> Cells with similar structure that work together to perform common functions

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
o Lines body surfaces inside and out 3. Sensation → epithelial tissue has a really
o Forms glands rich nerve supply
Gather sensory information like
CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES pressure, temperature, & pain.
1. Cellularity → made up almost entirely of cells
4. Secretion → specialized cells; secretory
2. Polarity → the cell looks different at the top (apical) than at
cells that form epithelial glands.
the bottom (basal)
*these secretions are to be released
3. Attachment →
into ducts and then discharged onto
the surface of epithelium – excretory
glands. Ex: sweat glands & salivary
ducts
*can also be released into surrounding
tissue & blood – endocrine glands. Ex:
4. Avascular → gets its nutrients by diffusion from
thyroid glands
capillaries
5. Repair and regeneration → can repair and regenerate that
I. MEMBRANOUS EPITHELIUM
most other tissues.
- Covers and lines the external surface of
FUNCTIONS the body.
- Lining all internal cavities, organs, tubes,
1. Protection → ex: skin protects our bodies; and passage ways.
made up of many layers of cells for greater
protection I.1. Number of layers
2. Permeability → tightly regulates what can
1. Simple E.
and can’t pass thru the body
- Rapid absorption or diffusion occurs
Ex: Skin (impermeable) many layers –
- One layer
most substances can’t easily pass thru into
our bodies
Lining in the intestine (permeable) one
2. Stratified E.
layer – epithelium is much thinner, and it
- Protection against abrasion & friction
allows water & nutrients to pass easily
Ex: skin
through while keeping bacteria out.
 I.2. Shape of cells

Examples of Epithelial Tissues

Structure
Single layer of flat cells; a bulge occurs in each cell where the
nucleus is located; it is often difficult to see the cytoplasm
because the cells are so thin.

Location
Air sacs (alveoli) of lungs; inner lining of blood vessels and
heart (endothelium) and lymphatic vessels; external (serous)
membranes of stomach and intestines; some tubules of kidney.

Function
Usually rapid diffusion or transport of material (lungs, blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels); sometimes secretion of lubricating
serous fluid (serous membranes).

Structure

Single layer of cube or round-shaped cells.

Location

Kidney tubules; ducts of many glands including mammary

and salivary; surface of ovaries; ciliated in terminal
bronchioles of the lungs.

Function

Secretion and absorption.

 Structure
Single layer of tall, narrow column-shaped cells; oval nucleus
usually near base of cell; some cells have cilia (lungs, uterine tubes)
or microvilli (intestines); may possess Goblet cells which secrete
mucus.

Location
Stomach, intestines and gallbladder; uterus and uterine tubes;
bronchioles of lungs; some kidney tubules.

Function
Absorption (stomach, intestines and kidney); secretion (stomach,
intestines, lungs, uterus and kidney); mucus from Goblet cells helps
prevent destruction of stomach lining from acidic gastric juice.

Structure
Single layer of cells of varying heights; looks multi-layered
(stratified) because nuclei are located at different levels; all cells
are anchored to the basement membrane but only some cells
reach the free surface; almost always ciliated and associated with
Goblet cells which secrete and secrete mucus.

Location
Respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi.

Function
Mucus traps dust in air and foreign material; cilia sweep mucus
and trapped material towards the throat where it is coughed or
swallowed or spat out.
 Structure
Multiple layers of cells; cells are cuboidal in basal layers and
progressively flatten towards the surface.

Location
Mouth, throat, larynx and oesophagus; anus; vagina; cornea.

Function
Protection against abrasion and pathogenic invasion.

Structure
Multiple layers of cells; cells are cuboidal in basal layers and
progressively flatten towards the surface; surface is covered with
layers of compact dead cells without nuclei and filled with a tough
protein called keratin.

Location
Skin.

Function
Protection against abrasion and pathogenic invasion; retards
water loss through skin.
 Structure

Two or more layers of cube-shaped cells; rare type of epithelium.

Location

Ducts of sweat and salivary glands; ovarian follicles; sperm-producing

ducts (seminiferous tubules).

Function

Secretion (glands, ovarian hormones, sperm); protection.

Structure
Multiple layers of column-shaped cells usually resting on cuboidal
cells; rare type of epithelium.

Location
Ducts of mammary and oesophageal glands; part of male urethra.

Function
Protection; limited secretion.

Structure
Multiple layers of cells that can change shape; cells are cuboidal
when bladder is empty, but become squamous as bladder distends
(stretches) when it fills with urine.

Location
Urinary bladder; ureters; superior urethra.

Function
Allows urinary organs to stretch when filled with urine; protection
against caustic urine.
 CELL JUNCTIONS
 Found between adjacent epithelial cells
 Make sure that these cells are tightly
adhered to one another.
3 MAIN TYPES
1. Tight Junctions
 To form a seal that prevents
molecules from passing between the
two cells.
 Acts as a security guard, choosing
what passes from the luminal side into
the body. (selective barrier)
 Found in the epithelium that lines the
intestines.
2. Desmosomes
 Strengthen the connections of
adjacent cells
 Found next to tight junctions
 Formed by proteins that interlocked
and connect to the cells.
 Resistant against stretching & twisting
 Found bet. Epithelial cells to
withstand physical stress such as the
SKIN.
3. Gap Junctions
 Cell to cell communication
 These channels allow messages to
pass between cells, allowing them to
communicate & coordinate functions.
II. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- Produces and secretes substances
such as sweat, stomach acid, mucus,
and hormones
2 TYPES
1. Endocrine glands
o Release secretion into the bloodstream
Ex: thyroid & adrenal glands
2. Exocrine glands
o Releases secretion into the ducts, which
empty onto a surface or into a cavity.
Ex: pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes that are emptied into the small
intestines.
o Can be unicellular glands
Ex: individual goblet cells that are
found throughout the respiratory and
digestive tracts.
o Multicellular glands, such as sweat glands,
are formed by cluster of secretory cells.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MULTICELLULAR GLANDS

I. According to shape
(A) SIMPLE (B) COMPOUND

II. According to cluster of secretory cells

a. Tubular → tube shape
b. Acinar → berry/ sac shape
- Simple acinar
- Compound acinar
c. Tubuloacinar → combination of 2 tubes.

III. According to types of secretion

a. Serous glands → watery secretion
Ex: sweat glands
b. Mucous glands → thick, slimy mucus; traps dust & bacteria and prevents them from travelling
down into the lungs
c. Mixed glands → combination of both
Ex: Salivary glands
- Mucus: helps lubricate food
- Serous: contains enzymes, start digestion in mouth.

IV. According on the way they secrete

a. Merocrine secretion
- The product is released from secretory vesicles via exocytosis
Ex: sweat released into the skin
b. Apocrine secretion
- A portion of cytoplasm containing the secretion is released.
Ex: milk production in breast.
c. Holocrine secretion
- The entire cell becomes so packed with secretion, that it bursts; makes the cell die.
Ex: Sebaceous glands in skin release sebum or oil.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUES
6. NOURISHES other tissues (Abundant
blood supply)
CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS OF Ex: ET, which has no blood supply, relies
CONNECTIVE TISSUES in the underlying CT to provide the
> All connective tissue has: medium for nutrients to diffuse across the
1. Specialized cells basal to reach epithelial cells
2. Extracellular protein fibers *produced by
7. Ability to FORM NEW CELLS
3. Gel-like ground substance
these.
Ex: Bone marrow forms new blood cells
Helps suspend the cells and the fibers based on the body’s needs.
Made up the ECM
Makes up the spaces
between the cells
Examples of CT that can be found in the mouth:

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Dense CT → thick & hard; withstand

resistance - supports the teeth. (Ex: gums)
1. Connective tissue proper • Loose CT → quite transparent & loose;
Ex: loose & dense CT
gives us the ability to move the lip; also
2. Specialized CT (fluid CT)
Ex: blood & lymph CT
gives resilience, so that the tissue can go
3. Supporting CT back to the resting position.
Ex: bone, cartilage, & bone marrow
LOOSE AND DENSE CT
 Both of these tissues act as our body’s packing
2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CT material; they fill the spaces between the
(1) Fluid matrix – Ex: blood organs to keep them intact.
(2) Calcified & hardened matrix – Ex: bone
LOOSE CT
o Most abundant CT
FUNCTIONS: o Allows free movement w/ minimal resistance
o Contains:
1. CONNECTING one tissue to another - ECM fibers (reticular, elastic, collagen)
Ex: tendon connecting muscles to bones - Viscous ground substance
2. TRANSPORTING fluids & dissolved - 2 classes of cells
materials - (1) fixed cells → general maintenance of
Ex: blood the tissue
3. PROTECTING & supporting delicate (a) Melanocytes
organs  Produces melanin;
 Protects from UV radiation
Ex: CT sheets – protects the heart &
(b) Fixed macrophages
kidneys
 Immune cells
4. STORING energy reserves in the form of
 Defend the tissue from invading
triglycerides in Adipose tissue. pathogens
5. DEFENDING the body from invading
organisms – Lymph
(c) Mast cells
 Stimulate local inflammation by releasing
HISTAMINE – hay fever
(d) Fibrolasts
 Produce EC fibers
(e) Adipocytes
 Fat cells; store fatty reserves
(2) Wandering cells → defend and repair damaged
tissues; cells of the immune system
(a) Plasma cells
(b) Wandering cells
(c) WBC
(d) Mesenchymal cells
 Stem cells responsible for the repair of
the tissue
 Capable of changing into a variety of cells
based on the needs of the tissue.
Fiber in Loose CT
1. Reticular → protects organs; branching
networks
2. Collagen → for resilience and strength
3. Elastic → slender & stretchy; can recoil
after a good, long stretch.
3 TYPES OF LOOSE CT
1. Areolar
- Contains all of the cell types
- Found beneath all epithelial layers
2. Adipose
- Has limited extracellular space but
lots of adipocytes, w/c forms a
cushion around the delicate organs
- Found beneath the skin for insulation
and protection
3. Reticular
- Has reticular fibers to form tough,
flexible scaffolds for more delicate
structures, such as glands.
DENSE CT
o ECM is made up of mainly of fibers
(collagen & elastic)
o Less ground substance
o Less cells
o Lacks space between the cells and the
fibers
o Fibroblast is the main cell.
3 TYPES OF DENSE CT
1. Dense regular CT
- Collagen fibers are deposited in
parallel direction.
- Resist stress in the direction of the
fibers
Ex: tendons, ligaments, gums
2. Dense irregular CT
- Collagen fibers are deposited in
haphazard directions; no pattern
- Designed to withstand stress from all
directions
- Forms the supporting layers that
surround our delicate organs, as well
as forming the dermis.
Ex: layers of skin
Epidermis: outer layer; epithelial
Dermis: middle layer; areolar & dense
irregular CT
Hypodermis: deeper layer; adipose CT
3. Elastic CT
- Between vertebrae of the spinal cord
- Resilient & springy
- Able to recoil and extend with a variety
of movements
- *important function: forms connective
sheath - FASCIA.
FASCIA
• Are coverings can either be found
superficially towards the skin, or
deeper towards deeper organs
• Help to support & compartmentalize
body structure.
• “body stocking”
• The deeper dense CT sheath hold
the individual muscle bundles
together to form a large muscle
*serves to insulate, protect, connects,
stabilize, and compartmentalize the body
structure.
 BONE AND CARTILAGE CT 2. Osteoblast cells → synthesize new bone tissue
3. Osteoclast → large, multinucleated cells that
BONE TISSUE dissolve or digest bone tissue
o Calcified/ mineralized matrix 4. Osteocyte cells → most common; found
inside bone tissue. Maintain bone tissue.
*External anatomy
Osteocyte processes (arms)

- Allows adjacent osteocytes to

communicate with one another
Articular cartilage
- reduces friction - Lacunae & canaliculi protects the
& absorbs shock osteocytes cells and their processes from
when bones move the hard bone matrix.
in a joint.
BLOOD CT

oHas fluid ECM – Plasma

Periosteum
- Tough CT sheath - Have suspended proteins that can
form fibers – Fibrin.
2 layers - Have suspended blood cells
(dense irreg. CT) o Blood’s function is the connection
- Protects bone
between the body’s systems,
transporting O2, nutrients,
- Contains bone- hormones, valuable molecules,
forming cells and also removing wastes.

FORMED ELEMENTS OF BLOOD

I. RBC (Erythrocytes)
• Gives blood its red color
• Half of the blood’s volume
• Transports CO2, O2, & nutrients
II. WBC (Leukocytes)
• Defend the body against disease
- Yellow bone
and unwanted invaders such as
marrow
bacteria & viruses.
1. Monocytes
- Phagocytic; big cell eaters
- Engulf pathogens, such as bacteria, and
destroys them
2. Lymphocytes
- Usually leaves the bloodstream to take up
residence in tissue & lymph glands
3. 3- phils
3.1 Neutrophil: respond to infection
and heal damaged tissue.
4 CELLS IN THE BONE TISSUE 3.2 Eosinophil: parasitic infection, an
allergic reaction or cancer
Located at the edges of the bone 3.3 Basophil: initiate inflammation
1. Osteogenic cells → stem cells that make thru release of histamine.
osteoblast cells.
III. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Coagulating factor (blood clotting)
• Fragments of cytoplasm that have come from
precursor stem cells in the bone marrow
• Seals of damaged, broken blood vessels
PLASMA
• Contains a lot of different molecules & proteins
• Also a lot of CO2 transported in here.
• Appears clear, yellowish fluid
• It absorbs the wastes that cells produce that
build up in the tissue fluids
• Plays a major role in removing wastes in the
body.

Structure
Loose arrangement of fibres (collagen, elastin, reticular), cells (fibroblasts,
macrophages lymphocytes etc.) embedded in abundant ground
substance.

Location
Widely dispersed throughout body; immediately beneath most
membranous epithelial tissue, e.g. skin; around blood vessels, muscles
and body organs.

Function
Loosely binds membranous epithelial tissue to deeper tissues; contains
blood vessels to provide nutrients and oxygen to avascular epithelial
tissue; support.

Structure
Mostly red blood cells (pink discs with no nuclei), fewer white blood
cells, platelets and plasma.

Location
Within blood vessels and the heart.

Function
Red blood cells transport gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide); white
blood cells protect the body from infections and are involved in
allergic reactions; platelets help to clot blood; plasma transports
nutrients, wastes and other substances throughout the body.
Structure
Loose network of reticular fibres and fibroblasts; the space between
the fibres is filled with lymphocytes and other blood cells.

Location
Within lymph nodes, the spleen and bone marrow.

Function
Forms a supporting structural framework; white blood cells remove
old red blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.

Structure
Bundles of densely packed collagen fibres running in the same
direction; fibroblast cells located between the collagen bundles; very
little open space (matrix) present.

Location
Forms tendons and ligaments.

Function
Can withstand strong pulling forces in the direction of the collagen
bundles; tightly binds bone to bone (ligaments) and muscle to bone
(tendons).
Structure
Bundles of densely packed collagen fibres running in many
different directions. Fibroblast cells are located between the
collagen bundles; very little open space (matrix) present.

Location
Beneath skin (dermis); capsules around organs (e.g. heart,
kidneys, liver) and bones; outer coverings of body tubes e.g.
oesophagus.

Function
Provides strength and resists stretching in all directions.

Structure
Consists of clusters of large adipocytes (fat cells); each
adipocyte contains a large, centrally located lipid droplet that
pushes the nucleus and cytoplasm to the edge of the cell.

Location
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) beneath skin; around heart
and kidneys; yellow bone marrow; breast.

Function
Energy storage; reduces heat loss; protective cushioning for
organs.
Structure
Clear matrix composed of very fine collagen fibres (not usually visible); many
chondrocytes (cartilage cells) in clusters of 2-3 cells enclosed in a single
space (lacunae).

Location
Cover ends of bones at moveable joints; in wall of trachea and bronchi;
anterior ends of ribs; nose.

Function
Provides a smooth surface at joints that minimizes friction and absorbs
shock at joints; keep airways open; provides rigidity and flexibility in nose
and ribs.

Structure
Hard, calcified bone matrix arranged in concentric rings (lamellae) around central
(haversian) canals that contain blood vessels; osteocytes (not visible in this image
of ground bone) reside in lacunae and connect to each other via tiny channels
called canaliculi.

Location
Bones.

Function
Provide great strength and support for the body; site of attachment of muscles;
protect organs (e.g. skull protects brain); stores calcium.
MUSCLE TISSUES