ABEN 70 – BASIC FARM MACHINERIES,

MECHANIZATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT

WATER RESOURCES

Water

- A common chemical substance that is essential

for the survival of all known forms of life. In
typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form
or state, but the substance also has a solid state
(ice), and a gaseous state (water vapor or
steam)

Facts and Figures

Inventory of water at the Earth’s surface and its

Residence Time Rain water

Reservoir Volume Percent Approximate - collects on the earth in the form of surface

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(km3 x of Total Residence water and underground water

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10,000,000 (%) Time (years)

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) Surface water

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Oceans 1370 97.25 - water present on the surface of the earth in the

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Ice caps and 29 2.05 40
form of oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds, and
Glaciers
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Groundwater 9.5 0.68 200
rivers and lakes comes from rain and melting of
(shallow)
10,000 snow on mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.
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(deep) Ground water

Lakes 0.125 0.01 100
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- fresh water stored underground in aquifers.

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Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005 0.2

Atmosphere 0.013 0.001 - most fresh water resources are stored here.
Streams and 0.0017 0.0001 0.04 - aquifer area underground with rocks and gravel
Rivers that have spaces where water can accumulate
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Biospheres 0.0006 0.00004

Rainfall and Streamflow Dependability
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Sources and Distribution of Water

World's total water supply: 332.5 million cubic miles Hydrologic processes are said to fall under stochastic,
probabilistic or deterministic processes.
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- Deterministic Process – one in which a definite

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law of certainty exists

- Probabilistic Process – governed by chance;
time series INDEPENDENT
- Stochastic Process – governed by chance; time
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dependent

Rainfall depths for specific durations and streamflow

peaks occurring during long period of time are
stochastic variables.

Statistical and probabilistic analyses allow the

development if probability statements or estimates
related to the magnitude of certain events
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 Dependable Rainfall – the value of period rainfall The stage-discharge relation of the form � = 𝒂𝒉� is to be
(monthly, seasonal, etc.) that will be exceeded over a developed. Based on the observed data, the value of � is
given location for a fixed number of time. ___.
- This value ensures that on average, there will be
enough water to meet the crop's need four out
of every five years.

Maximum Rainfall – the value of period rainfall that on

average, will not be exceeded over a given location for a
fixed number of time.

- This value ensures that on average, a drainage

system or a sedimentation pond will have
Estimating Runoff Properties
adequate capacity four out of every five years
Rational Method: � = 𝑪𝒊�
For instance, the 80% dependable rainfall is
normally used in calculating the capacity of storage Where:
reservoirs and of main irrigation canals. This dependable
- q = design peak runoff rate

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monthly or annual rainfall is the value that will be

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exceeded on the average four out of five years that is - C = runoff coefficient

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with a probability of exceedance of 80% - i = rainfall intensity

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- A = area of the watershed
For drainage projects, the 20% dependable rainfall is

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Surface water and Ground water Development
usually adopted.
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The rainfall in a given period is considered normal if - Surface water and groundwater are not isolated
the rainfall that fell within the period is 50% components of the hydrologic system, but
dependable, i.e., it will be exceeded on the average instead interact in a variety of physiographic and
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every other year. climatic landscapes. Thus, development or

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contamination of one commonly affects the

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Streamflow records may be extended in time for other.

purpose other than curve improvement. A mean for - Groundwater is a hidden resource. At one time,
some past month or year may be needed. This can be its purity and availability were taken for granted.
obtained by simple regression or by regression models - Groundwater is the water that saturates the tiny
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with both streamflow and precipitation as independent spaces between alluvial material (sand, gravel,
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variables. silt, clay) or the crevices of fractures in rocks.

Streamflow in a river was measured at various How surface water can feed an unconfined aquifer?
stages using a current meter. The results are:
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- The source of groundwater (recharge) is

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through precipitation or surface water that

percolates downward. Approximately 5-50%
(depending on climate, land use and many other
factors) of annual precipitation results in
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groundwater recharge.

Losing streams - streams literally recharge the

aquifer through stream bed infiltration. These are
called losing streams.

How unconfined aquifer can feed surface water?

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 - One of the most commonly used forms of
groundwater comes from unconfined shallow
water table aquifers.
- These aquifers are major sources of drinking
and irrigation water. They also interact closely
with streams, sometimes flowing (discharging)
water into a stream or lake and sometimes
receiving water from the stream or lake.
Gaining streams – an unconfined aquifer that feeds
streams provides the stream’s base flow.
- In fact, groundwater can be responsible for
Physical parameters of water quality:
maintaining the hydrologic balance of surface
streams, springs, lakes, wetlands, and marshes.
This is why successful watershed partnerships
take a special interest in the unconfined aquifer
adjacent to the stream, lake or other surface
- Physical parameters (turbidity, temperature,
color, taste and odor, solids, electrical
conductivity)
- Chemical parameters (pH, acidity, alkalinity,
chloride, chlorine residual, sulfate, nitrogen,
fluoride, iron and manganese, copper and zinc,
hardness, DO, BOD, COD, toxic inorganic
substances, toxic organic substances,
radioactive substances)
- Biological parameters (bacteria, algae, viruses,
protozoa)
- Turbidity – a measure of the ability of light to
pass through water.
- Temperature – most people find water at
temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable

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water body. - Color – measured by comparing the water

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sample with standard color solutions or colored
Left untouched, groundwater naturally achieves

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glass disks. One color unit is equivalent to the

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balance— discharging and recharging—depending on
color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of
hydrologic conditions. In fact, some streams are gaining

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platinum.

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streams at times and losing streams at other times
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units.
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Water Quality Considerations
Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0
The most popular definition of water quality is color units.
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“it is the physical, chemical, and biological

- Taste and odor – can be caused by foreign
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characteristics of water”.
matter such as organic materials, inorganic
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Water quality is a measure of the condition of compounds, or dissolved gasses These materials
water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic may come from natural, domestic, or
species and/or to any human need or purpose. agricultural sources.
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Water quality can be classified into four types: The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a
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potable water, palatable water, contaminated (polluted) threshold number where TON is the threshold odor
water, and infected water. number and TTN is the threshold taste number.

- Potable water – safe to drink, pleasant to taste, - Solid – occur in water either in solution or in
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and usable for domestic purposes. suspension. These two types of solids can be
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- Palatable water – esthetically pleasing; it identified by using a glass fiber filter that the
considers the presence of chemicals that do not water sample passes through.
cause a threat to human health.
- Contaminated (polluted) water – containing
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unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or

Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per
radiological substances, and it is unfit for
liter as follows:
drinking or domestic use.
- Infected water – contaminated with pathogenic - freshwater: 5000 mg/L TDS.
organism. - brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
- saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
Parameters of water quality:

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 - Electrical conductivity – a measure of the ability
of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical
current.
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity.
Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
- Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m
- Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m
- Seawater: 5 S/m
Chemical parameters of water quality:
- pH– defined as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration. It is a measure of
how acidic/basic water is.
- Acidity – its quantitative capacity to neutralize a
strong base to a selected pH level. The level of
acidity is determined by titration with standard
health. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing
tooth decay, particularly in children
- Iron and manganese – they impart a noticeable
bitter taste to drinking water even at very low
concentration.
- Copper and zinc – nontoxic if found in small
concentrations. At high concentrations, zinc
imparts a milky appearance to the water
- Hardness – a term used to express the
properties of highly mineralized waters.
Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water.
There are two types of hardness:
a. Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates
and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling.
b. Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates
and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling.

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sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as an

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indicator. - Dissolved oxygen (DO) – it is a key test of water

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- Alkalinity – its acid-neutralizing capacity pollution. The higher the concentration of

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comprised of the total of all titratable bases. dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.

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Alkalinity is determined by titration with a
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standard acid solution using selective indicators
There are three main methods used for measuring
dissolved oxygen concentrations:
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such as methyl orange or phenolphthalein.
- Chloride – occurs naturally in groundwater, a. colorimetric method — quick and inexpensive
streams, and lakes, but the presence of b. Winkler titration method — traditional method
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relatively high chloride concentration in c. electrometric method

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freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may

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indicate wastewater pollution. - Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – used as a

measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage
Standards for public drinking water require chloride
has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD.
levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L.
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- Chemical oxygen demand (COD) – a parameter

that measures all organics: the biodegradable
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- Chlorine residual – in drinking water, a residual

of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual and the non-biodegradable substances. COD
concentration which is maintained in the water values are always higher than BOD values for
distribution system ensures good sanitary the same sample.
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quality of water - Toxic inorganic substances

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- Sulfate – high concentration of sulfate in natural - Toxic organic substances

water is usually caused by leaching of natural - Radioactive substances – include wastes from
deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or nuclear power plants, industries, or medical
magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) research using radioactive chemicals and mining
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- Nitrogen – There are four forms of nitrogen in of uranium ores or other radioactive materials
water and wastewater: organic nitrogen,
Biological parameters of water quality:
ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate
nitrogen. Excessive nitrate concentration (more - Bacteria – considered to be single-celled plants
than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an because of their cell structure and the way they
immediate and severe health threat to infants. ingest food.
- Fluoride – A moderate amount of fluoride ions - Algae – microscopic plants, which contain
in drinking water contributes to good dental photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll.
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 They are autotrophic organisms and support
themselves by converting inorganic materials
into organic matter by using energy from the
sun, during this process they take in carbon
dioxide and give off oxygen.
- Viruses – smallest biological structures known
to contain all genetic information necessary for
their own reproduction. They can only be seen
by a powerful electronic microscope.
- Protozoa – single-celled microscopic animal,
consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and
algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as
food by higher level multicellular animals.
- Indicator organisms – a very important
biological indicator of water and pollution is the
group of bacteria called coliforms. Water that
has been recently contaminated with sewage

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will always contain coliforms.

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A particular species of coliforms found in domestic

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sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli

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Water Quality Requirements

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Water quality requirements differ depending on
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the proposed used of water.
- Water quality requirements should be agreed
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with the water quality standards.

- In general, there are three types of standards:
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in-stream, potable water, and wastewater

effluent.
- The World Health Organization (WHO) has
established minimum standards for drinking
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water that all countries are recommended to

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meet.
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