Open Channel Hydraulics Target Group: 3rd year civil engineering

n 2Q 2 P 4 / 3
Sr =
A10 / 3
Q 2T
Fr 2 =
gA3

Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; Sf = So when y = yo (uniform flow).

Hence:

Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc

Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually varied flow the surface
profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found for each region.

The profiles of the water surface depend on

a. Bed slope

Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H

Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M

Critical slope So = Sc Type C

Steep slope So > Sc Type S

Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N

b. Depth range

Region 1 y > yn and y > yc

Region 2 yn < y < y c

Region3 y < yn and y < yc

Letter Type of bottom slope Characteristics

S Steep So > Sc

C Critical So = Sc

M Mild 0 < So <Sc

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H Horizontal So = 0

A Adverse So < 0

The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.

Classification of varied flow profiles

S1 C1 M1 - -

S2 - M2 H2 A2

S3 C3 M3 H3 A3

The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the normal water depth (if
existing) and the critical water depth.

Some frequent encountered curves are:

M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is given and y > yn and y >
yc. Also is given a mild slope (M), which means yn > yc. The flow is sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water
depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.

M2: The draw–down curve, for example above a transition from a mild slope to a less

mild.

M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or to M1 gives a hydraulic
jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild (yn > yc) and yn > yc > y. The flow is super–critical
and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth
decreases in an upstream direction.

C3 : If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout the
channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the flow in upstream of the dam or gate is sub–
critical and the water surface will approach the horizontal.

Another example of flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs and with sub–critical flow
upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear
that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which
the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value
for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines.
However, at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines, so that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb
is 0.72* yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3yc and 10yc).

For super–critical flow conditions, upstream of the outfall, no drop–down curve develops.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform depth is smaller
than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical depth in the vicinity of the
entrance. Once again, this section is the control section.

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There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches yc, the denominator approaches
zero. Thus dy/dx becomes infinite and the curves will cross the critical depth line perpendicular to it. Hence,
surface profiles in the vicinity of y = yc are only approximate. Similarly, when y approaches to yn, the numerator
approaches to zero. Thus the curves approach the normal depth, yn asymptotically.

Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel bed perpendicularly, which is
impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.

Summary of Flow Profiles

dy dy dy
>0 =0 <0
dx dx dx

Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve

y > yn Sf < So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow

y < yn Sf > So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied

y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2 > 0 Sub –critical

y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Cri tical

y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 < 0 Supercritical

y > yn y < yn

Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc

So – Sf + n.a. + -

1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -

yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +

type M1 n.a. M2 M3

So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -

yn = y c 1- Fr2 + n.a. n.a. -

dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +

type C1 n.a. n.a. C3

So – Sf + + n.a. -

yn < yc 1 – Fr2 + - n.a. -

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dy/dx + - n.a. +

type S1 S2 n.a. S3

Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. Doesn’t exist

Bottom slope Flow type Depth range of y,yc and yn Type of curve Flow type

1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical

So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical

Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical

Critical C C1 Y > yc = yn Backwater Sub- critical

So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical

yn = yc C3 Y < yc = yn Backwater Supercritical

Mild M M1 Y > yn > yc Backwater Sub- critical

0 < So < Sc M2 Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical

yn > yc M3 Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical

Horizontal H n.a.

So = 0 H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical

Yn = ∝ H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical

Adverse A n.a.

So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical

Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical

Depth range

Region 1 Y > yn and y > yc

Region 2 Yn < y < yc

Region 3 Y < yn and y < yc

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Figure Examples of Flow Profiles

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Figure Flow Profiles in a closed conduit

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4.3 GVF Computations

The direct step method (distance from depth)

The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are specified
and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The equation may be used to determine

directly (with means explicit) the distance between given differences of depth (∆y ) . The equation may be

rewritten in finite difference form as:

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1 − Fr 2
∆x = * ∆y
So − Sr

The equation can also be written as:

E s 2 − E s1
∆x =
So − Sr

Es is the specific energy. In the computation Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the average is
taken, which is denoted by Sfm.

Figure 4.3 The Channel Reach for derivation of direct step method

The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the (prismatic) channel. An approximate
analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of successive, short reaches. For each of the
reaches the water depth at the beginning can be estimated.

Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the reach to the other end.
The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in each reach to provide an estimate of Sfm
and So, with the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the length can be computed.

Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated.

For the computations are needed:

 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis

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For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.

Graphical Integration

This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.

dy So − Sf
=
dx 1 − Fr 2
dx 1 − Fr 2
=
dy So − Sf
1− Fr 2
x y2

∫ dx = ∫
o y1
So − Sf
dy

1 − Fr 2
y2 y2
dx
L = x 2 − x1 = ∫
y1
So − Sf
dy ∫ dy dy
y1

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of flow y1 and y2. The
distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted, then the area under the curve is
equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be found by substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various
values of y and for a given Q. Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y1 and y2) may be
calculated (numerical integration) or measured (graphical integration).this numerical/graphical method
gives the distance from depth.

Figure 4.4 The Channel Reach for derivation of Graphical Integration

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By this method the largest errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature. This is the region near
the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by varying the steps ∆ x as a function of the curvature.
This method has broad application. It applies to flow in prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of any
shape and slope. The procedure is straightforward and easy to follow. It may become very laborious when
applied to actual field problems.

Standard step method

The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance between the
stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at the stations. As mentioned in
chapter 5.6 the computation procedure is usually carried out by trial and error.

Figure 4.5 The Channel Reach for derivation of Standard step method

For the computation are needed:

1. Discharge Q
2. Length of the reach ∆ ?
3. Area A as function of y
4. Hydraulic radius R as function of y
5. Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
6. Corilois coefficient α

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