2.6.

5 POWER FROM HYDRO-SCHEME

Power by definition is the rate of doing work. Therefore;
Power = (Work done)/(Time taken)
For a hydro-scheme, work is done by the potential energy of the water dropping from a height.
Therefore;
Work done = Potential Energy
𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑔𝐻
where m – mass of water
g – gravitational acceleration ( 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 )
H - Head of water is the height of the upper water level above the lower (datum) level.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
But from 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ,
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣
where ρ and v are density and volume of water respectively (𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

Potential energy (P.E.), therefore becomes

𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝜌𝑣𝑔𝐻
𝜌𝑣𝑔𝐻
Hence 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡

𝑣
But = 𝑄 𝑚3 𝑠 −1
𝑡

where Q is the flow rate through the turbine

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 (W)

or 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 9.81𝑄𝐻 (kW)

Note: There is some head loss along the pipes and at joints, Therefore effective head is less that
the height H. If efficiencies are given, remember that;
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂 × 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2.7 RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.
Wind and photovoltaic (PV) systems are the most recognizable types of renewable energy
systems we see today. There are many more sources of energy that are considered renewable
including hydroelectric, solar thermal, geothermal, and bioenergy. Many of these systems have
been implemented for many years, such as hydroelectric systems.
2.7.1 Wind Energy
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to provide mechanical power to turn
electric generators. Wind power is plentiful, widely distributed, clean, produces no green house
gases, renewable, consumes no water and uses little land. Wind farms consist of many individual
turbines, which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is an
inexpensive source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or
gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land and offshore farms have less
visual impact, but construction and maintenance are considerably higher. Wind power gives
variable power, which is consistent from year to year but has significant variation over shorter
time scales. It therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give reliable
power. Fig. 2.20 (a) shows the picture of wind turbines and Fig. 2.20(b) –(c) schematic
arrangement of the wind power station.

(a) Picture of Wind Turbines

 (b)

(c) Schematic arrangement of wind power generator

Figure 2.20 Wind Power Generation

2.7.2 Biomass Energy

Most biomass power plants use direct fired combustion systems. They burn biomass directly to
produce high pressure steam that drives a turbine generator to make electricity. A simple
biomass electric generation system is made up of several key components as shown in Fig.2.21
 Figure 2.21 Schematic diagram of Biomass Power Generation

Direct combustion systems feed a biomass feedstock into a combustor of furnace, where the
biomass is burned with excess air to heat water in a boiler to create steam. Instead of direct
combustion, some developing technologies gasify the biomass to produce combustible gas, and
others produce oils that can be used to replace liquid fuels. Boiler fuels include wood chips,
pellets, sawdust, or bio-oil.
Biomass is frequently used in cogeneration systems, which produce electricity such as
conventional power stations, all the while upgrading the heat that is usually lost in various
applications: heating of the facilities, industrial needs, etc. This technology helps to increase the
efficiency of energy conversion.
Liquid biofuels are more expensive to obtain and are industrially produced from energy crops
(rape, sunflower, beet, wheat, barley, corn, etc.), and are better upgraded in transport
applications. They are currently mainly used in engines and are mixed in small quantities in
conventional fuels, in order to improve their characteristics.
Although direct combustion biomass systems may decrease the demand for imported oil, the
process has several disadvantages. The fuel competes with food cropsand may cause shortage or
increase food prices. The environmental impactof CO2 production and pollution also exists.

2.7.3 Solar Power Plants

2.7.3.1 Solar Thermal Power Plants
Solar thermal electric systems collect and concentrate sunlight to produce high temperature heat
needed to generate electricity. The system uses mirrors to concentrate direct solar radiation for a
boiler (see Figure 2.22), which drives the electric generator.Cloudy skies and diffuse radiation
are unsuited for this technology. Parabolic trough collectors are also used to force radiation on a
piped system that transfers heat to a heat exchanger/boiler where steam is produced to drive a
generator (Fig.2.23). Smaller systems use parabolic concentrators that work at high temperatures
and are suitable for distributed electric generation.
 Figure 2.22 Solar Thermal Power Station with big receivers

Figure 2.23 Solar Thermal Power Station with small receivers

All solar thermal power systems have solar energy collectors with two main components:
reflectors (mirrors) that capture and focus sunlight onto a receiver. In most types of systems, a
heat-transfer fluid is heated and circulated in the receiver and used to produce steam. The steam
is converted into mechanical energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to produce
electricity. Solar thermal power systems have tracking systems that keep sunlight focused onto
the receiver throughout the day as the sun changes position in the sky.
Solar thermal power systems may also have a thermal energy storage system component that
allows the solar collector system to heat an energy storage system during the day, and heat from
the storage system is used to produce electricity in the evening or during cloudy weather. Solar
thermal power plants may also be hybrid systems that use other fuels (usually natural gas) to
supplement energy from the sun during periods of low solar radiation.

2.7.3.2 Solar Photovoltaic Plants

Solar electric systems using PV modules are also growing rapidly as the cost for photovoltaic
(PV) modules drops, and residential and small commercial systems are subsidized by state
government programs. A Photovoltaic Power Station, also known as solar park, is a large scale
photovoltaic system (PV system) designed for the supply of the merchant power into the
electricity grid. They are differentiated from the most building mounted and other decentralized
solar power applications because they supply power at the utility level, rather than the local user
or users. They are sometimes referred to as solar farms or solar ranches, especially when sited in
agricultural areas. The schematic diagram of a Photovoltaic power plant is shown in Fig. 2.24.

Figure 2.24 The schematic diagram of a Photovoltaic power plant

The solar power source is via photovoltaic modules that convert light directly to electricity. Most
of the modules on the market are made of silicon solar cells. When the sun shines and weather
conditions are favorable, the sun supplies a peak force of 1 kW/m². Marketed photovoltaic
panels help to directly convert 10 to15% of this power into electricity.
The main “brakes” to the massive use of photovoltaic solar (and thermal) energy are the
intermittence of the supplied power (which requires electricity storage for an autonomous use or
the use of additional energy sources) on the one hand and the economic competitiveness on the
other hand. Outside the zones not connected to the network, where it is already profitable, the
parity between photovoltaic production costs and electricity sale prices starts to be found in
countries where electricity is the most expensive and where sunshine levels are at the highest. It
should spread to all territories before 2050.

2.7.4. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal systems use extreme hot water from deep wells for heating purposes or to generate
electricity when the pressure is high enough to drive a turbine. These systems are limited to areas
where geothermal sources can be reached economically with drilling equipment. Many areas in
the Rocky Mountains have large untapped geothermal resources, but temperatures over 200°F
are several thousand feet below the surface. Geothermal power does not require burning of any
fossil fuels. The Hot water or steam used is returned to the ground after it is used where it can be
used again, which makes it renewable energy source as well. Fig.2.25 shows a picture of the
Geothermal Power Plant.

Figure 2.25 Geothermal Power Plant

Most of Geothermal systems (Dry steam power plant in Fig. 2.26) work by piping hot steam
from underground reservoirs directly into turbines from geothermal reservoirs, which power the
generators to provide electricity. After powering the turbines, the steam condenses into water and
is piped back in the earth via injection well.

Figure 2.26 Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant

The other type of geothermal power plant (Binary cycle power Plant in Fig. 2.27), the water or
steam never comes in direct contact with the turbines. Instead, water from the geothermal
reservoirs is pumped through a heat exchanger where it heats a second liquid- like isobutane
(which boils at a lower temperature than water). The second liquid is heated into steam, which
powers the turbines that drive the generator. The hot water from the earth is recycled into earth
through the injection well, and the second liquid is recycled through the turbine and back into the
heat exchanger where it can be used again.
Figure 2.27 Binary cycle power Plant