hammer is flat
and the other side is spherical (like a ball). Examples like rounding
off rivets, making round and concave indentations and flattening Ball Peen Hammer
surfaces.
2
Cross peen hammer: A cross peen hammer has a flat face on one end and an edge or
peen at right angles to the handle. The flat edge of this hammer is used for striking and the
cross peen is used for making indentations and grooves on work pieces. The narrow cross
peen is suitable for work in narrow spaces.
Straight peen hammer: One head of the straight peen hammer is flat and the other head
has an edge parallel to the handle. The straight peen of this hammer is used for making
groove and straight indentations on work.
Soft face hammer: A soft face hammer is made from soft metals like copper, aluminum,
or lead. This hammer is used for hammering finished jobs and for aligning jobs on a
machine.
Chisels: Chisels are used for chipping work in conjunction with a steel headed hammer. In many
cases neither a hacksaw nor a shearing machine is suitable for cutting a piece of heavy
gauge metal. Chiseling is the method which must then be used. These are made of high
carbon steel bar and forged to shape. Cutting edge is hardened and tempered while the
remainder is left soft and tough. While grinding does not allow chisels to become over-
heated, as an excessive rise in temperature will temper the cutting edge and hence reduces
the hardness. Chisels are specified by their shape and overall length and width of cutting
edge.
Files: Files are cutting tools used to remove metal from surfaces as small
chips. These are made of high carbon steel and hardened. It is the
most important single tool of a fitter. A handle is fitted on the tang
of the file while using. Use the full length of the file for each
stroke and relieve pressure during the return stroke. Files are
specified according to their length, section, cut and grade: Bastard file
Length: The general length of files varies from 3 inches to 14 inches. However the
common files are of 6”, 8” and 10”.
Section: According to section, files are specified as flat, half round, round, triangular or
square. The section of the file to be used depends on the job for which it is required. A flat
file consists of a long flat body with a rectangular cross-section and is used for filing flat
surfaces and general work. A square file has a square cross-section. It is double cut on
each face and normally tapered for last third of its length. These are used for filing square
holes to a square or rectangular shape as well as for making 90 degree corners. Half round
files have one face flat and the other cylindrical. This file is tapered for last third of its
length both in width and thickness. Half round files are generally double cut on the flat
face and single cut on the curved surface. These are used for filing concave surfaces and
elongating circular openings where it is too large for the round file to be used. The flat
face can be used for filing flat surfaces. A round file consists of circular cross section and
overall shape resembles circular solid cylinder. Generally single cut and tapered. Used for
filing small internal radii, round holes or concave surfaces. A triangular file consists of a
triangular cross-section of an equilateral triangle. It is usually single cut and is tapered to a
point from about two-third of their length. This file is used for making angular surfaces,
filing internal corners and grooves having an included angle of 60 degree. Small size
triangular files are used for sharpening the teeth of wooden saws. Knife edge file has a
cross section similar to a knife. It is used for making sharp and deep grooves and for filing
the corners of the work piece. Some other types of files used in fitting are the warding file,
watch makers file, pillar file, mill file, barrette file and rat-tail file.
3
Cut: According to the cut files are specified as single cut, double cut, dreadnought and
rasp. In this different arrangements of teeth are used for filing different materials. The
cutting teeth of a file may either single cut or double cut or have the special cut of the
“dreadnought” file. In Single cut files the teeth are cut parallel to each other across the file
and at an angle of about 60 degree to centre line. This type of cut is preferable when filing
soft material as the teeth are less likely to clog. Double Cut files have two sets of teeth the
first or overcut teeth being cut an angle of 50 degree to 60 degree to the centre line, and
the second cut or up cut at 75 degree to 80 degree to the centre line. This is the most
common cut used in general engineering. The shape of the teeth on the dreadnought files
makes this type of file suitable for heavy cutting on soft metal surfaces. Rasp files are
used on very soft materials such as lead, wood and leather.
Grade: According to grade files are specified as rough, bastard, second cut, smooth and
dead smooth. The spacing of teeth may be fine or coarse depending on the finish required.
These grades are applicable to single cut and double cut files only. Rough grade file is
used for rough work only to remove metal quickly and has about 20 teeth per inch.
Bastard is the common grade used for ordinary engineering work where the finish is not
important and has about 30 teeth per inch. Second Cut is the common grade used to give
good finish quickly and has about 40 teeth per inch. Smooth grade gives good finish but
is slow in cutting. It has about 50 to 60 teeth per inch. Dead Smooth grade gives a very
fine finish and is to be used for final finish only. It has about 100 teeth per inch.
Tri square or Fitter’s square: It is used for setting lines at right angles to
Tri square
an edge or surface and for checking mutually perpendicular surfaces.
It is specified by the length of the blade and is made of high carbon
steel (hardened and tempered).
Surface plates: These are used to support small jobs for marking out and
form a base from which measurements are taken. These are also used
for testing flat surfaces for accuracy. These are specified according
to their length and breadth and are made of close grained cast iron.
The edges are made square and top flat. Surface plate
Universal scribing gauge: It is used to scribe a line parallel to its base and is often used as a
height gauge. Scribing block consists of an accurately machine base, supporting a pillar to
which is attached a scriber. It is used in conjunction with surface plate and an angle plate.
Punches: These are made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered at the working/business
end. The shank is left soft to withstand the shock. The top end is slightly chamfered to
prevent the edge from becoming burred from constant hammer blows. The shank is
knurled or hexagonal or octagonal section to provide a good grip. Its pointed end has an
included angle of 60 degree or 90 degree. Punches are specified by types like centre
punch, pin punch, hollow punch, number punch, letter punch etc.
Centre punch/Dot punch is used for marking out series of pops along scribed lines, which
will be machined or filed away. Pin punch is used for punching holes in thin sheet metal
and to remove taper pins/split pins, etc. Hollow punch is used for cutting washers and
other parts from leather, rubber, plastics, joining material, sheet, etc. It is also used to
punch definite sized hole in soft material. Number or Letter punch are used to stamp/mark
numbers or letters on the parts of machine and jobs.
4
Drifts: These are stout flat ended punches of steel, brass, copper or aluminum, used for
localizing hammer blows and preventing damage to the job while driving tight fitting
parts.
Taps: These are used for cutting internal screw threads. They are short
screws of hardened and tempered steel, fluted to give cutting
edges, the top is squared to facilitate turning with tap handle
(wrench). Taps are made in set of three – First tap (taper tap) for
starting the thread, second tap to deepen the thread and third plug
tap to finish the threads to the bottom of the blind holes. Taps with handle
Different taps are required for cutting different types of thread. In BA the second tap is
omitted.
Dies: Dies are used for cutting external screw threads on cylindrical parts like bolt and studs.
These are made of hardened and tempered steel. These are held in the centre of a pair of
operating handle called stock. These are made in various shape and size.
Drills: Drills are used for producing circular holes in the work pieces. These are specified by the
types, material and size. The most common material for the drill is high speed steel (HSS).
There are many forms of drills used for drilling holes in workshop. Some commonly used
drills are: Flat drill – is very slow in cutting action, drills inaccurate holes and hence waste
power. It is easy to manufacture and is capable of withstanding rough use. Bottoming drill
– is used to finish the bottom of blind holes. Peg or Arbor drill – is used to machine the
surface around a drilled hole to provide a good seat for a nut or bolt head. Rose bit – is
used in countersinking holes to take screw or countersunk rivet heads, and some time used
to remove the burr from a hole. Twist drill – an accurate fast cutting drill, gives good
guidance in the hole and designed to reject chips automatically by means of the spiral
grooving called flutes.
Drilling Procedure: Twist drills are available with taper shank or parallel shank. A
parallel shank is provided on drills up to 12.7 mm diameter whereas a taper shank is
provided on drills of higher diameter. For drilling with a parallel shank drill is held in a
drill chuck and tightened with chuck key. The mounting of drill on a drilling machine
spindle is done along with the drill chuck. The tapered shank of a drill chuck is provided
with a tang at the end of the shank to ensure a positive grip. Tapered shank drills are
directly mounted on the drilling machine spindle. We should use lesser the cutting speed
for harder the metal more the cutting speed for softer the metal as well larger the diameter
of the drill lesser the cutting speed and vice versa.
Reamers: Reamers are rotating cutters used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate dimensions and to
give a smooth internal finish. A reamer merely imparts the previously drilled holes the
necessary smoothness, roundness, parallelism and accuracy. Reamers only finish the hole
by removing small material, but do not correct any error in position or direction of the
drilled hole. Reamers are made of high carbon steel or alloy steel and are specified by type
and size. Reamers should rotate in one direction only when cutting or withdrawing.
Reamers are mainly of two types according to their holding – hand reamers and machine
reamers.
5
Screw Driver: These are used for driving or turning screws. Blade is made of high carbon steel,
point hardened and tempered. Handle is made of wood or composite material. These are
specified by the type and length of blade.
Types of screw drivers:
(a) Common screw driver: The width of business end varies with the length of the blade.
In service it is available in lengths of 4 inch, 6 inch, 12 inch and 18 inch. This is quite
strong and is used for rough work. (b) Ratchet screw driver: It enables the operator to
use the screw driver without changing the grip, thereby saving time and avoiding damage
to screw heads. It is not as strong as common screw driver. If greater force is used, ratchet
mechanism may break. Care should be exercised in using this as extra force may damage
the ratchet mechanism. (c) Instrument makers’ screw driver: These are available in a set
of four consisting of 3/64, 1/16, 5/64, 3/32 inches. Here the size refers to the width of the
blade. (d) Watch makers’ screw driver: These are available in various sizes and are used
for light work only. (e) Star screw driver; Star screw drivers are suitable for star headed
screws and bolts. The working/business end is of star shape.
Allen Key: These are the keys in L shape having hexagonal body and are suitable for screws
having hexagonal groove on their head.
Spanners: Spanners are used to slacken or tighten nuts or bolts. These are available in different
types and sizes to suit the dismantling and assembling operations. Spanners are marked
with the crest diameter of the bolt whose head they fit. Some spanners are made of high
carbon steel hardened and tempered or case hardened mild steel. High quality spanners
required for special purposes are made of chrome nickel steel, and sometimes chrome
vanadium steels. Spanners are specified by the type, material they are made of and size of
the bolt or nut on which it fits.
Types of spanners:
(a) Set spanner: The jaws may be set at an angle of 0, 15 30

degrees to the centre line of the handle. This is the most common
type of spanner, but not altogether satisfactory as it fits the nut or
bolt on two faces only and the jaws tend to spring. These spanners
are often double ended to fit one consecutive size of nuts or bolts.
The jaws are set at an angle to the handle for use in constricted Double ended set spanner
spaces. A new grip can be got on the nut or bolt by turning the
spanner over. The set spanner should always be used in preference
to the adjustable type, as this gives the correct size across the flats,
and with correct type of shank or handle for leverage. (b) Box
spanner, Tube spanner or “T” handled box spanner: These fits
Adjustable/slide spanner
the nuts all round and thus avoid damage to them by slipping.
They are useful for nuts where the only possible access is from the
top. (c) Ring spanner: These fit the nut all round. To facilitate
their use, the socket receiving the nut or bolt head is often bi-
hexagonal in shape; a ratchet may also be fitted. (d) ‘C’ spanner:
Ring spanner
This spanner is used on splined circular nuts. (e) Socket spanner:
This type of spanner is replacing the box spanner. The sockets are
6
usually bi-hexagonal and are used with various extension bars, ratchet handles and
universal joints, which facilitate their use and extend their range of application. (f) Splined
tube spanner: These are box type spanners for splined circular nuts. (g) Peg spanner:
This type of spanner has two or more small round pegs which fit in to corresponding holes
in special type nut. (h) Adjustable or Slide spanner: These are very
convenient because of range of size available in one tool. They should
not be used if a suitable fixed jaw spanner is available as the jaws
have a tendency to spring and damage the nut. It is specified by the
overall length. (i) Crow-foot spanner: These are used in restricted
Box spanner
spaces only. (j) Terry set or folding set: It consists of three B.A., size
spanners and they are 2 B.A., 4 B. A. and 6 B. A.
Pliers: These are used for gripping or cutting purposes. These are made of high carbon steel
hardened and tempered jaws. Handle is covered with insulating material. Pliers are
specified by the type and overall length.
Types of Pliers:
(a) Pliers Side Cutting: Used for cutting wires, cables etc. (b) Pliers Flat Nose: Used for
gripping thin and flat object. (c) Pliers Round Nose: Used for bending wires. (d) Pliers
Gas: Used for holding gas pipes, rods etc. Handle is insulated for electric work. Plain
handle is used for general work. (e) Pliers Eye-let Fixing: Used for fixing eye-lets. (f)
Pliers Sleeve Fixing: Used for fixing sleeves on ignition cables and has parallel action. (g)
Pliers Combination: Has adjustable jaws. Provision is made so that it can be used for
gripping flat objects as well as round objects. (h) Bernard Pliers: It is usually made of
pressed steel. It has a pair of jaws which open parallel when operated. One jaw is provided
with a side cutter which operates simultaneously with the parallel jaws. The side cutter is
used for cutting small cables, wires etc. The pliers are suitable for holding screw heads and
nuts as it will not damage them. (i) Hellerman Pliers: These pliers are used for fitting
rubber sleeves and cable markers over the ends of cables. They are available in two sizes.
The rubber sleeve is slipped over a mandrel composed of three prongs tapered at the ends
and set at right angles to the tool handles. Compression of the handles causes the prongs to
open out forming a triangle and thus expending the rubber, so that the cable can be
inserted easily.
Steel Rule: This is the most common measuring instrument in the workshop. It is used for taking
and setting linear measurements up to accuracy of 0.5mm.It is made up of a hardened steel
bar having accurately spaced line graduations on both sides in inches and centimeters.
Drilling Machine: These are machine tools used to produce cylindrical holes. Drilling machines
are of various sizes and varieties to suit the different types of jobs. Various types of
drilling machines are: portable drilling machine, bench drill, radial drilling machine,
multi-spindle drilling machine, CNC drilling machines, etc.
A bench drilling machine is a common type of drilling machine used for light work in
workshop. Its construction as well as operation is very simple. It has a cast iron base
having a vertical column which carries a swiveling table. The table can also be moved
vertically on the column. At the top of the column is the drive for the spindle.
7
Radial drilling machine is useful because of its wider range. The machine consists of a
base on which a cylindrical vertical column is mounted. The column carries a radial arm
which can move vertically, horizontally (radially) and can be swiveled at the desired
position.
Radial arm
Feed handle
Spindle
Column
Table
Base
Base
Figure F1: Bench drilling machine Figure F2: Radial drilling machine
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To fabricate a paper weight
Equipments and Tools Required: Flat ‘bastard’ file, tri-square, bench vice, surface plate, angle
plate, dot punch, centre punch, ball peen hammer, hacksaw, steel rule, vernier caliper,
universal marking gauge, twist drill (straight shank) 1/4 inch diameter, drill chuck with
chuck key, counter sunk drill, bench drilling machine, drift, tap set (¼" BSW) with
adjustable tap handle, flat screw driver, number punch.
Material Required: One 6 mm thick Mild Steel (MS) Flat of 50 mm × 50 mm (Part 1), finished
top handle from lathe work (Part 2), emery paper, MS counter sunk machined screw- ¼"
x ½" BSW.
8
Φ6
countersunk
Φ18
36SQ
15
450 10
Φ6×20TPI
6
3 10
Part 1 Part 2
Note: All dimensions in mm. Figure not to scale.
Figure F3: Fitting job – Paper weight
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
1. Study the drawings of the job to be made (Figure F3).

2. Take the workpiece (Part 1) and observe that it has two opposite shiny sides and two
opposite dull sides (black sides).
Filing
3. Hold the workpiece, keeping the one dull side upward, in the bench vice. Make this side
flat by filing with a flat bastard file. Keep checking while filing with a tri square for its
straightness and perpendicularity.
4. Next, turn the workpiece by 900 and hold the adjacent shiny side upward and file it with the
flat bastard file till it is straight as well as exactly 900 to the previously completed side.
Measuring & Marking

5. Now, remove the workpiece from bench vice and apply marking paste (wet white chalk).
Wait for few minutes till the paste gets dried up.
6. Next, place angle plate on the surface plate and put the workpiece on the surface plate
(marking paste facing you) with one of the finished side touching the surface plate
horizontally against the support of angle plate.
7. Take the steel rule and place it against the angle plate in vertical direction. At the same time
set the height of the scriber of the universal marking gauge to 33 mm and scribe a
horizontal line at 33 mm on the workpiece. Similarly, turn the workpiece by 900 and scribe
another line at 33 mm on the unfinished side.
9
8. Place the workpiece flat on the surface plate keeping marked line upward and with the help
of dot punch and ball peen hammer, dot mark the scribed lines.
Cutting
9. Hold the workpiece again in the bench vice and cut the extra material with the help of
hacksaw beyond the dotted line (dotted line should be visible after cutting).
Filing
10. Next finish these sides as in step 3 and 4. Now workpiece is exactly square of 36 mm.
Measuring & Marking

11. Take the workpiece to the surface plate and mark lines on all the sides at the height of 33
mm as in step 7. Also, rotate the workpiece by 450 (keeping one corner on surface plate).
You can check with the help of universal marking gauge scriber that both the edges are
aligned properly. Now, scribe the diagonal of the square workpiece. Similarly scribe the
second diagonal of the workpiece.
12. Now with the help of the centre punch and ball peen hammer, punch the centre of the
workpiece where both the diagonals are intersecting (punch marking).
Filing
13. Next, hold the workpiece in the bench vice (keeping the marked surface facing you) and
file the edge at 450 up to 33 mm marked line. Repeat this for all the sides.
Drilling & Counter Sunking

14. Fix the workpiece to the bench drilling machine and hold it in machine table vice keeping
the punched centre mark upward.
15. Fix the ¼" diameter straight shank twist drill in the drill chuck and tight it rigidly with the
help of chuck key. Mount the drill chuck in the spindle of the machine.
16. Now, slowly bring the drill cutting edge towards the centre of the workpiece and align it
exactly on the marked centre by adjusting the table vice of the machine. Once the drill bit is
exactly on the centre then tighten the vice of the machine rigidly.
17. Set the required cutting speed of the machine spindle by adjusting the belt of the stepper
pulleys.
18. Now switch on the machine spindle and slowly drill a through hole in the workpiece by
lowering the spindle with the help of the hand feed lever.
19. Now turn the job upside down in the machine vice and replace the twist drill with the
counter sunk drill in the drill chuck ( for replacing drill chuck, take out the drill chuck from
machine spindle with the help of drift) and make a counter sunk of the drilled hole upto 1/8"
depth.
Finishing
20. Take the workpiece on the bench vice and finish all the sides of the workpiece (flat sides
first with the flat bastard file and then with the emery paper) to remove all burrs.
10
Tapping
21. Now, take part 2 workpiece and hold it in the bench vice keeping drilled hole upwards. Take
first tap (starting tap) of ¼" BSW and hold it in tap handle firmly. Apply lubricant on the tap
and start tapping in the drilled hole of the workpiece as per the instructions of the instructor.
Repeat the same procedure by using second and third (final tap) taps as per the instructions
of the instructor.
Assembly
22. Now both the parts are ready for assembly. Fit the part 2 on part 1 and assemble the parts
with the screw (machined screw - ¼" x ½" BSW) by using the flat screw driver. Your job is
ready for the electroplating.
PRECAUTIONS
1. While holding the workpiece in bench vice, it should be parallel to the gripping jaws and
filing work surface should be quite nearer to the jaws to avoid chatter.
2. While cutting with a hacksaw, cut as close to the vice jaws as possible.
3. In order to protect the finished surfaces of work against damage by the teeth of the vice
jaws, copper, aluminum “U” clamps must be used.
4. Do not touch and check the filing surfaces with fingers and do not blow on the filing
surface, the burrs may fall/stick in eyes.
5. While cutting with hacksaw, filing, hammering operations look at the job.
6. While hammering check the wedge which secures the head to the shaft is tight, even check
the handles of any tool in use should be tight fitted and must be free from oil or grease.
7. De burr all work pieces to avoid cuts on fingers.
8. While drilling, ensure that the workpiece is held rigidly.
9. For deep drilling, withdraw drill frequently and clean it.
10. Use proper speed and feed during drilling.
*******
11
WELDING SHOP
Welding is a process of joining metals at surfaces which have been made molten by heat or by
pressure or by both. Additional filler metal may or may not be used. It produces a very strong
joint. Two commonly used welding types are electric arc welding and oxy-acetylene welding.
Welding can be done in flat (down hand), overhead, horizontal or vertical positions.
COMMON WELDING TOOLS
Wire brush: It is a metallic wire brush used for cleaning a weld prior to
welding and removal of rust after welding.
Wire brush
Scaling hammer: It is also known as chipping hammer and is used to

remove the solid impurities like slag/scale after welding. Scaling hammer
Spanners: This is the most common handy tool in workshop. These are used to slacken or tighten
nuts or bolts. These are made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered or case
hardened mild steel. These are specified by type, material and size of the bolt or nut on
which it fits.
Hand gloves: These are the safety gloves worn by welder during welding. Gloves protect hands
from any accident or mishap like falling of hot sparks during welding. These are generally
made of leather, asbestos or canvas.
Tong: It is used for gripping the hot work pieces for holding, shifting and
adjusting the position of work during welding.
Tong
Welding goggles: These are the dark colour goggles worn by welder during gas welding. These
protect the eyes of the welder from heat and light emitted during gas welding process.
Gas welding torch: The oxy-acetylene welding torch which mixes the
gases in desired volume for burning of the mixture at end of the
tip. It consists of a handle with two inlet valves for oxygen and
acetylene volume control. The tip of the torch is replaceable for Gas welding
torch
different size and depth of welding. The tip material is of high
conductivity usually of copper.
Oxygen gas cylinder: This is of high quality mild steel cylinder, the base of which is convex in
shape to give greater strength. At the top of the cylinder is fitted an outlet valve, operated
by a key and designed to accommodate pressure regulator. Oxygen cylinders are always
painted black and the outlet valve has a right hand thread. It contains 6.25 m3 of oxygen at
a pressure of 130 to 140 kgf/cm2.
12
Acetylene gas cylinder: This is made of high speed mild steel, but the base is concave in shape.
The top of acetylene cylinder is always fitted with an outlet valve to accommodate a
pressure regulator. The outlet valve has a left hand thread. The colour of acetylene
cylinder is maroon. Acetylene cylinders are used for storing acetylene dissolved in
acetone. So these cylinders are filled with acetone which has the property to absorb
acetylene 25 times its own volume. Acetone is stored in these cylinders partly at a pressure
of 16 kgf/cm2 and capacity of each cylinder is about 8 m3.
Hose and hose fitting: These are rubber tubings used for connecting the cylinder regulators to the
welding torch. Hoses are also coloured for identification of gas supplied through them. A
red coloured hose is used for acetylene and black coloured hose is used for oxygen.
Pressure regulators: These are used for reducing the pressure of the
gas being drawn from the cylinder. A red coloured pressure
regulator is used for acetylene and a black coloured one is used
for oxygen. These regulators are of two types – single stage
regulator and two stage regulator. A two stage regulator is
Pressure regulator
preferred over a single stage regulator as pressure reduction in
this regulator is accomplished in two stages.
Gas lighter: It is a tool used for lighting the gas at the tip of the
nozzle. Gas lighter
Spindle keys: It is an instrument used for opening and closing valves of the gas cylinders.
Electrode holder: It is a mechanical device used for holding electrode

in arc welding.
Electrode holder
Screen holder: It is a protecting dark glass holding screen used by the

welder during arc welding. The dark glass fitted in the centre of
the screen is used to look through on the arc during arc
welding. The welder cannot see the arc directly because of
Screen holder
ultra violet and infra red rays emitted during welding process.
Metallic table: It is the mild steel table for supporting the work pieces to be welded and provide
earth to complete the electric circuit.
Helmet: A welding helmet is one of the most important personal

protective equipment during welding. welder needs a good helmet
which will protect your eyes and skin not only from severe sparks,
but also from potentially vision damaging, ultraviolet and infrared
rays emitted by the arc. It will also protect you from burns, flashes
and the bright light of the torch fire. A welding helmet can have a
standard or auto darkening lens.
Helmet
13
Filler rod: Filler rod is metal rod used in Gas welding process
to fill the joint area.it is different from electrode. Filler rods are
available in various materials, size. Filler rods are mainly specified
from its material type and diameter. Various diameters are 1.6mm,
2.0mm, 3mm, 4mm. Filler rods are mainly copper coated.
COMMON WELDING TECHNIQUES
 Gas Welding
 Metal Arc Welding
 TIG Welding
 MIG Welding
 Spot Welding
 LASER Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding
ARC WELDING
Arc welding: Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to
create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of
the metals. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or
non-consumable electrodes.. The electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible
with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives off vapors that
serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area
from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material. The
process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. It is
an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.
Fig. 1: Arc welding set-up diagram
14
AC arc welding transformer: Power supply is needed to support the arc for fusion welding. DC
generators supply the power required for dc arc welding. These are usually driven by
electric motors but internal combustion engines can be used for portable machines. AC
transformers are used for ac arc welding machines. AC transformers have advantages of
low maintenance and power costs and also free from noise. The size and type of electrode
used, penetration and welding speed determines the current supply required. Welding
machines are designed to have a range of current.
Electrode: Electrode is material rod which is used to make the arc by complete the electric
circuit between job and machine as well as used for fill the joint area. Electrode are mainly
specified from its material and core wire diameter. Electrodes are available in 1.6mm,
2.0mm, 3.15mm, 4.0mm diameter. Basically in MMAW, mild steel flux coated electrodes
are used for all position welding.In this type of electrode core wires are coated with metal
mixture which is called flux. Welding flux is a combination of carbonate and silicate
materials used in welding processes to shield the weld from atmospheric gases.
GAS WELDING
Gas welding is metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their
interface by producing coalescence with one or more gas flames (such as oxygen and
acetylene), with or without the use of a filler metal. Acetylene is the primary gaseous fuel
used, because an oxyacetylene flame gives the highest temperature: 3100-3300° C. Other
fuel gases such as hydrogen-oxygen and benzene-oxygen are employed only rarely in
welding. Oxygen and acetylene are fed by hoses into a welding torch, where they are
blended. Combustion occurs at the outlet of the welding tip, and a welding flame is created
there. This flame simultaneously melts the edges of the parts being united and a welding
rod of filler metal, creating a joint weld. Gas welding is used for steel, cast iron, copper,
aluminum, and various alloys when the thickness of the parts to be welded ranges from0.1
to 6 mm.
Figure 2: Gas welding Set-up diagram
15
TYPES OF GAS WELDING FLAMES
A flame is a hot bright stream of mixture of two burning gases that comes from the tip of gas
welding torch. The heat from the flames was so intense that easily melt the work piece and
filler rod.
Neutral flame: The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen. It obtains
additional oxygen from the air and provides complete combustion. It is generally preferred
for welding. The neutral flame has a clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that
combustion is complete. Temperature of this flame is about 3200o C
Carburizing flame: The carburizing flame has excess acetylene. The inner cone has a feathery
edge extending beyond it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. If the
acetylene feather is twice as long as the inner cone it is known as a 2X flame, which is a
way of expressing the amount of excess acetylene. Temperature of this flame is about
3100o C.
Oxidizing flame: In oxidizing flame, oxygen is more than acetylene gas. To obtain this type of
flame, the torch should first be adjusted to a neutral flame. The flow of oxygen is then
increased until the inner cone is shortened to about one-tenth of its original length. An
oxidizing flame can also be recognized by its distinct hissing sound. Temperature of this
flame is about 3300o.
Figure 3: Different types of flames
WELDING JOINTS
Welding joints: They are formed by welding of two or more work pieces according to a
particular geometry. Five types of joints are Butt, Corner, Edge, Lap, and Tee.
Butt joint: A butt joint is a technique in which two pieces of material are joined by simply
placing their ends together without any special shaping. In Butt welded type, the parts are
lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges. .
16
Lap joint: Lap joint consists of two overlapping parts. Lap welding joints are used most often to
joint two pieces with differing thicknesses together. It is considered as fillet type, the weld
can be made on one or both sides.
Corner joint: This joint is most popular in the sheet metal industry. The Corner welding joint is
used on the outer edge of the piece. This weld is a type of joint that comes together at
right angles between two metal parts to form an L. These are common in the construction
of boxes, box frames and similar fabrications. .
Tee joint: In a Tee-joint, one plate is the right angle to the other plate in the approximate shape of
the letter “T. Also considered as fillet joint.
Edge joint: Edge welding Joints are often applied to sheet metal parts that have flanging edges or
are placed at a location where a weld must be made to attach to adjacent pieces.
Figure 4: Different types of joints
WELDING POSITIONS
Flat welding: In flat welding, plates to be welded are placed on the horizontal plane and weld
bead is also deposited horizontally. This is one of most commonly used and convenient
welding position. In this position work piece is under the hand of welder.
Horizontal welding: In horizontal welding, plates to be welded are placed in vertical plane while
weld bead is deposited horizontally. This technique is comparatively more difficult than
flat welding.
Vertical welding: In vertical welding, plates to be welded are placed on the vertical plane and
weld bead is also deposited vertically. It imposes difficulty in placing the molten weld
metal from electrode in proper place along the weld line due to tendency of the melt to fall
down under the influence of gravitational force.
Overhead welding: In overhead welding, weld metal is deposited in such a way that face of the
weld is largely downward and there is high tendency of falling down of weld metal during
welding. In this position face of welder is under the work piece.
17
Figure 5: Types of welding positions
18
PRACTICAL (Arc Welding)
Assignment 1: To fabricate a wall hook using T – joint.
Equipments and Tools Required: Hand gloves, scaling hammer, scratch brush, screen holder,
spanner, flat tong, electrode holder, metallic table, AC arc welding transformer.
Material Required: Mild Steel Flat 75 mm × 25 mm × 6 mm, mold steel flat 50mm ×25mm ×
6mm, MS welding electrode No. 10.
75
Φ6
50
Φ6 Φ6
6
Figure W1: T – joint wall hook using arc welding
Before you proceed to make your job, have practice on practice pieces available. Once you
have the confidence to do the welding properly, take your work pieces and follow the following
sequence of operations:
1. Study the drawing given in Figure W1.
2. Take the larger piece and mark the centre line across the length of this workpiece. Hold
both the work pieces in the bench vice or fixture in the required T joint shape as shown in
Figure W1.
19
3. Adjust the current of the transformer to suit the thickness of the job.
4. Hold the electrode in the electrode holder at the bare end of the electrode and check the
circuit by touching the electrode to the table in a smooth flowing action.
Tuck Welding
5. Tuck weld the spot where smaller piece is joining with the larger piece and repeat the
procedure to tuck weld on the other side. Remember, now job is hot and henceforth you use
tong to hold the job.
6. Take the job on the welding table and again check the circuit.
Welding
7. Next do the backhand welding on one side of the T joint keeping the electrode at 450 to
both the surfaces. Repeat the procedure to do the welding on the other side.
Finishing
8. Remove the scale by scaling/chipping hammer.
9. Check the weld for any defects (pores/holes/cracks) left in the weld. Remove the defects by
re welding at the required place and again remove the scale.
10. Cool the job by quenching in water.
11. Clean the weld with the wire brush and your job is ready.
Assignment 2: To make a butt joint as per figure W2.
Equipments and Tools Required: Hand gloves, scaling hammer, scratch brush, screen holder,
spanner, flat tong, electrode holder, metallic table, AC arc welding transformer.
Material Required: 2 mild steel flats of 75 mm × 25 mm × 6 mm and MS welding electrode

No. 10.
25 25
75
20
Figure W2: Butt joint using arc welding
Before you proceed to make your job, have practice on practice pieces available. Once you
have the confidence to do the welding properly, take your work pieces and follow the following
sequence of operations:
2. Keep the two pieces of job on the welding table with their edges close to each other
(Approximately leaving a gap of 1-2 mm between the pieces) in the form of a butt joint.
3. Adjust the current of the transformer to suit the thickness of the job.
4. Hold the electrode in the electrode holder at the bare end of the electrode and check the
circuit by touching the electrode to the table in a smooth flowing action.
Tuck Welding
5. Tuck weld the spot on both the end of the work pieces to keep them in required position for
arc welding.
Welding
6. Next carry out the backhand welding on one side of the butt joint starting from one end to
another keeping the electrode at 450 to the surface. Repeat the procedure to do the welding
on the other side.
Finishing
7. Remove the scale by scaling/chipping hammer.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Avoid wearing synthetic cloths in welding section. Always wear apron provided as some
welding sparks may fall on your cloths.
2. Never look the arc with naked eyes. Always use welding screen even if it is little
inconvenient.
3. Never touch the work piece after tuck welding till it is cooled in water as during this time
the job is very hot.
21
PRACTICAL (Gas Welding)
Assignment: To make a butt joint by using gas welding.
Equipments and Tools Required: Hand gloves, scaling hammer, spindle key, scratch brush,
welding goggles, flat tong, gas welding torch and equipment set.
Material required: 2 pieces of MS hoop iron of 50mm × 25 mm × 3 mm, gas welding rod of
size 1/16” (filler material) and flux.
2. Clean the welding area of the work pieces with the help of scratch brush and
3. Open the acetylene gas cylinder with a spindle key and set the required pressure.
4. Open the acetylene inlet valve of the welding torch slowly and lit at the tip of the torch with
gas lighter. Next, open oxygen inlet valve of the welding torch and adjust the valves to get a
neutral flame.
5. Apply flux at to be welded edges of the work pieces.
25 25
50
Figure W3: Butt joint using gas welding
Pre heating
6. Pre-heat the job with the neutral flame and tuck/spot weld at the ends using filler material.
Welding
7. Hold the filler material in one hand at 300 to 400 and welding torch in the other hand at 600
to 700 to the work pieces and weld uniformly throughout the required length.
22
Finishing
8. Remove the slag with the help of scaling/chipping hammer.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Always keep the cylinders in the upright position.
2. Never temper with cylinder valves.
3. Always keep the cylinder at the valve stem so that in case of any emergency we can
immediately close the valve.
4. Always put your welding goggles during welding and chipping.
5. Never bring any inflammable material in the welding area during gas welding.
6. Never use acetylene above 1 kgf/cm2 pressure.
7. Always keep hoses and cylinders away from the flying sparks and open flames.
*******
23
SMITHY SHOP
Forging is perhaps the oldest metal working process. In a forging operation metals are given the
desired shape and size by hammering or pressing the metal either in cold condition or hot
condition. When the forging is done by hand it is termed as smith forging and the place where a
smith works is called smithy. Smith forging is used where smaller quantities do not justify the
investment in costly dies or where sections are either large or irregular. The metal piece is
positioned by the smith or his/her helper during forging. Shape and accuracy largely depend upon
skills and experience of the smith.
COMMON SMITHY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS
Anvil: This is used for supporting the job while it is being hand forged
and struck by the blacksmith’s hammer. The anvil’s body is made of
mild steel and to give a hard top face, a section of high carbon steel is
welded on. The beak is let soft and its shape is useful for bending
operations. The top surface of anvil consists of two holes: (a) a square
hole called hardie hole, which accommodates the shanks of various Anvil
tools, (b) circular hole called punching or stud hole. The ends of hot metal are inserted into
these holes when it is desired to shape or bend the work piece.
Chisels: These are used for cutting metals and for nicking metals before breaking it off and
bending. These are not to be confused with the fitter’s hand chisel which is an entirely
different tool. They are known as “hot” or “cold” chisels depending on whether the metal to
be cut is hot or cold. The cold chisel is set at an angle of 60 degrees while the angle of the hot
chisel is about 30°. Chisels are generally used along with a bottom tool (hardie). The hardie
has a square shank which fits into the square hole in the anvil face.
Hardie: It is another type of chisel that is used by placing it in the square hole of the anvil. The
work piece to be cut is placed on the other side. A chisel is struck by a hammer blow resulting
in the cutting of the material.
Fullers: These are used for necking down a piece of work. These are made
in top and bottom tools as in the case of chisels, the bottom tool fitting
in the hardie hole and the top held by the smith and struck by the striker Fuller
(hammer).
Swage block: These are usually made of cast iron, and besides having a
range of size suitable for swaging operations on its sides. It is also
provided with holes which are useful for bending and knocking up
bars.
Swage block
Tongs: Tongs are used by the smithers for holding and turning the hot metal work piece. These
are made of steel containing 0.3 to 0.4 % Carbon. Tongs are made in two pieces, riveted
suitably to form a hinge. Greater length on one side of the hinge form the arm and is held by
the hand. The smaller end on the other side of the hinge forms the jaws which are made in
different shapes and sizes for holding of different jobs. Tongs are specified according to the
shape of their jaws as a close flat tong, duck neck tong, round hollow tong etc.
24
Flatters: Flatters are also known as flatteners and are used to give finishing to surfaces to make it
smooth particularly when the surface area is large. Flatters are used for surface finishing after
the job has been gorged and hammer marks are visible on the surface.
Sett Hammer: The tool is actually a misnomer as it does not perform the functions of a hammer.
It is used to give a good smooth finish to surface in restricted areas such as corners. In
construction it is smaller to a flatter.
Open Hearth Furnace: It is the simplest furnace used by the blacksmith consists
of robust cast iron or steel structure erected on four legs or supports. It has an
iron bottom known as hearth, a chimany for the escape of flue gases at the top
and a tuyure to let in a blast of air enter at the side or at the bottom. The
hearth is provided with fore bricks lining and carries coke. Air under pressure
is supplied from the blower through the tuyure opening in the hearth. To
obtain uniform temperature and proper burning of coal, the supply of air
should be properly regulated and controlled as the amount of heat produced is
largely depends on the supply of the air.
Open hearth furnace
Hammers: Hammers are the principal tools used in forging. Hammers are
produced by steel to desired shape. Forging hammers are specified
according to type, size and weight of hammers. A smith or hand hammer is
used for general forging work. A sledge hammer is much heavier then
smith or hand hammer and weighs from 3 kg to 8 kg. A smith or hand
hammer is light in weight and used by the blacksmith
himself/herself where as a sledge hammer is heavier
than smith’s hand hammer. Sledge hammers are Power hammer
operated by helpers (hammer men). A power hammer
Sledge hammer as the name implies operated by external power. Generally power
hammers are of mechanically or pneumatically operated and are used
for heavy loads (in tonnes).
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To fabricate MS L – hook.
Equipments and Tools Required: Smith’s hand hammer, sledge hammer, steel rule, caliper,
tongs, anvil, chisel, open hearth furnace and pneumatic power hammer.
Material Required: Mild Steel (MS) round bar (125mm × φ 12mm).
25
*All dimensions in mm * Not to scale
Figure S1: Smithy job – MS L - hook
1. Study the drawing of the job shown in Figure S1.
Heating
2. Hold your workpiece in the flat tong and place it in the fired open hearth furnace. Make
sure that your workpiece is properly dipped in the hood and fully covered with burning
coke. Wait till your job gets heated up to the required forgeable temperature (meanwhile
set your outside caliper to 8 mm). You can check the colour of the job intermittently to see
whether the job is forgeable or not. A yellowish white colour indicates that the workpiece
is ready for forging.
3. When the colour of the job is yellowish white take it out from the open hearth furnace by
holding firmly with a flat tong and take it on the anvil.
Squaring the job by Forging

4. Next, hammer the workpiece with a smith’s hand hammer to make the cross section square to
the required dimensions. After sometime your workpiece will get cooled and it will become
difficult to forge it. When such a condition arises, repeat steps 2 and 3. During forging,
intermittently check the dimensions of the workpiece with the help of an outside caliper set to
the required dimension. Now your workpiece is a square bar of 8mm.
Marking
5. Mark a length of 25 mm on the workpiece at one end with chisel. Now hold the workpiece
from the marked end and place it in the furnace for reheating from the other end.
Drawing out
6. Forge the workpiece to the required shape (tapered) and dimensions.
Bending
7. Reheat from the marked end and bend it by 90° at the marked position.
26
Quenching
8. Cool the job by quenching in water and remove scales and pits.
PRECAUTIONS
1. During hammering the hot workpiece, scale particles will fly from the workpiece so be
careful.
2. During hammering hold the workpiece firmly and hammer at the point where the workpiece
is touching the anvil otherwise the job may slip/jump form the tong and it may lead to
serious injuries.
*******
27
SHEET METAL SHOP
Sheet metal work is the process of working with thin sheets of metals to cut, fold and join them
into definite shaped usable products. A large variety of industrial as well as domestic products
contain components manufactured from sheet metals. Typical examples of objects made out of
sheet metal work include; cabinets, steel buckets, utensils, bodies of automobiles and aircrafts etc.
Metal sheets usually have thickness between 0.15 mm and 6 mm. Sheets thicker than 6 mm are
called plates and thinner than 0.15 mm are called foils. The various operations done in sheet metal
working includes shearing, drawing, spinning, forming, stretching, bending, notching, flanging.
Generally, sheets are joined together by using various types of joints like lap joint, seam joint,
locked seam joint, cap joint, wired edge joint, flanged joint, angular joint and hem joint.
COMMON SHEET METAL TOOLS
Shears or snips: These are made of various shapes to suit various cutting. The straight shear is
used for cutting along a straight line whereas a bent shear is used for
cutting along a curvature. Hand shears are very light and can be used
for cutting with one hand but they cannot be used for cutting sheets
above 0.8 mm thickness. Shear or Snip
Mallet: It is a hammer made of wood. It is generally used in sheet metal

working for bending and straightening the sheets. It does not leave any
impression on the sheet. It is also used in the carpentry to drive tools. Mallet
Stakes: Stakes are used as supporting and forming tools. They also help in
bending operations. For performing different operations they are fitted on the bench and the
job is worked on them, different stakes used in sheet metal are (a) A half moon stake is used
for working the edges on discs. (b) A hatchet stake is used widely for forming, bending and
seaming the edges. (c) A bick iron is used for forming long, tapered, cylindrical components.
(d) A funnel stake is used for conical components. (e) A convex stake is used for forming
spherical shapes (f) A pipe stake is most suitable for forming pipes and hollow cylindrical
surfaces.
Template: It is a specially designed and cut in size used for marking out on the sheet for the
desired shape. Generally it is prepared by the operator for large production of the same kind of
job which helps in easy marking out.
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To fabricate a pen stand
Equipment and Tools required: Steel rule, mallet, snip (shear), scriber, files (flat &
triangular), emery paper, templates, open hearth furnace, soldering iron and anvil.
Material required: Tin sheet of 24SWG, solder (tin/lead).
28
5
95
5
10 55
95
55
Figure Sm1: Smithy job – Pen stand
1. Study the drawing as given in Figure Sm1.

2. Next with the help of templates and scriber, develop the surfaces of the required work
pieces for the job on the sheet of a given metal.
Shearing
3. Now, with the help of a snip, cut the sheet along the generated surfaces and smoothen the
edges and to remove the burrs with the help of proper files (flat and triangular).
29
Marking
4. By verifying the dimensions, scribe the marking lines where folding/bending is to be done
by using steel rule and scriber.
Hemming/Flattening
5. Take the larger workpiece on the anvil and flatten/hem one longer edge (keep the shining
surface outward) of the work pieces by 5mm by using mallet.
Bending
6. Next, bend the other longer edge slightly above 900 in the same direction i.e. keeping the
shiny side outward by 5mm.
7. Bend the smaller edges by 900 opposite to each other by 5mm for seam joint.
8. Similarly, bend the four sides of the smaller workpiece by 900 in the same side (keep the
shiny side outward)
9. Take the bigger workpiece and bend along the marked lines by 900 (keep the shiny surface
outside or hemmed edges inside) to get the rough box type shape.
Seaming
10. Make a seam joint at the smaller ends where you had bended the edges in the opposite
direction. You can make the seam joint by mallet hammering on an anvil.
Assembly
11. Check with the help of a tri square that all the four bends are at 900, if not, make them.
12. Take the smaller workpiece and put it (bended sides downward) inside the bigger
workpiece from the side along which you have hemmed the edges.
Seaming
13. Set the edges of the smaller and bigger work pieces properly to obtain the bottom seam
joint along the bottom. Strengthen the seam by mallet hammering.
Soldering
14. Solder the bottom seam joints holding the workpiece with tong and finish the job.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Wear gloves while working in sheet metal shop.
2. Do not touch the workpiece with naked hands during and after soldering till it is cooled in
water.
3. Take care during bending and folding as the sheet may spring back or slip from hands.
*******
30
CARPENTRY SHOP
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making components or products from wood.
In modern times the carpentry work has decreased because of the environmental reasons but still
lot of components and products are made of wood. The knowledge of wood working is therefore
essential for all technical people. Wood is available in the market in form of log, balk, posts,
deals, planks or boards/batons. Plywood or laminated wood is commercially available in the
market either as ply sheet, multiple board, composite board or block board. Various operations
carried out in a carpentry shop are – marking, measuring, laying out, sawing, planning, chiseling,
mortising & tenoning, boring, grooving, rebating and recessing. The wood is joined by using
various types of joints like straight joint, corner joint, dowel pin joint, splice joint, feather joint,
mortise & tenon joint and bridle joint.
COMMON CARPENTRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS
Rule (four fold): The most common type rule used is the four fold two feet
rule. This is usually made of Boxwood and is fitted with brass
hinges and end plates. The smallest division on the rule are
sixteenths of an inch (1/16”). Rule (four fold)
Carpentry tri square: It consists of a parallel steel blade fitted at 90° to a hardwood stock, which
is faced with a brass plate to prevent wear. It is used to test squareness and to mark out
lines at right-angles to a surface.
Bevel square: It is an adjustable square for different angle and length as required. It is used for
marking, checking or transferring required angles.
Marking gauge: It is used for marking lines parallel to the sides of the job
at any required distances by sliding the head along the stem.
Marking gauge
Mortise gauge: It is similar to marking gauge but has two markers for
marking two parallel lines simultaneously.
Scriber: It is made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered, with one end chisel shape and
other pointed. Used in conjunction with square or bevel for marking lines where the
material has to be cut. All other lines must be marked in pencil.
Saws: These are of various types and size. The type to be used depends on
the size of the job, hardness of the wood and whether the cutting is
to be along or across the grain. Rip saw used for cutting soft wood
in the direction of the Rip saw
grain. Cross cut saw

used for cutting
across the grain.
Tennon saw Dove tail saw
Tenon saw used for
fine work such as
cutting joints. Dovetail saw used for cutting dovetails. Keyhole Cross cut saw
saw used for cutting small holes and intricate shapes.
31
Planes: These are used for reducing and truing the surface of timber. The
length and width of the plane body vary with the purpose. Jack
plane is used for rough planning after sawing or planning rough
timber which is subsequently trued with the trying plane. Trying
Jack plane
plane is used to true large surfaces after they have been
approximately trued with a jack plane. Smoothing plane are of
various sizes and generally made of steel. The iron blade is
usually 2” wide. This plane is often fitted with a fine adjustment
and blade leveling device. It is used where a fine finish is
required. Rabbet (or rebate) plane is made of beech and as the
name implies is used for cutting out recesses or “rebates”. Smoothing plane
Plough plane is used for cutting grooves parallel to an edge to house tongues or panels.
And can be adjusted to cut grooves to the depth required.
Chisels and Gouges: Chisels have blades of high carbon steel, hardened
and tempered, with wooden handles. The size is determined by
the width of the blade. Gouges are similar in construction to
chisels except that the blade is curved in section. Firmer chisel Mortise chisel
is the most common chisel in use. It is used for cutting in
positions inaccessible to a plane. Paring chisel is similar to
firmer chisel, but usually longer and lighter. It is more suitable
for fine work. The edges are beveled to give clearance when
undercutting. Mortise chisel is the strongest and heaviest type of
chisel, made to withstand heavy mallet blows and used for deep Firmer chisel
cutting operations. Firmer Gouges are sharpened on the outside

and Scribing Gouges on the inside.
Pincers: These are used to extract nails or pins. It has sharp edges to
hold the nails or pins properly. Place a piece of wood under the
head of pincer for levering to prevent damage to the job.
Pincer
Multifunction wood working machine: It is a carpentry

multifunctional machine tool used for cutting, planning,
grooving, slitting, etc.
Multifunctional wood working machine
32
PRACTICAL
Assignment 1: To fabricate a wall shelf
Equipments and tools required: Bench vice, Jackplane, ripsaw, mallet, firmer chisel, mortise
chisel, parting chisel, marking gauge, carpentry tri-square, ball pen hammer, pincer,
rule (four-fold)/steel rule, multifunction wood working machine.
Material Required: Cheed wood, nails, wood adhesive (fevicol), sand paper, pencil
1. Study the drawings of the job given in Figure CI.
To make bracket [Part (A), (B) and (C)]
Note: All dimensions in mm. Figures not to scale

Part (A) Part (B) Part (C)
Figure C1: Bracket [Part (A), (B) and (C)]
2. Take a cheed wood workpiece of 615mm × 40mm × 25mm. Plane the workpiece on two
sides (610mm × 25mm side and 610mm × 40mm side) by using multifunctional wood
working machine. Verify with the help of a tri square that the planned sides are right angle
to each other.
3. Fix the gauge plate of the machine to 35 mm and plane the second 610mm × 25mm side of
the workpiece and to reduce the width of the workpiece to 35 mm, keeping the already
planned side downward.
4. Similarly, reduce the thickness of the workpiece to 20 mm.
5. Next, cut this workpiece in three pieces of length 250mm (A), 180mm (B) and 180mm
(C). For this mark the workpiece at appropriate points along the length and draw lines with
the help of tri-square.
6. Take workpiece (A) and draw two lines on the width at 70 mm and 90 mm from one end.
7. Take the marking gauge and open it to 10 mm and mark a line on the thickness from 70
mm to 90 mm line drawn.
8. Make a slot/groove of 10 mm depth (half the thickness of the workpiece) by removing the
material from marked 70 mm to 90 mm line with the help of a firmer chisel.
9. Fix the workpiece (B) by applying fevicol and nails on workpiece (A) groove to make a T-
joint.
10. Take a tri square and mark lines on T joint legs (longer side) at a distance of 45 mm from
the inside edges of T joint.
33
11. Take workpiece (C) and set it a 450 to the T joint on the outer side of the marked lines
and mark the diagonal lines on both the legs of the T joint where workpiece © is
interacting. Extend these lines on the width of the pieces (A) and (B).
12. Take the marking gauge and open it to 17 mm and mark the lines on the width of the
pieces (A) and (B) between marked lines in step 11.
13. Hold the T – joint in carpentry bench vice and cut between the lines marked in step11 to a
depth of 17 mm marked in step 12 by using tenon saw.
14. Remove the material upto the marked and cut portion by using firmer chisel.
15. Keep the workpiece (C) in these diagonal grooves and mark all the required lines on it to
remove the extra material and make half lap joint with pieces (A) and (B) using fevicol
and nails. Finish the joints with a sand paper.
To make shelf [Part (D)]

Figure C2: Shelf [Part (D)]
16. Take a cheed wood plank (D) of 290mm × 220mm × 14mm and plane this to 290mm ×
200mm × 12mm on the multifunction machine as in step 3.
17. Reduce the length of piece (D) to 280 mm on a band saw.
18. Mark the centre line of piece (D) on the length and draw two lines 35mm apart and equidistant to this
centre line. Open the marking gauge to 20 mm and mark the lines covering the marked line on both
sides of the workpiece.
19. Remove the marked 35mm × 20mm × 12mm block.
20. Join the bracket [already assembled pieces (A), (B), (C)] with piece shelf (D).
To make the shelf border [Part (E)]

Figure C3: Shelf border [Part (E)]
34
21. Take a cheed wood piece of 700mm × 250mm × 8mm dimension and plane it on the four
sides to reduce it to 700mm × 200mm × 5mm as in step 3.
22. Cut it into three pieces of 290mm, 200mm and 200mm length.
23. Join the pieces to the borders of piece (D) on three sides by nailing.
24. Finish the job with a sand paper.
25. Now pieces are ready for assembling as per drawing.
E
D
B
C
A
Figure C4: Assembly drawing of wall shelf Figure C5: Assembled wall shelf
PRECAUTIONS
1 When you obtain the wooden pieces from the shop instructor, check and inspect for any
wood defects as if you work on a defective. Working with defective parts may lead to
injurious and poor job.
2 Never wear loose clothes.
3 While working with cutting tools like chisels, make sure that the cutting is performed in
the direction, away from the body.
4 Always use well sharpened tools but do not check the sharpness of the tool with the
fingers.
5 While working on the machine use safety guards provided on them and only operate them
with the prior permission of the shop instructor.
Assignment 2: To fabricate a multi-purpose table top rack
Equipments and tools required: Carpentry bench vice, Jackplane, cross cut saw, mallet, chisel,
marking gauge, carpentry tri-square, ball peen hammer, pincer, rule (four-fold)/steel rule,
measuring tape, multifunctional wood working machine.
35
60 135 60
70
90
140
45
255 (all dimension in mm)
Figure C6: Carpentry job assignment shape
1. Study the drawings of the job given in Figure C6.
To make part A (255mm × 150mm x 10mm)

2. Take a cheed wood work piece of 255mm × 150mm × 12.5mm. Plane the work piece on two
sides (255mm × 150mm x 10mm) by using multifunctional wood working machine. Verify
with the help of a tri square that the planned sides are right angle to each other.
To make part B
B2
B1
Figure C7: Rack [Material for Part B]
36
70
10
80
Part B
40
5
140
Figure C8: Rack [Completed part B1]

sides (140mm × 80mm x 10mm) by using multifunctional wood working machine.
4. Mark on the work pieces as per the drawing with the help of try square, scale and pencil.
5. Part-off the work piece B into B1 and B2 as per the drawing.
6. Mark and cut tennon on the edges of part B1 as shown in figure C8. Similarly, cut tennon
on part B2 as the mirror image of part B1.
To make part C
sides (245mm × 210mm x 10mm) by using multifunctional wood working machine.
8. Mark and part-off the work piece C into C1, C2 and C3 of 245mm × 80mm x 10mm,
245mm × 80mm x 10mm and 245mm × 40mm x 10mm respectively.
9. Take part C1 and C2 and mark on them to cut slot for T-joint on the required places as per
the drawing.
To make part D
sides (125mm × 80mm x 10mm) by using jack plane.
11. Mark and part-off the work piece D into two similar parts D1 and D2 of 75mm × 60mm x
10mm with the help of cross cut saw across the grains.
Assembly
12. Take part C1, C2 and C3 and place part B1 on one side of the part C1, C2 and C3 at
required joint position as per the drawing and do nailing operation by using wood adhesive
(fevicol) with the help of ball peen hammer.
13. Do other assembly operations as per drawing C6.
37
Finishing
14. Finish the complete assembly wherever it requires with the help of jack plane and sand
paper and the multi-purpose table top rack is ready.
PRECAUTIONS
1. When you obtain the wooden pieces from the shop instructor, check and inspect for any
wood defects as if you work on a defective. Working with defective parts may lead to
injurious and poor job.
2. Never wear loose clothes.
3. While working with cutting tools like chisels, make sure that the cutting is performed in the
direction, away from the body.
4. Always use well sharpened tools but do not check the sharpness of the tool with the fingers.
5. While working on the machine use safety guards provided on them and only operate them
with the prior permission of the shop instructor.
Assignment 3: To fabricate a pen stand
Equipments and tools required: Carpentry bench vice, Jackplane, cross cut saw, mallet, chisel,
marking gauge, carpentry tri-square, ball peen hammer, pincer, rule (four-fold)/steel rule,
measuring tape, multifunctional wood working machine.
Drawings:
38
*******
39
MACHINE SHOP – LATHE
Lathe is one of the most fundamental and versatile machine tools with a large number of
uses in all production shops. The principle forms of surfaces produced by a lathe are cylindrical
surfaces. A large number of operations – turning, taper turning, facing, drilling, boring, grooving,
form turning, knurling, threading operations – can be done on a lathe to get a large variety of
surfaces. There are different types of lathe – centre lathe, tool room lathe, special purpose lathe,
copying lathe, gap bed lathe, capstan lathe, turret lathe, automatic/NC/CNC lathes. The centre
lathe is the most common lathe which will be used by the students in machine shop. It derives its
name by the way a workpiece is helped in between the centres, but this is not the only workpiece
holding technique.
Spindle Driving plate Dead

Head stock Tool post centre Quill Tail
stock
Live centre
Compound
Tumbler rest
gear
Feed
change Lead screw
gearbox Carriage
Apron
Bed
Cross slide
Figure L1: A Centre Lathe
MAIN PARTS OF A CENTRE LATHE

Followings are the main parts of a centre lathe.
Bed: It is a strong high grade cast iron section on which head stock, tail stock and saddle
(carriage) are mounted. Its top surface is flatly ground and scrapped to truth with its edges
parallel called guideways. Some of the lathe guideways have inverted V projections for
better alignment and prevent bruising. A feed rack of steel is fitted in the front side of the
bed to assist carriage to move longitudinally.
Head stock: It is a casting mounted on the left hand top surface of the bed which houses all
driving mechanisms and lathe spindle.
Tail stock: It is a casting mounted on the right hand top surface of the bed. It is made into two
halves one over the other. The bottom portion is clamped to the bed by bolt and nut while
the top one is arranged to slide laterally by adjusting the screw. This arrangement is made
40
to off set the tail stock spindle centre out of alignment with the head stock spindle axis for
the purpose of taper turning. The tail stock spindle is bored to morse taper for adjusting
taper shank drills, reamers, drill chuck etc. for operations. It also helps to hold long
components in between centres.
Saddle/Carriage: It slides along the length of the bed and carriages all feed mechanisms such as
hand wheels for longitudinal and cross feeds, tool post swivel slide, automatic feed
mechanism, half nut lever in conjunction with lead screw for screw cutting operations.
Cross slide: It is a small table arranged to slide across (perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the lathe) on the top of the saddle which is controlled by a handwheel on the apron. It is
used for giving depth in the turning operations and feed in facing operations.
Compound rest: This part is mounted on top of cross slide. A block in circular shape is pivoted at
the centre and its periphery is graduated in degrees. Binding bolts are provided to lock the
circular face in any desired angular position for the purpose of turning short tapers. A tool
slide is mounted over the circular case to give angular feeds and tool post is mounted on
this slide. The pivot block and tool slide together are called the compound rest.
Tool post: It is mounted on the compound rest top for holding the cutting tools for various
operations.
Feed shaft: A shaft made of special steel which is accurately turned and splined through out its
length is fitted in front of the bed. This provides automatic feed to the saddle and cross
slide. A feed box located at the left hand end regulates the speed of the feed shaft for
various feed rates in automatic feeding.
Lead screw: This is a long bar running parallel to the feed shaft and having either square or acme
threads on it. It transmits motion on either side with the help of half nuts. This gets drive
from a chain of gears connected to the spindle gear. At the left hand extreme, a set of
change wheel are available to provide the desired ratio while setting the lathe for screw
cutting. Sometime lead screw also provides automatic feed to the saddle and cross slide.
WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Following are the commonly used work holding devices used on a centre lathe for holding
the workpiece.
Three jaw chuck: This is a self centering chuck also known as universal
chuck. It has three jaws which operate simultaneously inward or
outward from the centre. This chuck is mainly used to hold
concentric cylindrical, triangular, hexagonal and well sided cross
sectional jobs.
Three Jaw Chuck
Four jaw chuck: It has four jaws to hold the workpiece and is also known as
independent chuck. All the four jaws can be moved independently
with the help of chuck keys. This is used for holding the irregular
shaped work.
Four Jaw Chuck
Driving plate: This is used to drive the workpiece
when it is hold between the centres. A lathe dog
is fixed on the workpiece with its tail resting on
the driving plate pin which enables a positive
motion of the workpiece. Lathe Dog
Driving Plate
41
Face plate: A plate having slotted holes is mounted on the lathe spindle to
hold the workpiece which can not be held by any other means. The
work is clamped to the plate by bolts and nuts.
Face Plate
Lathe centres: These are fitted in the head stock and tail stock spindles for
holding jobs between them. The centre used in head stock centre is
known as live centre as it gives positive drive to the workpiece. The
centre used in tail stock is known as dead centre as it does not rotate
or does not have any drive. Lathe Centre
Angle plate: This is used in conjunction with face plate to hold odd shaped
jobs e.g. elbows.
Angle Plate
Collets: These are used for holding bar stocks or small work pieces
accurately concentric with the rotational axis of the spindle. It can be
used for holding the finished work pieces to avoid the damage to the
finished surface of the workpiece.
Collet
Mandrel: An accurately ground shaft for supporting or locating a hollow part during machining
or measurement e. g. while machining a gear blank or while reducing the diameter of a
tube, the work pieces are held or mounted on a mandrel.
CUTTING TOOLS
Single point cutting tools: These are the turning tools used for external
as well as internal turning. These are either right hand or left hand
tools. In order to know whether a tool is right hand or left hand,
tool is placed in front of the observer with its tip pointing towards
the observer. If the cutting edge is on the right hand of the observer
Single Point Cutting Tool
then the cutting tool is right hand and if the cutting edge is on
observer’s left, the cutting tool is left hand. Single point cutting tools provide better
finishing than multi point cutting tools in machining.
Parting off tools: It is used for parting off operations by feeding it toward
the centre line of the workpiece. It can also be used for cutting
the flat grooves by lateral feeding (along the centre line of the
workpiece). Parting off Tool
Knurling Tool: It is used for knurling operations to obtain a proper grip

on the surface of the work piece. These are of single wheel or
double wheel type. A single wheel type knurling tool gives straight
line knurling and a double wheel gives cross line knurling.
Knurling Tool
42
PRACTICAL
Assignment 1: To fabricate a ball peen hammer and a paper weight knob for fitting job.
Equipments and Tools Required: Centre lathe, radial drilling machine, right hand turning tool,
parting off tool, flat cutting edge & round cutting edge grooving tool, knurling tool, thread
cutting tool, centre drill, 12mm and 6mm diameter twist drill, drill chuck with chuck key
half round file.
Material Required: Mild Steel (MS) round bar (150mm × φ 25mm) and water proof emery
paper.
Grooves 2.5R
KNURL 11R
12 TPI
Φ 12 DRILL
Φ20 Φ16 Φ22
5 20 5 20 5 5 25 5 15 15 5 9 11
Figure L2: Ball peen hammer and paper weight knob
1. Study the drawing of the job to be made Figure L2.

2. Identify operations required and prepare the operational sequence.
3. Fix a lathe dog on the stock at one end and hold the job in between centers of a center lathe.
4. Mount the right hand turning tool on the tool post and start the machine by setting the
required rpm.
Turning
5. Now reduce the diameter from 25 mm to 22.5 mm (leaving 0.5 mm as finishing operation
allowance) by rough right hand turning operation from the tailstock end up to the length
reaching near to the lathe dog (for the roughing operation you can select your own depth of
cut according to the required number of cuts).
6. Take one finishing cut for finishing operation to obtain the diameter of 22 mm.
7. Stop the machine and cool the job by quenching in water and remove the lathe dog from the
workpiece and fix it on the other end of the workpiece.
8. Hold the job in between the centres.
9. Reduce the diameter from 25 mm to 20 mm up to the length of 30 mm from tail stock end.
43
Grooving
10. Stop the machine and replace the knife tool with the flat edge grooving tool on tool post by
withdrawing it.
11. Start the machine and make groove by grooving operation at the tail stock end up to 5 mm
length by reducing the diameter from 25 mm to 16 mm.
12. Repeat above step for making other two grooves for the required dimensions at the required
length as shown in Figure L2.
Knurling
13. Stop the machine and replace the grooving tool with knurling tool (double wheel knurling
tool).
14. Start the machine on low rpm (by reducing the rpm required for knurling operation) and do
knurling operation at the length of 50 mm to 55 mm from the tail stock end of the work
piece.
Taper Turning
15. Stop the machine and replace the knurling tool with right hand turning tool and set the rpm
of the machine for turning operation.
16. Calculate the angle of compound rest and swivel the compound rest using formula:
(D  d )
  tan 1
2L
Where, θ = angle of compound rest swivel,
D = larger diameter of the taper,
d = smaller diameter of the taper,
L = length of taper.
17. Lock the compound rest, start the machine at required taper turning rpm and carry out taper
turning operation by taking various depth of cut at the length of 30 mm to 50 mm (tapered
length L = 20 mm) from the tail stock end.
Threading
18. Again stop the machine and replace the turning tool with required threading tool on the tool
post.
19. Set the rpm of the machine for required threading (12 TPI) operation and start the machine.
Carry out thread cutting operation by taking various depth of cut using lead screw and half
nut mechanism from the tailstock end at the length of 5 mm to 25 mm (threading length 20
mm).
Form Grooving
20. Stop the machine and replace the threading tool with required radius groove tool on the tool
post. Set the rpm of the machine for required grooving operation and carry out two radius
grooving operations at the required length as shown in Figure L2.
21. Stop the machine and remove the work piece from the machine and cool it by quenching in
water.
44
22. Remove the lathe dog from the work piece and mount the work piece in three jaw chuck of
the machine head stock 65 mm away from threaded end (keeping safe threaded, taper turned
and knurled portions).
Parting off
23. Replace radius grooving tool with parting off tool.
24. Start the machine for required rpm for parting off operation and carry out parting off
operation at 30 mm length from tailstock end.
Drilling
25. Stop the machine, withdraw parting off tool and mount a twist drill of 6 mm diameter in drill
chuck with the help of chuck key. Mount the drill chuck with drill on the tail stock quill for
drilling operation.
26. Set the tail stock in position by sliding forward on lathe bed and lock it. Start the machine at
required rpm and carry out drilling operation up to 12 mm depth in the work piece gradually
feeding by hand wheel of the tailstock.
27. Stop the machine after withdrawing the drill, loosen the tail stock and slide it back on lathe
bed. Remove the twist drill with drill chuck from the tail stock. Finish this knob part of the
job by removing burrs etc. using file and water proof emery paper.
Parting off
28. Again start the machine and carry out parting off operation at the length 60 mm from
tailstock end. The paper weight knob drops in the machine tray in a ready condition.
Facing
29. Stop the machine and replace the parting off tool with turning tool and carry out facing
operation to get the required length of the workpiece.
30. Stop the machine and remove the work piece from three jaw chuck and quench it in water.
Drilling on Radial drilling machine

31. Punch mark the centre for making a hole for fixing the handle at the required point as shown
in the Figure L2.
32. Mount the work piece on radial drilling machine table vice firmly. Fix drill of 12 mm
diameter in drill chuck with the help of chuck key and mount it on the spindle of drilling
machine.
33. Start the machine at required rpm and locate the drill cutting point on the centre punch
marked for drilling. Carry out a through drilling operation to obtain the required hole for
fixing the wooden handle.
34. Stop the machine and release the job from the vice, remove any burrs from the work piece
by hand filing.
45
Radial turning
35. Hold the hammer job from the face side in lathe machine three jaws chuck. Set required rpm
of the machine.
36. Start the machine and carry out radial turning operation on the other end up to radial groove
to obtain the ball of the hammer.
Finishing
37. Carry out the finishing operation with the required file (half round) and emery paper.
38. Stop the machine and take out your job from the machine. Your ball peen hammer is ready.
Assignment 2: To fabricate a paper weight knob for fitting job and practicing for threading,
grooving, parting off and facing operations.
Equipments and Tools Required: Centre lathe, right hand turning tool, parting off tool, flat
cutting edge & round cutting edge grooving tool, knurling tool, thread cutting tool, centre
drill, 5.5mm diameter twist drill, drill chuck with chuck key, half round file etc.
Material Required: Mild Steel (MS) round bar (85mm × φ 25mm) and water proof emery
paper.
Groove 2.5 R
12 TPI Parting off
Knurl
(all dimension in mm)
Figure L3: Paper weight knob and practice job
1. Study the drawing of the job to be made Figure L3.

2. Identify operations required and prepare the operational sequence.
3. Hold the job firmly in three jaw chuck of a center lathe with the help of chuck key
46
Facing
4. Mount the right hand turning tool on the tool post. While mounting, the cutting point of the
tool should be set at the central height of the job. Check it and tight the tool firmly.
5. Start the machine for suitable rpm and carry out facing operation (to reduce the length of job
2.5 mm at this end) by taking one rough cut of 2 mm depth and one finish cut of 0.5 mm
depth.
Turning
6. Now reduce the diameter from 25 mm to 21 mm (leaving 1 mm as finishing operation
allowance) by rough right hand turning operation from the tailstock end up to 40 mm length
reaching near to the three jaw chuck jaws (for the roughing operation you can select your
own depth of cut according to the required number of cuts).
7. Take one finishing cut for finishing operation to obtain the diameter of 20 mm taking 0.5
mm depth of cut.
Form Grooving
8. Stop the machine. Withdraw the tool by taking cross slide back. Replace right hand turning
tool with required radius groove tool on the tool post.
9. Set the rpm of the machine for required grooving operation. Now, start the machine and
carry out the grooving operation at the required length (as shown in the figure).
10. Stop the machine and remove the work piece from the machine and cool it by quenching in
water.
Facing
11. Replace radius groove tool with right hand turning tool on tool post.
12. Hold the work piece in three jaw chuck of the machine (holding machined part and leaving
out un machined part) by reversing the work piece.
13. Start the machine for suitable rpm and carry out facing operation (to reduce the length of job
2.5 mm at this end) by taking one rough cut of 2 mm depth and one finish cut of 0.5 mm
depth.
14. Stop the machine and with draw the tool back for step turning operation.
Step turning
15. Start the machine for suitable rpm and carry out step turning operation from tailstock end to
required length.
16. In this operation, reduce the diameter from 25 mm to 19 mm (leaving 1 mm as finish
operation allowance). For rough operation, you can select your own depth of cut according
to required depth of cut.
17. Take one finish cut of 0.5 mm depth of cut for finishing operation to obtain 18 mm
diameter.
47
Knurling
18. Stop the machine and replace the right hand turning tool with knurling tool (double wheel
knurling tool).
19. You may shift holding position of work piece by loosening it in chuck, shifting bit inside
and re tightening as in convenient position for firm grip.
knurling operation at the length of 15 mm to 20 mm from the tail stock end side of the work
piece.
Taper Turning
21. Stop the machine and replace the knurling tool with right hand turning tool and set the rpm
of the machine for turning operation.
(D  d )
  tan 1
2L
D = larger diameter of the taper,
d = smaller diameter of the taper,
L = length of taper.
turning operation by taking various depth of cut at the start of the job to 15 mm length
(tapered length L = 15 mm) from the tail stock end side.
Drilling
24. Stop the machine, withdraw right hand turning tool and mount a twist drill of 5.5 mm
diameter in drill chuck with the help of chuck key. Mount the drill chuck with drill on the
tail stock quill for drilling operation.
25. Set the tail stock in position by sliding forward on lathe bed and lock it. Start the machine at
required rpm and carry out drilling operation up to 10 mm depth at the work piece central
axis gradually feeding by hand wheel of the tailstock.
26. Stop the machine after withdrawing the drill from the drilled hole.
27. Loosen the tail stock and slide it back on lathe bed. Remove the twist drill with drill chuck
from the tail stock.
28. Restart the machine and finish this knob part of the job by removing burrs etc. using file and
water proof emery paper.
Parting off
29. Stop the machine and replace the right hand turning tool with parting off tool.
30. Start the machine for required rpm for parting off operation and carry out parting off
operation at 20 mm length from tailstock end side.
48
Grooving
31. Stop the machine. Withdraw the tool by taking cross slide back. Replace parting off tool
with flat edge grooving tool on the tool post (you may use the same parting off tool if it is
suitable for your grooving operation).
32. Set the rpm of the machine for required grooving operation. Now, start the machine and
carry out the grooving operation at required length (as shown in the figure) reducing the
diameter up to 14 mm.
Threading
33. Again stop the machine and replace the grooving tool with required threading tool on the
tool post.
34. Set the rpm of the machine for required threading (12 TPI) operation and start the machine.
Carry out thread cutting operation by taking various depth of cut using lead screw and half
nut mechanism from the tailstock end side at the length up to 20 mm (threading length 20
mm).
35. Remove the lathe dog from the work piece and mount the work piece in three jaw chuck of
the machine head stock 65 mm away from threaded end (keeping safe threaded, taper turned
and knurled portions).
36. After completion of threading operation stop the machine and check threading for proper
shape and dimensions.
Finishing
37. Start the machine for higher rpm as required for finishing operation. Carry out the finishing
operation with the required file (half round) and emery paper.
38. Stop the machine and take out your job from the machine and quench in water to cool.
39. Punch the last three digit of your ID No. on your job.
40. Now, your job is ready and hand over the job to the shop instructor.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Never remove the chips/swarf by hand as these are very hot and sharp. Use a metal bar.
2. Always remove the chuck key from the chuck before starting the machine.
3. Cutting tools should always be set at the centre line of the work piece.
4. While filing on the revolving work piece, always file from left to right as this reduces the
possibility of any injury.
5. Wear plain goggles while machining.
6. Never try to change the setting of the cutting tool or work piece while machine is running.
7. Stop the machine for any measurement.
8. Do not blow air for removing chips or burrs as the hot and sharp chips may fall in eyes.
49
Assignment 3: To perform the different machining operations on a cylindrical job on centre lathe
machine
Equipments and Tools Required: Centre lathe machine, single point cutting tool, flat cutting
edge grooving tool, knurling tool, Vernier caliper, outside
caliper, Scale, Spanner,
Material Required: Mild Steel (MS) round bar (65mm × φ 25mm),
Figure L4: Multi-operational job on centre lathe machine
1. Study the drawing of the job to be made given in Figure L4.

2. Identify required operations and prepare the operational sequence.
3. Hold the job firmly in three jaw chuck of a center lathe with the help of chuck key
Facing
4. Mount the right hand turning tool on the tool post. While mounting, the cutting point of the
tool should be set at the central height of the job. Check it and tight the tool firmly.
5. Start the machine for suitable rpm and carry out facing operation (to reduce the length of job 2
mm at one end) by taking one rough cut of 1.5 mm and one finish cut of 0.5 mm.
Turning
6. Now reduce the diameter from 25 mm to 23.5 mm using right hand turning operation from the
tailstock end up to 60 mm length.
7. Take one finishing cut for finishing operation to obtain the diameter of 23 mm taking 0.25 mm
depth of cut.
Step turning
8. Now reduce the diameter from 23 mm to 21 mm using right hand turning operation from the
9. Take one finishing cut for finishing operation to obtain the diameter of 20 mm taking 0.50 mm
depth of cut.
50
10. Now reduce the diameter from 20 mm to 18 mm using right hand turning operation from the
Grooving
11. Stop the machine and replace right hand turning tool with required grooving tool on the tool
post.
12. Set the rpm of the machine for required grooving operation. Now, start the machine and carry
out the grooving operation at the length of 20 mm to 25 mm from the tail stock end side of the
work piece to reduce the diameter upto 14 mm.
Knurling
13. Stop the machine and replace the grooving tool with knurling tool (double wheel knurling
tool).
knurling operation at the length of 15 mm to 20 mm from the tail stock end side of the work
piece.
Taper Turning
15. Stop the machine and replace the knurling tool with right hand turning tool and set the rpm of
the machine for turning operation.
(D  d )
  tan 1
2L
D = larger diameter of the taper (18 mm)
d = smaller diameter of the taper (14 mm)
L = length of taper (15 mm)
turning operation by taking various depth of cut at the start of the job to 15 mm length
(tapered length L = 15 mm) from the tail stock end side.
Facing
18. Open the work piece and re-hold the un machined part of work piece in three jaw chuck of the
machine.
19. Rotate the right hand turning tool at 600 angle from the axis of the workpiece
20. Start the machine for suitable rpm and carry out facing operation (to reduce the length of job 3
mm at this end) by taking one rough cut of 2 mm depth and one finish cut of 1 mm depth.
21. Stop the machine and un mount the workpiece from the three jaw chuck.
51
22. Clean the machine properly.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Never remove the chips/swarf by hand as these are very hot and sharp. Use a metal bar.
2. Always remove the chuck key from the chuck before starting the machine.
3. Cutting tools should always be set at the centre line of the work piece.
4. While filing on the revolving work piece, always file from left to right as this reduces the
possibility of any injury.
6. Never try to change the setting of the cutting tool or work piece while machine is running.
7. Stop the machine for any measurement.
8. Do not blow air for removing chips or burrs as the hot and sharp chips may fall in eyes.
*******
52
MACHINE SHOP – SHAPER & PLANER
Shaper is a simple machine tool used to produce flat surfaces with the help of a single point
cutting tool. While machining on a shaper, cutting tool reciprocates and the workpiece remains
stationary except for the lateral movement during feeding. The cutting tool is held in a tool holder
fixed in the clapper box at the front end of the ram. The cutting action takes place only in the
forward stroke and while returning the cutting tool just rides over the workpiece. At the end of the
each return stroke, the workpiece is fed for the next cut either by hand or automatically. A quick
return mechanism is used to decrease the non productive stroke time and the mechanism is
designed in such a way that ram travels faster during return stroke (idle stroke). Generally,
shapers are used to machine horizontal, vertical or inclined planes but irregular and curved
surfaces can also be obtained by combining the table and tool head feeds or by using tools of
special form. Shapers are specified by their stroke length which in turn determines the maximum
size of the surface which can be machined. There are shapers of 12", 16", 20", 24" and also of 36"
stroke.
Tool head Ram Ram clamp

Figure S1: A Mechanical Shaper
Clapper box
Tool post
Vice
Speed selector
Feed selector
Table
Frame
Stroke length
Base controller
Figure Sh1: A Mechanical Shaper
MAIN PARTS OF A MECHANICAL SHAPER

Following are the main parts of a mechanical shaper:
Base: It is made of cast iron and is the base for machine frame. It may have a tank for water
coolant which re-circulates coolant by a pump.
Frame: It is the column housing of the machine made of cast iron. It contains crank mechanism
for quick return motion inside and on the top of which guide ways are provided for
reciprocating motion of ram which is mounted on it’s top. In the front of frame, table is
mounted on the guideways. Table accommodates the universal machine vice and can be
raised up and lower down with the help of elevating screw provided for it.
53
Ram: It is the moving part which reciprocates on the top guide ways of frame. In front of it the
tool head is mounted and it gets the motion through small link lever, long link lever (rocker
arm) pivoted at the bottom in the base, bull gear and pinion. Pinion gets rotary drive from
driving pulleys.
Tool head: It is mounted at the front of the ram base and is graduated in degrees. It can be
swiveled at any angle. It has a lever on the top for any feeding needed by tool post and in the
bottom front a clapper box is hinged from the top.
Clapper box: It is the part which has a provision to cut in forward stroke only and during return
stroke it drags without cutting. It is named clapper box as it gives sound of a clap during
working. It holds the tool post.
Tool post: It is mounted in front of clapper box to hold the tool firmly with the help of a bolt.
Table: The table of the machine is mounted in the front guide ways of the frame. It has T-slots
for mounting the machine vice and it provides the feeding manually or automatically to the
work piece even it can be raised up or lowered down and locked in the required position.
Some times the universal tables are graduated in degrees at the side ways for tilting at any
angle as and when required.
Feed selector: It is a mechanism which regulates the automatic feeding provided to table through
ratchet mechanism
Stroke length controller: It is used for setting the length of required stroke of ram with the help
of ram clamp.
Quick return mechanism: It is used to reduce idle or non productive stroke time. The
mechanism is designed in such a way that ram takes more time during cutting stroke and less
time during non-cutting stroke. The pinion wheel gives drive to the bull gear to revolve at
constant speed. An adjustable crank block (integral with the pin and a sliding block), which is
free to rotate on the pin and the slot in the link lever imparts motion to the long link
lever. The lower end of the lever is pivoted at the bottom of the housing and the top end being
connected to the ram through a short link lever which oscillates forward and backward. When
the link lever is at the foremost or rearmost position it is tangential to the imaginary circle
scribed by the crank block and thus the tangent point falls below the centre of the bull gear.
Therefore, the time taken for the crank block to push the lever from the rearmost to foremost
would be more than it would have taken from foremost to rearmost. Thus the non cutting
stroke time is reduced and it saves time for job production.
PLANER
Planning is primarily intended for machining large flat surfaces. These surfaces may be
horizontal, vertical or inclined. Therefore, the function of a planer is very similar to that of a
shaper except that the planer is basically designed to machine large and heavy workpieces which
are impractical to be machined by using a shaper or a milling machine. However in planning, as
opposite to a shaper, the cutting speed is on workpiece i.e. a large table accommodates the
workpiece and reciprocate while the cutting tool(s) are stationary. Cutting occurs as the
workpiece moves in one direction as in shaper. As the workpiece returns, the cutting tool swings
forward in clapper box to ride up over the workpiece. Planners are capable of taking heavy cuts
54
causing large cutting forces. Planners are specified by the size of the table and the maximum size
of the workpiece which can be machined on it. Main parts of a planner are:
Column
Tool head
Cross rail
Cutting tool
Table
Bed
Base
Figure Pl1: Planer
Base: it is the cast iron housing for the bed and the column of the machine and is grouted
with the help of grouting bolts. The upper surface of the base is leveled horizontally. It
may have the provision of coolant tank and to accommodate the falling chips during
machining.
Bed: It is the massive rigid cast iron structure resting on the base. The top of the bed has two
parallel V – shaped ways on which the table reciprocates.
Table: It is designed for machining large work pieces. It has T slots and holes on the top
surface to accommodate work pieces with the help of nuts and bolts and T clamps. The
table of a planner is machined on the planner bed itself and is made of cast iron. The table
gets the drive from the motor through belts and pulleys, pinion and bull gear arrangement
at its bottom.
Column: It is cast iron housing and is erected on one side or either side of the table. It
supports on planner bed and has guide ways in the front for cross rail. The type of planner
depends on the column housing. An open side planner has only one column whereas a
double housing planner has two columns on either side of the table.
Cross rail: It is supported on both sides by the guide ways of the planner column. It can be
lowered down or raised up manually or automatically in the required position. In the
front, it has longitudinal guide ways to accommodate tool head(s). More than one tool
head can be mounted on it for higher productivity.
55
Tool head: It is mounted on the cross rail guide ways and can slide in lateral direction manually
or automatically. The base of the tool head is graduated in degrees to swivel it at any
required angle and it slides vertically up and down for the required depth of cut. In the front
of it, a clapper box is hinged. Tool post is mounted on the clapper box to accommodate the
cutting tools.
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To produce the required dimensions of a rectangular block, to cut a 45° angle
on the block as well as to produce a V-groove on the block using a shaper.
Equipments and Tools Required: Mechanical shaper, round nose tool, V-shape tool, spanner,
parallels, vernier calipers, ball peen hammer and tri square.
Material Required: Cast iron rectangular block of size 95 mm x 75 mm x 45 mm (Dimensions

may vary from block to block. Each student has to machine one surface by 1.5 mm
by taking one 1 mm rough cut and one 0.5 mm finish cut).
6mm 9mm
3mm 450
Figure Sh2: Shaper job assignment shape
1. Study the drawing given in Figure Sh2.
2. Identify operations required and prepare the operational sequence
3. Calculate stroke length and set the machine for the stroke length. (bring the ram to its
rearmost position. Unlock the knurled nut/lever at the centre of the machine on the work
side and crank the centre shaft to move the crank block towards or away from the centre to
get the required length of the stroke which can be directly referred on the fixed scale of the
machine. Now lock the knurled nut/lever)
56
4. Clamp the job in the vice and cutting tool in the tool post.
5. Now take the tool closer to the workpiece top surface by raising up the machine table.
6. Similarly, move the table in lateral directions to get the cutting tool exactly on the corner of
the workpiece without touching it.
7. Now start the machine and check that the required length of stroke is proper otherwise reset
the stroke length after stopping the machine.
To obtain the Flat surface

8. Next raise the table up to get the required depth of cut. Now keep on feeding gradually the
workpiece in the lateral direction manually by using hand lever or automatically by using
ratchet mechanism till the whole surface is finished.
9. Repeat the above step for the number of cuts to obtain the required dimension.
10. Stop the machine and reset the workpiece for the adjacent/opposite sides to machine these
surfaces to obtain the required thickness and width of the workpiece.
11. Machine the surfaces to get the required length of the workpiece by properly
adjusting/setting the stroke length.
To obtain the 450 angle

12. Stop the machine and swivel the tool head to 45° and shape the inclined surface by giving
feed motion with tool slide.
To obtain the V–groove

13. Stop the machine and bring back the tool to zero degree (remove the swivel) and shift the
tool at the centre of the V groove. Start the machine and feed the tool gradually to obtain the
required depth of the V groove.
14. File away the burrs, if any.
15. Now your job is ready as per the required shape and size. Punch your Id. No. on the
workpiece.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Always stop the machine to adjust the stroke length or for any measurement.
2. Never stand in front of the ram.
3. Do not touch the newly machined surfaces with hand as it is hot and also have sharp burrs.
4. Always clean the burrs with the brush.
5. Wear plain goggles while working on the shaping machine.
*******
57
MILLING SHOP
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a
rotating multipoint cutter. The cutter rotates at a high speed and because of multiple cutting edges
it removes metal at a very fast rate. The machine can also hold more than one cutter for various
types of operations like straddle milling, gang milling, form milling, etc. Milling machines are
specified in several forms covering a wide range of workpiece capacities, but the choice of any
particular machine is determined by the nature of work, both in size and operation to be
performed. The common types are: (1) Column and knee type, in this most common in use are,
plain or horizontal milling machine, vertical milling machine and universal milling machine (2)
Manufacturing or fixed bed type. Here we will discuss about column and knee type milling
machines only. Flat, curved, regular or irregular and straight surfaces can be produced by it at a
high rate of production. The main parts of a column & knee type milling machine are:
Base: Like other machine tools it also supports the column housing of the machine and is made
of cast iron. It has the provision of the coolant tank to re-circulate the coolant with a coolant
pump. It is leveled and housed on grouting bolts.
Column: It is also a cast iron hollow structure on the base of the machine. It has all drives and
gear mechanisms in the hollow housing. The front of the column is provided with vertical
guide ways for supporting and guiding the knee of the machine tool. The top of the column
is having the arrangement for the machine spindle. The spindle is hollow with internal steep
taper to accommodate the arbor or cutters and gets drive from motor through belt and pulleys
with gear mechanism.
Knee: It is a rigid grey iron casting that slides up and down on the vertical ways of the column
face. The adjustment of height is done by an elevating screw. The knee houses the feed
mechanism of the table. The top face of the knee forms a slideway for the saddle to provide
cross travel of the table.
Saddle: Saddle is placed on the top of the knee and slides on the guideways set at 900 to the
column face. A cross feed screw near the top of the knee engages a nut on the bottom of the
saddle to move it horizontally by hand or power to apply cross feed. The top of the saddle is
accurately machined to provide guideways for the table.
Table: The table rests on the saddle guideways and travels longitudinally. The top of the table
is accurately machined and T – slots are provided for clamping the work and other fixtures
on it. A leadscrew under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally
by hand or power. The longitudinal travel of the table may be limited by fixing trip dogs on
the sides of the table. In universal machines the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For
this purpose the table is mounted on a circular base which is mounted on the saddle. The
circular base is graduated in degrees.
Overhanging arm: The overhanging arm is mounted on the top of the column extends beyond
the column face and serves as a bearing support for the other end of the arbor. The arm is
adjustable.
Front brace: It is an extra support that is fitted between the knee and the overarm to ensure
further rigidity to the arbor and knee.
58
Overhanging
arm Arbor
Front
brace
Cutter Column
Spind
Table le
Saddl
e
Knee
Elevating
screw
Base
Figure 1: A column & knee type milling machine
Spindle: The spindle of the machine is located in the upper part of the column and receives
power from motor through belts, gears and clutches and transfers it to the arbor. The
accuracy of the machine depends primarily on the accuracy, strength and rigidity of the
spindle.
Milling machine attachments: These are the standard or special auxiliary devices intended to be
fastened to or joined with one or more components of the milling machine for the purpose
of augmenting the range, versatility, productivity or accuracy of operation. Some classes are
for positioning and driving the cutter by altering the cutter axis and speed, whereas other
classes are used for positioning, holding and feeding the work along a specified geometric
path. These are like vertical milling attachment, universal milling attachment, high speed
milling attachment, slotting attachment, universal spiral milling attachment, rack milling
attachment, circular milling attachment and dividing head attachment. Here we will discuss
about dividing head attachment only as others have their uses as per their name employed.
Dividing head attachment: The attachment is principally used for dividing the periphery of a
workpiece in equal number of divisions for machining equally spaced slots, grooves and
gear teeth etc. The worm and worm gear driving mechanism of the attachment can be linked
59
with the table lead screw for cutting equally spaced helical grooves on the periphery of a
cylindrical workpiece for cutting helical gears etc. The index plate is mounted at the side
having number of series of holes as per required number of divisions with sector arm.
Dividing head are of three types, plain or simple, universal and optical dividing head.
Sector
Head
arm
Indexing Three jaw

lever chuck
Indexing
plate
Figure 2: Dividing head attachment for milling machine
Milling cutters: These are the cutting tools for milling machines and are circular or cylindrical in
shape having cutting teeth on their peripheries. The cutting teeth are of definite shape and size
for different types of operations. Some of the common type of milling cutters are – plain
milling cutter, side and face milling cutter, slitting cutter, angle milling cutter and end milling
cutter.
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To produce the required dimensions of a rectangular block by side and face milling
on a horizontal milling machine and making a slot by slot mill cutter on a vertical milling
machine.
Equipments and Tools Required: Universal milling machine, side and face milling cutter, slot
mill cutter, face mill cutter, milling machine vice with handle, drill chuck with key, spacing
collars for arbor, steel rule, vernier caliper, chalk piece etc.
Material Required: Cast iron rectangular block of size 95 mm x 75 mm x 45 mm (Dimensions

may vary from block to block. Each student has to machine one slot by taking one cut of 0.5 mm
depth for both the cutters.
25
4 4
12.8 12
(all dimension in mm)
60
1. Study the drawing given in Figure Ml1.
2. Identify operations required and prepare the operational sequence
3. Mount the work piece on vice of universal milling machine table.
4. Fix the side and face milling cutter (size 100 mm diameter, 16 mm width, 24 teeth) on
milling machine arbor with the help of proper spacing collar.
5. Mark on one side of the work piece top to carry out the side and face milling operation
with chalk piece and steel rule as per the drawing.
6. Position the work piece below the side and face milling cutter taking just near to the
marked point with the slide movement of table, saddle and knee.
7. Clear the work piece from the cutter by moving the table on one side.
8. Start the machine for suitable RPM and raise the work piece up to the depth of cut (0.5
mm) by raising the knee up with the suitable number.
9. Feed the work piece in cutter for completion of the operation.
10. You may use hand feed for manual practice and automatic feed if you are expert about the
operation. You may calculate the machining time of one cut if you have used automatic -
feed by using the given RPM, no. of teeth on cutter, diameter of the cutter, given depth of
cut. You can compare the machining time of calculation with your own watch time.
11. Stop the machine and check the dimensions of your job. Lower down the knee with the
help of hand lever and take away the work piece by moving table.
12. Remove the work piece from machine vice and mount it on the vertical milling machine.
13. Fix the 12 mm parallel shank end mill cutter on the vertical head of the machine with the
help of drill chuck.
14. Mark on the top surface of the work piece for end milling operation to cut the slot.
15. Position the work piece below the end milling cutter taking just near to the marked point
with the slide movement of table, saddle and knee.
16. Clear the work piece from the cutter by moving the table on one side.
17. Start the machine for suitable RPM and raise the work piece up to the depth of cut (0.5
mm) by raising the knee up with the suitable number.
18. Feed the work piece in cutter for completion of the operation.
19. Stop the machine and check the dimensions of your job. Lower down the knee with the
help of hand lever and take away the work piece by moving table.
20. Remove the work piece from machine vice. Punch last three digits of your ID No. and
hand over your job to concerned shop instructor.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Never remove the chips/swarf by hand as these are very hot and sharp.
2. Never handle the cutters directly while mounting on the machine as the cutting edges of
the cutter may causes the injuries to the operator’s hand.
*******
61
DEMONSTRATIONS
The four demonstration practicals will be conducted in the tool room and CNC centre on planner,
grinding machine and CNC machine. The main objective of these demonstration practicals are –
to understand the main parts of these machine tools and their functions, working of these machine
tools, various operations performed on these machine tools and the important characteristics of
these machine tools.
GRINDING MACHINE
Grinding is a finishing process wherein we use abrasive particles to remove small quantities of
material. There are various types of grinding machine tools like floor stand grinder, surface
grinding machine, cylindrical grinding machine, tool and cutter grinding machine, and centre less
grinding machine – depending upon the type of surface generated and operations required.
Floor Stand Grinder
Commonly known as pedestal grinder has horizontal spindle with grinding wheels usually at
both ends and is mounted on a base. There is provision for driving the grinding wheel spindle
by belt from motor at the rear, at floor level. These grinders are used for grinding general
purpose tools and workpieces. Mostly lathe, shaper, planer, carpentry and fitting tools are
sharpened on it.
Guards
Tool rests Grinding wheels
Base
Figure D1: Floor stand grinder
Cylindrical Grinding Machine
These machines are used for grinding cylindrical parts. The workpiece is held in
between the centres. Four types of movements are involved in a cylindrical grinding machine.
One, the work must revolve; two, the wheel must revolve; three, the work must pass the wheel;
and four, the wheel must pass the work. They are equipped with a mechanism which enables the
grinding wheel to be fed in automatically towards the work for successive cuts. The main parts of
a cylindrical grinding machine are:
62
Base: The base or bed is the main casting that rests on the floor and supports the parts mounted
on it. On the top of the base are precision horizontal ways set at right angles for the table to
slide on. It also houses the table drive mechanism.
Table: There are two tables – lower table and upper table. The lower table slides on guide ways
on the bed and provides movements to the work along the axis of the grinding wheel. It can
be moved by hand or power with in desired limits. The upper table is pivoted at its centre on
the top of the sliding table. It has T-slots for securing the headstock and tailstock/footstock
and can be positioned along the table to suit the length of the work. The upper table can be
swiveled for grinding straight or tapered work as desired. However, steep tapers are ground
by swiveling the wheel head instead of the upper table. Adjustable dogs are clamped in
longitudinal slots on the table to reverse the table at the ends of the stroke.
Grinding wheel
Wheel Head
Head stock Tail stock
Table
Base
Figure D2: Cylindrical grinder
Head stock: It supports the workpiece by means of dead centre and drives it by means of a dog.
It may hold and drive the workpiece in chuck.
Tail stock: The tail stock can be adjusted and clamped in various positions to accommodate
different lengths of work pieces.
Wheel head: The wheel head carries a grinding wheel and its driving motor is mounted on a
slide at the top rear of the base. The wheel head may be moved perpendicularly to the table
ways, by hand or power, to feed the wheel to the work.
Cross feed lever: The grinding wheel is fed to the work by hand or power as determined by the
engagement of the cross-feed control lever.
Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine

63
These are widely used in tool rooms for grinding tools, works, etc. It has the following additional
features over a cylindrical grinding machine: (1) The head stock spindle may be used alive or
dead, so that the work can be held and revolved by a chuck as well as ground in between centres.
(2) The head stock can be swiveled at an angle in horizontal plane. (3) The wheel head and slide
can be swiveled and traversed at any angle. The wheel head can also be arranged for internal
grinding by the addition of an auxiliary wheel head to revolve small wheels at high speeds.
Centre less Grinding Machines
Centre less grinding is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces on
work pieces that can not be held in between the centres. The principal elements of a centre less
grinding machine are grinding wheel, regulating or backup wheel, and the work rest. Both wheels
are rotated in the same direction and the work rest is located between the wheels. The work is
placed upon the work rest and the work rest together with the regulating wheel is fed forward,
forcing the work against the grinding wheel. The axial movement of the work past the grinding
wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle to the horizontal. The machine
is advantageous as a true floating condition exists during the grinding process. There is no
tendency of chatter or deflection of the work as the workpiece is being supported through out its
entire length. Small, fragile or slender work pieces e.g. rollers or balls of the bearings can be
ground easily by centre less grinding. Centre less grinding can be done on one of the following
three ways: Through feed grinding, the workpiece is passed completely through the space
between the grinding wheel and regulating wheel. This method is used when there are no
shoulders or other forms to interfere with the passage of the work. It is useful for grinding long,
slender shafts or bars. In feed grinding, which is similar to plunge grinding or form grinding, the
regulating wheel is drawn back so that workpiece may be placed on the work-rest blade. Then it
is moved in, to feed the work against the grinding wheel. This method is useful to grind shoulder
and formed surfaces. In feed grinding, used to produce taper, either the grinding wheel or
regulating wheel or both are formed to taper. The work is fed lengthwise between the wheels and
is ground as it advances until it reaches the end stop.
Regulating wheel Grinding wheel
Work
rest
Figure D3: Centre less grinder
64
Surface Grinding Machine
These are the machines that are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces. But they are also
capable of grinding, irregular, curved, tapered, convex and concave surfaces. These are of
different types but majority of the machines are horizontal table and vertical spindle type. In
these machines, grinding is normally done on the periphery of the wheel. The area of contact is
small and the speed is uniform over the grinding surface. These machines can use fine grain
wheels and can produce fine surfaces.
Wheel head Grinding wheel
Magnetic chuck
Table
Guard
Saddle lever
Wheel head lever

Table lever
Column
Base
Figure D4: Surface grinder
65
Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine
These grinders are mainly used to sharpen and reconditioned multi-point cutting tools like
reamers, milling cutters, drills, tapes, hobs etc. These grinders are classified into two types
according to the purpose of grinding – universal tool & cutter grinder, and single purpose tool &
cutter grinder. Universal tool & cutter grinder is the most common type of machine used in shops
and its important parts are base, saddle, table, head & tail stocks and wheel head.
Wheel head
Table Grinding wheel
Saddle lever
Saddle
Table lever
Wheel head lever Column
Base
Fig D5: Tool and Cutter grinder
*******
66
ELECTROPLATING SHOP
Electroplating has been used in industry for a long time for improving the physical properties of
the metals or for aesthetic reasons. It is based on the mechanism of electrolysis and in the
presence of an electrolyte the electricity is conducted by free ions and not by free electrons. If two
different metals are joined to the two terminals and current is passed in the presence of an
electrolyte, the dissolution of anode will take place and the metal will be deposited on the
cathode. The critical parameters in an electroplating process are voltage, current and electrolyte.
Schematic sketch illustrating important features of electroplating is given in Figure El.
Figure E1: Electroplating Process
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To electroplate the paper weight with copper and nickel.
Equipment Required: Electroplating setup, DC power supply (rectifier), buffing set up, chalk
powder, saw dust and buffing compound.
Cleaning
1. Take the workpiece to the emery wheel and make the texture smooth. Next, do the
buffing on the buffing wheel.
2. Remove the buffing compound by soaking the workpiece in kerosene oil.
3. Swab with the chalk powder and then with saw dust.
4. Remove the left out chalk powder or saw dust by cleaning with a cloth.
5. Tie the workpiece with a copper wire.
6. Vapour degrease in trilene for 5 minutes (skip this operation)
7. Electroclean for 3-5 minutes.
8. Swill in running water.
9. Pickle in 10% sulphuric acid for 30 seconds to 60 seconds.
67
10. Again swill in running water and check water break (work surface should hold an
unbroken film of water).
11. Rinse in soft water.
12. Rinse in distilled water.
Copper Plating
13. Connect the workpiece to the cathode, copper plate to the anode and dip in the electrolyte
for 1 -2 minutes.
14. Remove the workpiece from the electrolyte and swill in running water.
Nickel Plating
15. Connect the copper plated workpiece to the cathode, nickel plate to the anode and dip in
the electrolyte for 15-20 minutes.
16. Remove the workpiece from the electrolyte and swill in running water.
17. Untie the workpiece.
18. Buff the workpiece.
19. Repeat steps 2 – 4.
*******
68
METROLOGY
Metrology is defined as the science of measurement. Study of metrology is must for all those
who are connected with the precision measurement of work in production or inspection. It
includes various aspects like design, manufacture, testing and application of various measuring
instruments and techniques. There are two basic methods of measurement – direct comparison
and indirect comparison. Some of the direct reading instruments used for the measurement of
linear and angular measurements are: vernier calipers, micrometers, slip gauges, bevel protractor,
sine bars and auto collimators. There are various types of mechanical, electrical, optical and
pneumatic comparators. In metrology shop students will study the basic principles and
application of commonly used metrology instruments.
COMMON MEASURING INSTRUMENTS USED IN WORK SHOP
Vernier calipers: It consists of L-shaped frame, the horizontal part of which is called a beam.
The beam has a graduated main scale with a vertical part called fixed jaw at its end. On the
main scale slides the vernier scale, which consists of two screws and a fine adjustment nut, to
fix the scale at position and for making fine adjustment respectively. The main scale is
graduated in mm and inches. The least count is obtained by the difference in the distances of
main scale and vernier scale. For example: If each sub division on main scale is 0.5 mm, the
vernier scale consists of 25 divisions that coincide with 24 sub divisions on the main scale.
The least count of a vernier caliper can be calculated as 24 sub division on main scale
multiplied by 0.5 is equal to 12mm. Thus 25 divisions on vernier scale is also equal to 12 mm.
Therefore one division on vernier scale is equal to 12/25 is equal to 0.48 mm. Thus least count
= one main scale division – one vernier scale division = 0.50 - 0.48 = 0.02 mm. The least
count of vernier calipers is 0.02 mm in metric and 0.001" in English version.
The vernier calipers give inside as well as out side measurements and have a much greater
range than a micrometer. Some of the vernier calipers are designed to measure the depth of a
blind hole or a shoulder. Vernier calipers are made up of invar steel (alloy steel which has a
property of less wear and tear and no contractions and expansions when the temperature
varies).
Vernier caliper
69
Vernier Height Gauge: A vernier height gauge is similar to large vernier
Vernier
calipers in construction, except that it consists of heavy base which allow height
the gauge to stand upright instead of a fixed jaw in a vernier. The movable gauge
jaw of vernier height gauge consists of a projection or extension which is

leveled to a sharp edge for scribing lines at any required height. It is used
check the height as well to scribe lines at required height.
Outside Micrometer: It is used for measuring outside diameters, widths and thicknesses. The
important parts of a micrometer are frame, anvil, barrel, spindle, locknut and thimble. Frame
is in U-shape and made out of close grain cast iron. One end of frame is fitted with anvil and
other end is hollow to accommodate spindle with lock nut. Anvil is attached to the frame either
by a screw or fixed to it. Its surface is fine ground and wear resistant. Barrel is the hollow
cylindrical part attached to frame. Its outer part is graduated in main scale. It has the internal
thread (single start) for thimble. Spindle is attached to thimble from out side and has external
threads (single start). It slides outward and inward in the barrel for variation in measurements.
Locknut is provided in a slot in the frame to lock or unlock the spindle. Thimble is an adjusting
nut for the spindle and has beveled edge graduated. At the end of thimble a ratchet spring is
provided so that the pressure applied at the end does not exceed a certain limit.
The micrometer works on the principle of a screw with single start thread. In a metric
micrometer one revolution of the thimble advances the thimble by 0.5 mm. The beveled edge
of the thimble is graduated into 50 equal parts along its circumference. Thus each part of the
thimble represents 0.5/50 = 0.01 mm, or the least count of a micrometer is 0.01 mm. The least
count of an English micrometer is 0.001". Micrometers are in range of 0 to 25 mm, 25 to 50
mm, 50 to 75 mm, 75 to 100 mm and so on… in metric as well 0 to 1", 1 to 2", 2 to 3" and so
on… in English version.
Outside Micrometer
70
Inside Micrometer: It works on the same principle as that of the outside micrometer and is used
for measuring large internal diameters say over 50 mm or 2" up to the accuracy of 0.01 mm or
0.001" by inserting extension rods of different lengths. The inside micrometer consists mainly
of four parts.
(a) micrometer unit,
(b) extension rod,
(c) spacing collar and

Inside micrometer
(d) handle.
The micrometer unit (also known as measuring head) consists of a barrel and thimble, like an
outside micrometer. The adjustments for reading are made by moving the thimble on the
barrel that works on the principle of screw. Its least count is also same as outside micrometer.
Depth Rule: It consists of a narrow rule that slides in a slotted steel head. It is used for measuring
the depth of blind holes, grooves, slots and heights of shoulders in the holes. It is provided
with a locking nut and can be locked at any desired position. When measuring the depth, the
head is held securely against the surface and the rule is extended into the hole to be measured.
The locking nut is tightened and the depth gauge is removed to know the dimension.
Depth Gauge Micrometer: It is also based on the principle

of micrometer and similar in construction to a micrometer
but instead of frame it has a shoulder like depth rule. The
method of reading is similar to that of micrometers. It is
also used for measuring depth of blind holes, grooves, Depth gauge micrometer
slots and heights of shoulders in holes up to an accuracy
of 0.01mm or 0.001".
Vernier Depth Gauge: It works on principle of vernier and

consists of a main scale which is fitted to a sliding shoulder
at right angle. It is used for measuring the depth of blind
holes and recesses in dies. It measures up to an accuracy of
Vernier depth gauge
0.02mm in metric and 0.001" in English version.
Telescopic Gauge: It is used for measuring inside bore and hole size. The main parts of a
telescopic gauge are handle, locking screw, thimble and plunger (telescopic rod).
Dial gauge: It is also known as Dial Test Indicator (DTI) or Dial

Indicator or Clock Gauge, is frequently used in machine shops for
aligning works, tools and fixtures. It is also used to indicate small
differences in size, or for indicating the amount of eccentricity of
revolving parts, to test and inspect size and trueness of finished work,
to compare measurements like heights and depths up to an accuracy of
0.01 mm or 0.001". The dial of these gauges are like the clock dial and
even graduated in microns. Dial gauge
71
Cylinder Gauge: It is also known as Mercer Gauge used for measuring the amount of
eccentricity or machining errors of cylinder bores and similar work. It consists of a T-shaped
head or anvil in which a plunger, controlled by a spring, can be moved laterally. Inserted in
each end of the plunger are spindles, one of which has a ball
point and located by means of a knurled nut, and the other is
movable and controlled by a light spring acting upon a collar
which gives it sensitive action. This ensures that internal
measurements are taken across the diameter, and not across the
chord of a circle. Before using the instrument a dial indicator is
mounted on the end of long rod. A split collar and a set screw is
provided to keep the indicator rigid.
Cylinder gauge
Bevel Protector: It consists of sliding blades, graduated disc (also
known as main scale) and a vernier scale. The protector disc is
free to rotate at the pivot and can be clamped with a nut in the
base assembly. It is used for measuring and testing angles up to
1/12 degrees or 5 minutes. The vernier scale is formed by
taking 23 protector scale divisions (23 degrees) and dividing
this into 12 equal parts (23/12 = 1 degree 55 minutes). The Universal bevel protector
difference between two protector scale divisions (2 degree) and one vernier scale division (
one degree 55 minutes) is 5 minutes.
Vernier gear tooth caliper: It consists of two vernier

calipers perpendicular to each other. It is used for
measuring the chordal thickness of a gear tooth at the
pitch circle of a gear.
Vernier gear tooth caliper
Sine bar: It is used to measure angles precisely within an accuracy of 5 minutes. It consists of a
hardened steel bar and two cylinders of equal diameter fixed near the ends. The distance
between the two centres of the cylinder is specific and
accurate. The sine bar is used with a surface plate or on
a machine bed. The centre line of the two end cylinders
must be parallel to the upper surface of the sine bar. A
sine bar is generally used in conjunction with slip
gauges. Its working is based on trigonometric ratios for
measurement of angles. It can be set at a desired angle Sine bar
by raising both the ends of the bar to pre determined

heights with slip gauges. The sinebar acts as hypotenuse of the right angled triangle, such that
Difference in slip gauge block build ups

sin  
Length of the sine bar
72
Slip Gauges: Slip gauges are the practical standards of
length for use in the workshop where a tolerance as low
as 0.001 mm is desired. These are rectangular blocks of
steel having a cross-section of about 32 mm × 9 mm.
The blocks are finished to such a fine degree of finish,
flatness and accuracy that molecular cohesion takes
Slip gauges
place when the measuring faces of two blocks are slid
or wrung together. Slip gauges are available in sets with
steps of 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 mm. Metric sets are available in 103, 83, 76, 56, 48 and 31
pieces. The English (inch) slip gauges are available in 81, 49, 41, 35 or 28 pieces. Extreme
care in handling of the gauge pieces is required. After use, do not break the wring but slide
one over the other to separate them.
73
PRACTICAL
Assignment 1: (a) To measure the Height, Depth, Thickness, Outside and Inside diameter of a
given cylindrical work piece using Vernier caliper
(b) To measure the Height, Thickness, Outside diameter of a given cylindrical work
piece using micrometer.
Equipment required: Vernier caliper, Micrometer
Fig.1: Different parameter of a cylinder
Observation Table: (a) Using Vernier caliper
S.No. Height Depth Outside Diameter Inside Diameter Thickness

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1.
2.
3.
Avg.
Observation Table: (b) Using Micrometer
Reading Height Outside Diameter Thickness

(mm) (mm) (mm
1.
2.
3.
Avg.
74
Assignment 2: To measure the angle of a dovetail by using slip gauges.
Equipment Required: Vernier calipers, slip gauges, surface plate and roller pins.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Put the dove tail, whose angle you want to measure, on the surface plate.
2. Keep two roller pins in the corners of dovetail and measure L1 with a vernier caliper.
3. Put the slip gauges of various thicknesses to build a height h on both sides.
4. Again, keep roller pins on top of slip gauges on both sides touching the inclined surfaces
and measure L2.
5. Calculate the dovetail angle as shown in observation table.
6. Repeat the experiment three times with different heights of slip gauges.
S S
l l
i i
p p
g g
a a
u u
g g
e e
s s
Fig. 1: Dovetail Angle Measurement
Observation Table:
2h Dovetail Avg.
S. No. h L1 L2 tan θ  (Degree)
L2  L1 angle
1.
2.
3.
75
Assignment 3: To measure the angle of a taper by using a sine bar.
Equipment Required: Vernier caliper, slip gauges, sine bar, surface plate, V-Block and
roller pins.
1. Take the job for which the angle is to be measured and place it on the V-block over the
surface plate.
2. Place the sine bar of length ‘L’ over the tapered portion of the job as shown in the Figure
M2 and record in table M2.
3. Place required number of slip gauge under the cylindrical part of the sine bar on both left
hand side (LHS) and right hand side (RHS) till the gap is exactly occupied.
4. Calculate the heights of the two cylindrical ends (LHS and RHS) from the surface plate
from the slip gauges used. Record these heights as X and Y respectively.
 X Y 
5. Using the formulae   tan 1   , calculate the angle of the taper.
 L 
6. Repeat the experiment three times with different size of sine bars.
S
l
i
p
S
g l
a i
u p
g
e g
s a
u
g
e
s
Fig.1: Measurements of taper angle using Sine Bar
Observation Table :
Length of the Slip gauge Slip gauge

 X Y 
S. No. sine bar height in height in   tan 1   Average
(L) (mm) LHS (X) RHS (Y)  L  (Degree)
(mm) (mm)
1
76
Assignment 4: To measure the radius of a circular surface on a component.
Equipment Required: Vernier calipers, surface plate, roller pins.
R, Unknown radius
PIN
Figure M3: Measurement of radius of circular arc
1. Measure diameter of roller pins (d) accurately.

2. Clamp work piece to surface plate.
3. Place pins on each side of work piece and measure distance M.
4. Calculate the radius (R) of the surface as given below:
A  R  0.5d
B  0.5(M  d )
C  R  0.5d
Using Pythagoras theorem, C2 = A2 + B2
2 2 2
 d  d M d
R    R     
 2  2  2 2
(M  d )2
Thus, R 
8d
*******
77
TOLERANCE AND FITS
Definitions
 Basic Size: The size with reference to which the limits of size are fixed.
 Actual Size: Actual measured dimension of the part.
 Zero Line: It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations are measured
from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown above and below the zero line
respectively.
 Limits of Size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the actual size
should lie.
 Maximum Limit of Size: The greater of the two limits of size.
 Minimum Limit of Size: The smaller of the two limits of size.
 Shaft: A term used by convention to designate all external features of a part, including those
which are not cylindrical.
 Hole: A term used by convention to designate all internal features of a part, including those
which are not cylindrical
Fig. 1: Presentation of tolerance and deviation from zero line
Tolerance: The term tolerance refers to the difference between the upper (maximum) limit and
lower (minimum) limit of a dimension. In other words, tolerance is the maximum permissible
variation in a dimension. The tolerance may be of two types i.e. unilateral or bilateral.
Unilateral Tolerance:- In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side
of the basic size, i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below
it.
78
Bilateral Tolerance:- In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the
sides of the basic size, i.e. the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size
Fit:The term fits refers to the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts.
Depending upon the actual limits of the hole and shaft. Fits may be classified into three types.
(i) Clearance fit

(ii) Interference fit
(iii) Transition fit
Clearance Fit: In clearance fit, an air space or clearance exists between the shaft and hole.
Such fits give loose joint. A clearance fit has positive allowance, i.e. there is minimum
positive clearance between high limit of the shaft and low limit of the hole. It allows rotation
or sliding between the mating parts.
Transition Fit: It may result in either clearance or interference depending on the actual value
of the individual tolerances of the mating components. They are used for applications where
accurate location is important but either a small amount of clearance or interference is
permissible.
79
Interference Fit: A negative difference between diameter of the hole and the shaft is called
interference. In such cases, the diameter of the shaft is always larger than the hole diameter. It
is used for components where motion and power has to be transmitted. Interference exists
between the high limit of hole and low limit of the shaft.
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To identify the different types of fit
Equipment Required: vernier caliper
1. Take the jobs for which the dimensions are to be measured.

2. Measure the diameter of hole of plate by using analog vernier caliper.
3. Measure the diameter of shaft.
4. Calculate the difference between dia. of hole and dia. of shaft.
5. From difference value, find the type of FIT.
80
Observation Table: (a) Hole measurement (Basic Size – 10 mm)
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Job No.
Dia.(mm)
(b) Shaft measurement (Basic Size – 10 mm)
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Job No.
Dia.(mm)
Results:
I. Max. diameter of Hole (mm) ________________

II. Min. diameter of Hole (mm)_________________
III. Max. diameter of Shaft (mm)________________
IV. Min. diameter of Shaft (mm)________________
V. Hole tolerance (mm)_______________________
VI. Shaft tolerance(mm)_______________________
VII. Type of fit_______________________________
********
81
FOUNDRY SHOP
Foundry or casting deals with the process of making moulds (either in sand or some other
material) of the required shape and size, pouring molten metal into these moulds and solidifying
the molten metal to get the required object. The process of casting is extensively used in almost
all major industries – automobile, aircraft, machine tool, consumer goods etc. Casting is the first
manufacturing process and in fact all metals are cast at some stage of their production. Casting
has many metallurgical, physical and economic advantages over other methods of manufacturing.
When the material of the mould is sand then the process is known as sand casting.
COMMON FOUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

Following are some common tools and equipments used in a sand casting process:
Molding boxes or flask: These are metal frames with sufficient adhesive
area to support sand while preparing a mould. Most moulds are made
in two-part flasks, the top part called cope and the
bottom part called drag. Cope and drags are held in
definite relation to each other by aligning pins and
lugs. A cope can be identifies by lugs and drags can Cope
Drag be identified by pins. For some moulds additional intermediate moulds

are called cheeks may be required.
Mold board: It is a wooden board made up of light wood and is resistant to
moisture and wrinkling. Its size is just larger than the size of the flask
so that it accommodates the drag and the drag pins can protrude from Bottom board
the sides.
Bottom board: It is of same material like mold board but its size is always
larger than the size of drag flask to accommodate fully the drag flasks
when it is reversed from mold board during molding.
Crucibles: These are the refractory fire cups generally used in smaller
quantity molding for melting the metal as well as pouring the metal
into a mold. In general production crucibles are used for transferring
molten metal from a furnace to mold cavity. Crucible
Riddles: These are for sieving the sand to remove the lumps or foreign
particles from the sand. Generally, it has a wooden frame with a
screen of suitable meshes.
Trowels: These are used for filling sand, cutting the in-gates, making joints Riddle
or parting, and for repairing and finishing the mould. A trowel

consists of a steel blade, which may be rectangular, triangular or heart Trowel
shaped, with a wooden handle fitted at one end.
Rammer: These are used for compacting sand in the

mould. The peg or pin rammer applies force
downwards as well as side ways and is used for Butt rammer
Pin rammer
primary ramming. The butt rammer applies force
downwards and is used for finish ramming.
Strike off bar: It is a strip of metal or wood with a straight edge used to cut off excess sand from
the top of cope or drag after ramming.
82
Vent wire: It is a thin rigid steel strip or wire used for making holes in mold.
Vent wire
Draw spikes: These are eye bolts, screws, ropes threaded at one end used for
withdrawing the pattern from the mold.
Draw spike
Lifter or cleaner: It is a thin strip of metal straight at one end and bent to an L shape at other
end. It is used for repairing corners in the mold and lifting loose sand from restricted
portions of the mold.
Gate cutter: It is a sheet metal piece bent to a semi circle at one end. It is used to cut metal
passes ways in the mold.
Sprue cutters: These are cylindrical tubes used to cut sprues in copes.
Bellows: These are air blowers used to blow off loose sand from the molds.
Swab: It is a sort of brush made of camel hair or jute threads. It is used for applying a small
quantity of water on the sand around the pattern to facilitate its withdrawal from the mold.
Swabs are also used for applying water preparatory to mold repair and for applying wet
blacking coat on dry molds.
Smoother: It is a small handy wooden pieces with a flat face used for
smoothening mold surfaces.
Smoother
Runner and riser pins: These are tapered wooden pieces with circular
section in assorted end diameters and lengths. Runner pin is used for
making sprues and generally lesser in diameter comparing to Riser pin
which is used for making riser. Runner and riser pins
Brush: It is used to sweep away the parting sand from the mold joint and to
apply the plumb ago on the mold surfaces.
Brush
Slick: It is used chiefly for repairing mold. It is a double ended tool having
one end flat and a spoon on other.
Slick
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To make a green sand mould with the help of a split pattern for casting a sleeve.
Equipments and tools required: Mold board, bottom board, cope and drag boxes, pin rammer,
butt rammer, smoother, gate cutter, swab, vent wire, draw spike, runner and riser pins,
trowels etc.
Material required: Prepared green sand, parting sand, split pattern, water.
83
1. Thoroughly mix the already prepared molding sand to make it uniform throughout.
Drag Preparation
2. Place on the moldboard, the lower or drag box upside down with the pins pointing
downwards.
3. Place the drag half of the pattern on the molding board with the parting surface in contact
with the board. Do not pattern too close to the walls of the drag. Sprinkle parting sand
uniformly on the drag half pattern and moldboard.
Figure Fd1: Drag Preparation (Ramming the drag)
4. Start filling up molding sand uniformly into the drag over the pattern and compact the sand
around the pattern and fill the box completely with backing sand.
5. Ram with pin rammer uniformly all over. Add more backing sand and ram with butt
rammer. Enough sand should be added before butt ramming so that after ramming sand is
projecting out of the box. No additional sand should be added after butt ramming because
there will be no proper cohesion of sand. Care should be taken to see that the mold is not
under rammed or over rammed. An under rammed mold will be weak and may break during
handling or pouring while an over rammed mold will lack porosity.
6. Cut off excess sand from the mold using a strike off bar.
7. Turn over the rammed drag (pins pointing upward) and place it over a bottom board so that
the pattern is exposed.
Figure Fd2: Drag Preparation (Inverted drag)

8. Smooth the surface of the mould with a trowel or a smoother. Blow off any loose sand.
84
Cope Preparation
9. Place the cope half of the pattern on the drag half of the pattern in the drag box using
aligning or dowel pins.
10. Sprinkle parting sand over the surface uniformly.
11. Place the cope box in position using aligning pins and lugs.
12. Place the runner and riser pins in proper positions depending on the gating and riser system
decided.
13. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
14. Cut funnels around the runner and riser pins using a gate cutter.
15. Remove the runner and riser pins.
16. Lift the cope box carefully and keep it aside on a bottom board or on a sand cushion with
mold face up (upside downward).
Pin
Figure Fd3: Cope Preparation

Pattern removal
17. Wet the edges of the cope and drag patterns with a swab so that the edges do not break when
the pattern is withdrawn.
18. Drive in the draw spike in drag half of pattern; loosen the pattern parts by rapping and
withdraw them by lifting with the draw spike.
19. Similarly, loosen the cope half of the pattern and withdraw the pattern by lifting.
Finishing the mould

20. Cut sprue base, runner and gate by cutting the parting surface of the drag half using gate
cutter. Repair the damaged portion, if any.
21. Dust the surface of the mould with silica flour.
22. Allow the mould to dry in the air
23. Close the cope over the drag.
24. Now your mould is ready for pouring.
*******
85
ROLLING
The process of rolling consists of passing a metal sheet between two revolving cylinders called
rolls. The distance between the rolls is adjusted to compress (plastic deformation) the sheet
thereby increasing its length and reducing its cross sectional area. The main objective of rolling
process is to reduce the thickness of the sheet. Rolling increases the length of the sheet with a
negligible increase in its width. However, rolling process is also used to get rods, pipe, rails or
other structural sections. Rolling can be done in hot condition or cold condition called hot rolling
or cold rolling respectively. Generally the force of friction between the sheet and rolls enables the
rolls to grip the sheet and draw it between them. The higher the coefficient of friction, the greater
the possible reduction but higher friction also leads to higher energy losses.
ti tf
Figure R1: Rolling process in a two high rolling mill
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To reduce the thickness of an aluminium sheet.
Equipments and Tools Required: Rolling mill, Vernier caliper and micrometer.
Material Required: Aluminium Sheet of 100 mm x 50 mm x 1.5 mm
Vertical screw
Upper roll
Electric motor
Lower roll
Figure R2: A two-high rolling mill
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Specifications of the above Rolling Mill:
Diameter of rolls (D) = 142.4 mm
Pitch of vertical screw = 25.4 mm
Pitch of the side screw = 12.7 mm
Least division of scale of side screw = 0.5 mm
Capacity of electric motor = 7.5 HP
1. Measure the initial length (li) and breadth (bi) of the sheet by using vernier caliper and
thickness (ti) by using micrometer.
2. Set the required distance between the rolls (if it is less than the maximum possible reduction)
and lock this vertical position of the rolls by vertical screw mechanism.
3. Switch on the rolling mill and feed the sheet into the gap between the rolls.
4. Repeat steps 2 & 3 (if required) until desired thickness is obtained.
5. Measure the final length (lf), breadth (bf) and thickness (tf) of the sheet after rolling.
6. Calculate absolute draught, relative draught, absolute elongation, absolute spread, angle
of contact and coefficient of friction. Calculate these values theoretically with some
assumptions as you have learned in theory classes. Compare the results and comment on
variations, if any.
Observations and Results:
Length (mm) Breadth (mm) Thickness (mm)

Initial
Final
Absolute draught,  t  ti  t f =
t
Relative draught, Rt   100 =
ti
Absolute elongation,  l  l f  li =
Absolute Spread,  b  b f  bi =
t
Angle of contact, cos  1  =
D
Coefficient of friction,   tan  =
*******
87
POWER TOOLS
A power tool is a tool driven by a motor where motor can be driven by electric energy or
compressed air or by burning of fuel. An electric motor is the universal choice to power
stationary tools. Portable electric tools may be either corded or battery powered. At present the
limitations of battery life, energy capacity, and cost keep the corded versions on the market.
Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable where portable means hand held. The
addition of the motor reduces the work that the operator has to do and sometimes makes it
possible for the operator to do things that are difficult or impossible to do by hand. Common
power tools include drill, saws, sander, etc. (Is lathe a power tool?). All of these tools have
manual equivalents. These days power tools are widely used in industry, construction and house
work for cutting, shaping, drilling, sanding, painting, grinding and polishing. Various power tools
are available for fitting shop, machine shop, sheet metal shop, carpentry shop, electrical and
electronics labs. Some of the power tools are given below:
Jigsaw: It is a wood working power tool used for creating

complicated contours.
Jigsaw
Circular saw: It is a woodworking power tool used for straight

cutting applications. It is ideal for cutting when
thickness and length of wood are more.
Circular saw
Planers: It is a cordless power tool used for planning the wood.

It is similar to jackplane used in carpentry.
Planner
Eccentric sander: It is a power tool mostly used for sanding and

polishing wood and metal plastic components.
Eccentric sander
Shear: It is a metal working tool used for shearing operation.

This machine can shear mild steel sheet up to 2.8 mm and aluminum sheet up to 3.5 mm.
Straight grinder: It is a metal working tool equipped with AI2O3 grinding wheel. Mostly
used to grind or polish metal surfaces for fitting job.
88
PRACTICAL
Assignment: To practice with the power tools. Find out the specifications, shops in which
these tools can be used and their application in these shops. Fill the following table:
Shop(s) in
S. Name of the
Specifications which it can Applications
No. Power Tool
be used
*******
89
PLUMBING
Plumbing is the assemblage of pipes and fixtures used to convey water, gas, steam, waste, etc. It
is the hub of the modern sanitation and is considered by many authorities to be the most scientific
of all the building and industrial trades. Its prime purpose is to safeguard the health of people by
providing a satisfactory supply of pure water and disposing of fecal wastes. Improper plumbing
leads to consumer dissatisfaction and inferior plumbing leads to leakage/blockage needing
frequent maintenance or replacement of pipes and fixtures, the structure also deteriorates and the
process of ageing of the structure accelerates. Plumbing includes all the piping and fixtures that
provide water for drinking, cooking, bathing and laundry; as well as a means of disposing of
wastewater. The basic principle of modern plumbing is to achieve environmental sanitation
worthy of accomplishment through properly designed, acceptably installed and adequately
maintained plumbing system.
TYPES OF PLUMBING SYSTEMS

Water Supply System: It distributes water under pressure throughout the structure for drinking,
bathing, cooking, and laundry. In modern plumbing systems this is a two pipe system. One pipe
carries cold water and the other hot water.
Drainage, Waste and Venting (DWV): It carries away wastewater and solid waste from
bathrooms, kitchens, and laundries. This subsystem is not under pressure and must be properly
vented to prevent wastewater from entering the drinking water supply.
RULES FOR DESIGNING AND INSTALLATION OF PLUMBING SYSTEMS

Following are some simple and important rules that should be followed by designing and
installing a plumbing system:
 All premises intended for human habitation, occupancy, or use should be provided with a
supply of pure and wholesome water, and neither connected with unsafe water supplied nor
subjected to the hazards of back flow or back siphonge.
 Water in sufficient and at adequate pressure should be supplied to the plumbing fixtures or
devices to enable them to function satisfactorily.
 Plumbing system should be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water
consistent with proper performance and cleaning.
 Waste water line should be connected to municipal sewer lines. In case of non availability of
sewers, the sewage should be treated and disposed off in an approved manner.
 Plumbing fixtures should be made of smooth, non absorbent material and should be free from
concealed fouling surfaces and located in ventilated enclosures.
 The drainage system should be designed, constructed and maintained so as to guard against
fouling, deposit of solids, and clogging and with adequate clean outs for Roding.
 The piping of the plumbing system should be durable material, free from defective
workmanship, and so designed and constructed as to give satisfactory services for its
reasonable expected life.
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 The waste water system should be designed to flow under gravity and to provide an adequate
circulation of air in all pipes with no danger of siphonage or forcing of trap seals under
conditions of ordinary use.
 Each vent terminal should be extended to the outer air and above the usual human height.
 All plumbing fixtures should be installed with regard to spacing as to be reasonably
accessible for their intended use.
 The plumbing system should be tested by appropriate method before putting it in use or
operation.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PLUMBING PROBLEM
Plumbing problems fall into following two major groups:
 Those which relate to the water supply that is faucets and valves, sanitary fixtures and piping
systems.
 Those which relate to the drainage system that is sanitary fixtures, traps and drainage pipes.
No repair should be made without first studying and locating the problem by following methods
of
 Identifying the symptoms by observing what is happening to the water.
 When more than one problem could cause the symptom, test to see which is causing it.
 When the cause is found, use proper repair procedures.
The plumber must have right kind of hand tools and should know the assembling of each part.
Some common handy tools include pipe wrench, ratchet brace, portable hand drilling m/c, hack
saw, cold chisels, dies, drill bit, hammers, D.E. spanners, pipe vices, pipe cutters, pipe benders,
compass, dividers etc. Safety must ensure before and while doing the work. Wherever possible
repairs should be attended in place, without removing the pipes, faucets, fixtures etc and the worn
parts should be replaced with new parts, if necessary. The following are the some of the
commonest faults in the plumbing:
 Leakage through faucets and valves.

 Leakage through pipes.
 Leakage in toilet flush tank.
 Clogged drains.
 Clogged toilets
 Blocked sewer lines
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COMMON PROBLEMS, THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES
S PROBLEMS PROBABLE CAUSES REMEDIES
No
1. Leaking or dripping (i) A defective handle or stem. (i) Replace the worn out
valves, faucets etc. (ii) Washer is deteriorated or parts.
broken. (ii) Replace with new washer.
(iii) Seat is worn out or pitted. (iii) Replace with a new seat, if
possible or entire fittings to
be replaced.
2. Leaks in pipe (i) Deterioration of pipes. (i) Remove and
(ii) Damage due to impact or replace the pipe.
puncture. (ii) Remove and replace
(iii) Damage due to freezing. the damaged or punctured
pipe.
(iii) Prevent the
freezing process.
3. Water supply leaks at (i) Twisting of pipes in opposite (i) Inspect and replace the
fitting i.e. tee, elbows, direction or deterioration of damaged part.
sockets, plugs, unions fittings or pipes.
etc.
4. Water leaks around stem. (i) Deteriorated packing. (i) Check carefully and replace
(ii) A worn stem. if worn out
(ii) Replace the worn stem.
5. Handle rotates without (i) Defective spleens on the (i) Replace the worn out handle.
changing water flow. handle. (ii) Replace the worn out parts
(ii) Defective spleens on the of stem.
stem.
6. Slow flow of water from (i) Cut off valve in the water (i) Open the valve completely.
spout. supply piping below the (ii) Clean the screen and re fix
fixture is partially closed it.
(ii) Aerator screen at the end of (iii) Check the supply system
the faucet is clogged. thoroughly and see that for
(iii) Pressure on the branch line every faucet about 8 m
is reduced. residual head is maintained.
7. Noise and vibration in the (i) Washer is loose. (i) Make sure that washer is
faucets. (ii) Packing is deteriorated. placed properly. Replace the
(iii) Stem is worn. worn out washer.
(iv) Faucet or valve base is worn. (ii) Replace it with new one.
(iii) Replace if threads are worn
out.
(iv) Replace the faucet valve.
8. Tub, lavatory, shower or (i) Blockage at the stopper (i) Clean the pop-up drain
sink drain blocked. mechanism. arrangement.
(ii) Blockage in the fixture trap. (ii) Remove grating and clean
(iii) Blockage in the drain piping. the P-trap.
(iv) Blockage in the stack. (iii) Clean the pipe snake.
(v) Blockage in the building (iv) Remove the blockage.
drain.
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COMMON PLUMBING TOOLS
Simple plumbing jobs will ordinarily require only a few tools. But to perform all plumbing
operations it would require a considerable no. of various types of tools and some of the tools are
needed in several sizes. The following tools are generally used in plumbing operations:
Measuring and layout tools: Instruments which measure lengths, heights,

diameters, levels or plumb are classified as measuring tools. Those
which are used to produce accurate lines, circles or any other marking
are called layout tools. Plumbing dimensions must be accurate in their Measuring Tape
fractions of a centimeter and the instrument must be capable of such
accuracy over distances of several meters. Rules, squares, levels, transits, plumb bobs,
chalk line, compass and dividers are comes under the category of measuring and layout
tools.
Alignment tools: While installing a pipe and plumbing

fixtures, it is frequently necessary to determine if the
part is vertical (plumb) or horizontal (level). The tools Level
used for this purpose are level, plumb bob, chalk line, Plumb
chalk box.
Compass and dividers: Layout circles and arcs require a compass or divider. The compass has a
pencil in one leg and another leg is a metal point while the divider has two metal points.
Tooth edged cutting tools: The installation of plumbing system requires that the plumber make
some alterations to the pipes so that pipes can be passed through the walls and roofs etc.
The tools used for this purpose are sober saw, hack saw, files etc.
Smooth edged cutting tools: These types of tools are used to trim opening and
make notches for pipes. The tool should have a wooden handle to have a
proper grip. The tools used for this purpose are wood chisel, cold chisel Chisel
etc.
Pipe cutters: These are used to cut pipes in required lengths for installation
purposes.
Drilling and boring tools: These tools are used for making holes in the wood
Drill
and also in pipes. These tools include ratchet brace, portable drill, hole
saw etc.
Reaming and threading tools: Reaming the end of a pipe removes the burr formed in side when
the pipe is cut. If allowed to remain, the burr collects deposits that obstruct the flow of
water. G.I. pipes need to be cut to size for installation purpose and threaded. Special dies
for various sizes as needed are to be used on site. The whole set of the threading tools
include Die stocks, wrenches, chain wrenches, adjustable wrenches, open end wrenches,
strap wrenches, locking pipers, hammers, vices etc.
Pipe vices: Pipe vices are generally required for plumbing jobs and erection of other types of pipe
lines. There are two types of vices:
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Chain type pipe vices: The main components of chain type pipe vices are base, jaws, chain and
screw. These are available in 63 mm to 152 mm nominal size. The base should be notched
or other means should be provided to anchor the chain by means of chain pins. The jaws
are rigidly mounted on the base or integral with base. The clapping surfaces of the jaws
are generally V-shaped or semi circular with mill cut teeth for gripping the pipe. The chain
provided is of the flat type with projecting link pins to engage the slot in the base. The
screw provided is generally of square threads.
Hinged type pipe vices: The main components of hinged type pipe vices are base, frame, hook,
jaw cross head, jaws screw spindle, handle etc. The vertical upright section of the base is
provided with holes for mounting of the frame and has provisions on both sides for
automatic engagement of the latch hook. The lower jaw mounting is designed to allow
the vice to clamp the minimum pipe size capacity of the vices. The open ends of the frame
are provided with mounting bolt holds to align with the bolt holds in the upright of the
base. The close end is provided with an internal threaded hole in the centre. One of the
legs has a hole for mounting of latch hook and is designed to automatically lock the frame
in closed position. The assembled frame is designed to reverse in vertical plane to the base
and provides for hinging the frame either from the right or left side of the base. The inside
of the frame is made smooth and parallel ways free from burrs and fins act as guide for the
jaw cross head and permits the cross head to slide freely over the entire length of
adjustment without binding. The top of the jaw cross head is provided with means to allow
the end of the screw spindle to swivel and is designed to both raise and lower the cross
head by action of the screw spindle. The gripping surfaces of the jaws are made v or semi
circular shaped with mill cut V-shaped teeth for gripping pipes. The screw spindle is
provided with square metric trapezoidal screw threads. One end of the screw spindle is
provided with a head either as an integral part of the screw or welded to the screw in a
permanent manner. The head is provided with a hole to receive the handle. The screw
spindle engages the full length of the threaded bearing of the body when jaw is at the
maximum opening. The handle is straight and slides freely in the hole of the screw spindle
head with means provided at each end of the handle to prevent disengagement from the
screw spindle head.
The composite materials and alloys are used for the manufacture of different components
of vices. The vices should be smooth all over, free from burrs, cracks, or other
manufacturing defects. The vices are printed on all non-working surfaces. The working
surfaces are covered with rust proofing material.
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Pipe wrenches: Pipe wrenches are mostly employed for rotating round
work. These wrenches are provided with a movable jaw that is
provided to permit a gripping action on the work. These tools are
used with discretion as the jaws are serrated and always leave marks
on the work. The pipe wrenches are made of cast steel, malleable
Pipe Wrench
cast iron and other alloys so that they can stand for use. These are
available in the range of 200 mm to 1200 mm length size. The pipe
wrench must be free from flaws, cracks, rust, burrs, and other
injurious defects. The machined or un-machined surfaces are
painted or suitably treated with rust preventives. The main Adjustable Wrench
components of a pipe wrenches are handle movable jaw, adjustable
nut, frame, hinge pin and springs. The handle is a one piece
forging with integral teeth. The teeth must have definite number, shape and size to enable
the assembled tool to meet the requirements without slipping and to grip positively during
normal operation any appropriate diameter of pipe within the safe capacity. The movable
jaw is a one piece forging with integral teeth. The shank of the movable threads in order to
engage the internal threads of the adjusting nut.
The adjustment nut is generally cylindrical, knurled or longitudinally serrated and

threaded internally with trapezoidal threads to engage the threads of the movable jaw. The
frame of the pipe wrench is of one piece casting. It is integral with the handle or is
attached to the handles by means of a riveted pin. It allows easy adjustment of the movable
jaw allowing easy and proper operation of the wrenches both forward and backward. The
hinge pin when in position will have heads formed at each end by riveting. The spring or
springs provided in the wrench assembly properly balances the movable jaw so that action,
both forward and backward, is provided. The springs are secured to the frame by riveting
and the greatest angular movement is up to 10°.
Water main fittings: Followings are the water main fittings used on special installations.
Elbows: Elbows are used to make right angle turns or change the direction.
Tees: Tees are used to make changes of direction less than right angles to the vertical or
horizontal turn. These are provided in long and short pattern.
Reducers: Reducers are used to decrease the flow in pipe fittings. Its diameter decreases in a
continuous manner from input to output water main fittings.
Increasers: Increasers are used to increase the flow in pipe fittings. Its diameter increases in a
continuous manner from input to output water main fittings.
Hangers and supports: Piping in plumbing system must be installed with proper pipe hangers or
supports to provide leeway for pipe movement caused contractions, expansions and
vibrations without proper supports or lessened by installing a layer of felt between the
supports and the piping.
Y-Branch: It is used to make connection for distribution or flow.
Cross: It is used to make cross connections in pipe fitting for distribution or flow.
Plug: It is used to close or block a particular area in pipe fitting for temporarily or permanently.
95
Valves: These are devices that control the flow of water in the water supply system. They are
installed at certain places on the lines so that water can be shut off easily.
Faucets: These are valves that permit controlled amounts of water as needed for use in a
building. They deliver water to sinks, showers, and bathtubs, but can also
deliver water to a hose or bucket.
Fixtures: These are water-using devices such as sinks, bathtubs, urinals, stools,
or showers. They are attached to the plumbing system and receive water
from the supply system.
Fixture
Selection of Pipe Material: The selection of the pipe material depends on
 The nature of fluid flow through it.

 Pressure and temperature of fluid.
 The life of the pipe.
 Carrying capacity of the pipe.
 Cost of production and availability of the pipe.
 Maintenance cost of the pipe.
Classification of Pipes: According to the material used, the pipes can be classified as follows:
Cast iron pipes: Cast iron pipes are prepared by casting. These pipes are commonly used for
carrying water, steam, gas and sewage. These pipes are resistant to corrosion and have
good life. Cast iron pipes are available in the market from 50 mm to 1500 mm diameter.
The length of these pipes is upto 4 metres.
Steel pipes: Steel pipes as compared to cast iron pipes have much greater strength, ductility and
impact resistance. These pipes can be manufactured in smaller diameters and upto 12
metre length. These pipes are used to carry water, steam, gas and sewage. Gas and steam
in these pipes can be carried at high pressure.
Galvanized wrought iron pipes: Wroght iron galvanized pipes are extensively used for carrying
water and gas at low pressure for domestic purposes. These pipes are much lighter than
cast iron pipes and can be easily threaded. Galvanised pipes are resistant to corrosion.
These pipes are available in size from 5 mm to 150 mm diameter bore and length upto 12
metres.
Plastic pipes: Plastic pipes are made of high molecular weight plastics like polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and cellulose, acetate-burate. Plastic pipes are resistant
to corrosion by most inorganic acids, alkalies and salts. These pipes are commonly used in
chemical industries.
96
Asbestos cement pipes: These pipes are made from asbestos, cement and silica. These pipes are
manufactured in diameters above 200 mm and are used for carrying water and air at low
pressure.
Cement concrete pipes: These pipes are cast at sight and are used to carry large quantity of water
at low pressure.
Copper and brass pipes: These pipes possess good corrosion resistance and strength. These
pipes are used for hot water system like boilers, general plumbing work and refrigeration
machinery. Copper pipes are available upto 4 metre lengths.
97
CNC MACHINES
Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) machine tool is defined as a system in which actions are
controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data defining distances to be moved, shape to be
produced and machining parameters. The combination of all numerical information in a sequence
understood by the CNC machine tool controller is called a part program and the process of
creating data in a correctly structured format is called programming. The working of a CNC
machine tool consists of three steps. In step 1, the numerical data (part program) is feed. In step
two, MCU (Machine Control Unit) on the CNC machine reads the coded data, decodes it and
changes it into the electrical signals and transfer it to the machine tool. In the next step,
transducers or servo units on the machine tool converts the electrical signals into the actual
movements of the machine tool. In some CNC machine tools there is an added feature in which a
sensing element measures the actual movements of the machine and feed this information back to
MCU to verify that the actual movements conforms to the numerical data input.
CNC TURNING MACHINE
CNC Turning machines are in general turning machines (lathe) with axes (slide X, Z and
headstock spindle Y) moved by a servo or stepper motor.
PARTS OF CNC TURNING MACHINE
Countershaft: Countershaft is attached to the motor. It provides rotation to the chuck on required
RPM.
Cross slide: Cross slide is mainly used to provide feed to the cutting tool along X-axis.
Longitudinal slide: Longitudinal slide is mainly used along the Z-axis.
Chuck: It is used to hold the work piece. Rotating the upper part of chuck against the lower part
makes the jaws open and close by using two small rods. Chuck can hold minimum 1.8 mm
and maximum 56 mm work piece in its jaws.
Tool post: It is used to mount the cutting tool.
Tailstock: Tailstock is mounted in the front of chuck on the long bed. It is used to support the
long work piece.
CNC MILLING MACHINE
A milling machine is a machine tool used for the shaping of metal and other solid materials. Its
basic form consists of a cutter, that rotates in the spindle axis and a table, on which the work piece
is attached. The machine is controlled by three axis namely X,Y and Z.
PARTS OF CNC MILLING MACHINE
Countershaft: It is part on which cutting tool is attached with the help of collet and its holder. It
provides rotation to the tool on required RPM.
Motor: It is a device which rotates the countershaft. It is 12V DC motor, which provides
maximum 20000 RPM to the countershaft.
98
Cross slide: There are two Cross slides used in CNC milling. One is used to move the work piece
towards Y-axis and another is used to move the tool towards Z-axis.
Longitudinal slide: Longitudinal slide is mainly used to move the cross slide along the X-axis.
Milling Vice: Milling vice is used to hold the work piece.
Figure 1: CNC milling machine
CNC PROGRAMMING
The CNC part program is written using various codes which are understood by the CNC machine
tool. Some of the common codes used in a part program are:
N: Block sequence number

G: Preparatory functions (Execute the instruction that is to follow after G)
M: Miscellaneous functions (Used to initiate functions like spindle rotation, program
stop, coolant on or off etc.)
F: Feed function
O: Programme number
T: Tool function
S: Spindle speed function
R: Radius of arc
X, Y, Z: Represent the axes of the machine. Sometime in some CNC systems for
incremental programming U and W are used for X and Z axes.
G 00: Rapid positioning
99
G 01: Linear interpolation
G 02: Circular interpolation (clockwise)
G 03: Circular interpolation (counter clockwise)
G 04: Dwell
G 07: Dimeter mode activate
G 20: English (Inch) input
G 21: Metric input
G 28: Zero return
G 41: Cutter compensation off
G 42: Cutter compensation left
G 43: Cutter compensation right
G 70: Finishing cycle
G 71: Multiple turning cycle
G 76: Multiple thread cutting cycle
G 90: Absolute programming
G 91: Incremental programming
M 02: Program end
M 03: Spindle rotation clockwise
M 04: Spindle rotation counter clockwise
M 05: Spindle stop
M 06: Tool change
M 08: Coolant on
M 09: Coolant off
M 30: Program end and rewind
Important advantages of CNC machine tools are – high accuracy, short production time, complex
contours can be machined easily, high repeatability and greater flexibility.
PROJECT EXAMPLE 1
A part programme to produce the ball peen hammer (Figure 1) on a CNC lathe is written below.
11R
Φ25 Φ24 Φ22
5 25 5 30 5 9 11
Figure 1: Ball peen hammer
Part programme
BILLET X25 Z100 Dimensions of the cylindrical workpiece required

N1 G28 U0 W0
100
N2 M06 T01 Single point right hand turning tool
N3 M03 S1200
N4 G00 X25 Z2
N5 G71 U0.5 W1
N6 G71 P7 Q13 U0.3 W0.2 F100
N7 G01 X0
N8 Z0
N9 G03 X22 Z-11 R11
N10 G01 Z-60
N11 X24 Z-85
N12 Z-90
N13 X25
N14 G70 P7 Q13
N15 G28 U0 W0
N16 M05
N17 M06 T03 Grooving tool of 2.5mm radius and 5mm width
N18 M03 S800
N19 G00 X23 Z-22.5
N20 G01 X17.5 F20
N21 G00 X23
N22 Z-57.5
N23 G01 X17.5 F20
N24 G00 X23
N25 G28 U0 W0
N26 M05
N27 M06 T05 Parting off tool with 5mm edge width
N28 M03 S800
N29 G00 X26 Z-87.5
N30 G01 X0 F10
N31 G0 X26
N32 G28 U0 W0
M30
PROJECT EXAMPLE 2
A Part programme is written below to perform turning operation of the work piece
Raw material: Acrylic rod12 mm Ø, 100 mm long,
Tool: Outside turning tool right, max. forward feed rate 80mm/min, max. feed 0.2mm
101
CNC Programme
G7 (activate diameter mode)

G0 X 20
G0 Z1
G0 X 11.8
G1 Z-20 F 50
G0 Z1
G0 X 11.6
G1 Z-20
G0 Z1
G0 X 11.4
G1 Z-20
G0 Z1
G0 X11.2
G1 Z-20
G0 Z1
G0 X11
G1 Z-20
G0 X11.4
G0 X20 Z1
M02
PROJECT EXAMPLE 3
A Part programme is written below to prepare the alphabets “AL” on CNC milling machine
Raw material: Acrylic work-piece piece 40 mm x 50 mm x 9mm
102
CNC Programme
G00 x0 y0 z2
G00 x5 y7 z2
G01 x5 y7 z-1 f50
G01 X12.5 Y32
G01 X20 Y7
G00 X20 Y7 Z2
G00 X8 Y17
G01 X8 Y17 Z-1
G01 X17 Y17
G00 X 17 Y17 Z2
G00 x30 y32 z2
G01 x30 y32 z-1
G01 x30 y7
G01 x45 y7
G00 x45 y7 z2
G00 X0 Y0 Z2
M02
PRACTICAL (Mini CNC Lathe)

Assignment: To prepare a job as per given drawing
Equipment and Tools Required: Table Turning CNC Machine
Material Required: Acrylic rod dia.12 mm x 50 mm length.
1. Study the drawing given in above Figure.
2. Hold the work piece in chuck and properly tight by chuck rod. Do facing on work piece to find
out its diametric center.
3. Now open the sandy box from computer window and choose the uni-dreh machine from
options.
4. Set the home axis for both X and Z- axis. Take touch off for both axes.
5. Write a CNC part programme for given drawing.
103
6. After completion the program, run the program.
7. After completion the work, remove the work piece from chuck.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Check all the connections.
2. Make ensure that the cutting tool are properly tight.
3. Check the Rotational speed, feed rate and program sequence.
4. Check the travel distance of X-axis and Z-axis.
5. Switch on the spindle before run the program on machine.
6. After completing the job off the machines, close the sandy box window properly.
PRACTICAL (Mini CNC Milling)

Assignment: To write the given alphabets as per given drawing
Equipment and Tools Required: Table Milling CNC Machine
Material required: Acrylic piece 40 mm x 50 mm x 9mm
1. Check the given alphabets.
2. Hold the work piece in machine vice and properly tight
3. Now open the sandy box from computer window and choose the uni-milling machine from
options.
4. Set the home axis for both X,Y and Z- axis. Take touch off for all the axis at left most below
corner of the workpiece.
5. Write a CNC part program for given alphabets as per the dimensions given in above figure.
104
6. After completion the programme, run the program.
7. After completion the work, remove the work piece from chuck.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Check all the connections.
2. Make ensure that the cutting tool are properly tight.
3. Check the Rotational speed of cutting tool, feed rate and program sequence.
4. Check the travel distance of X, Y and Z-axis.
5. Switch on the spindle before run the program on machine.
6. After completing the job off the machines, close the sandy box window properly.
PRACTICAL (CNC Lathe)

Assignment: To prepare a job as per given drawing
Equipment and Tools Required: CNC Turning Machine, Single point cutting tool
Material Required: M.S. rod dia.75 mm x 80 mm length
105
PRACTICAL (CNC Milling)
Assignment: To write the given alphabets as per given drawing
Equipment and Tools Required: CNC Milling Machine, End mill cutter of 10 mm dia
Material required: M.S. block 100 mm x 100 mm x 50 mm
106

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Practical Manual

WORKSHOP PRACTICE (TA C112)

Educational Development Division

Workshop Practice students, shop instructors and practical instructors provided

Instructions/Guidelines for Practical Class iv

4. Sheet metal shop 28

6. Machine shop – Lathe 39

7. Machine shop – Shaper 52

8. Machine shop – Milling 57

12. Foundry shop 81

14. Power tools 87

1 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3

2 W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E

7 M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 CNC CNC CNC

8 CNC CNC CNC M1 M2 M3 S SM1 SM2 C1 C2 C3 Mlg1 Mlg2 Mlg3 Fd Sh E W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3

COMMON FITTING TOOLS & EQUIPMENTS

Bench Vice: A bench vice is generally used for normal bench

Ball peen hammer: A ball peen hammer is most widely used in

Types of screw drivers:

(a) Set spanner: The jaws may be set at an angle of 0, 15 30

Assignment: To fabricate a paper weight

Figure F3: Fitting job – Paper weight

1. Study the drawings of the job to be made (Figure F3).

Measuring & Marking

Measuring & Marking

Drilling & Counter Sunking

COMMON WELDING TOOLS

Scaling hammer: It is also known as chipping hammer and is used to

Electrode holder: It is a mechanical device used for holding electrode

Screen holder: It is a protecting dark glass holding screen used by the

Helmet: A welding helmet is one of the most important personal

COMMON WELDING TECHNIQUES

Fig. 1: Arc welding set-up diagram

Figure 2: Gas welding Set-up diagram

Figure 3: Different types of flames

Figure 4: Different types of joints

Figure W1: T – joint wall hook using arc welding

Assignment 2: To make a butt joint as per figure W2.

Material Required: 2 mild steel flats of 75 mm × 25 mm × 6 mm and MS welding electrode

Note: All dimensions in mm. Figure not to scale.

Note: All dimensions in mm. Figure not to scale.

Figure W3: Butt joint using gas welding

COMMON SMITHY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

Open hearth furnace

Assignment: To fabricate MS L – hook.

Material Required: Mild Steel (MS) round bar (125mm × φ 12mm).

Figure S1: Smithy job – MS L - hook

1. Study the drawing of the job shown in Figure S1.

Squaring the job by Forging

COMMON SHEET METAL TOOLS

Mallet: It is a hammer made of wood. It is generally used in sheet metal

Assignment: To fabricate a pen stand

Material required: Tin sheet of 24SWG, solder (tin/lead).

Note: All dimensions in mm. Figure not to scale.

Figure Sm1: Smithy job – Pen stand

1. Study the drawing as given in Figure Sm1.

COMMON CARPENTRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

grain. Cross cut saw

cutting operations. Firmer Gouges are sharpened on the outside

Multifunction wood working machine: It is a carpentry

Multifunctional wood working machine

To make bracket [Part (A), (B) and (C)]

Note: All dimensions in mm. Figures not to scale