5

Precipitation

5.1 GENERAL

Precipitation is the general term for all forms of moisture emanating· from the clouds and
falling .to the ground. From the time of its formation in the atmosphere till it reaches the
ground, precipitation is the subject matter of meteorology. But the moment it reaches the
ground, it becomes the basic element of hydrology.
Precipitation is the input to the hydrologic system. Any type of an input-output analysis
requires the interpretation of input data. The analysis of some type involves the appraisal
of long-term records. Precipitation dealt with in this chapter is in the form of rainfall.
Snowfall is taken up later because of the indeterminate storage time between the precipita-
tion event and watershed response.
Once precipitation strikes the ground, it may go into storage on the surface or beneath
the surface in the form of a groundwater reservoir. The character of the soil and rocks
Jargely determines which of the storage systems the precipitated water will enter. The
opportunity for evaporation and transpiration is also affected by the geologic and topo-
graphic features.
Streamflow is a function of the hydrologic input, in the form of precipitation, physical,
vegetative, and climatic characteristics. Water derived from precipitation does not aU appear
as streamflow. The geologic, topographic, vegetative,. and other manmade changes of the
earth are all important modifiers of any area' s streamflow characteristics.
This chapter will first deal with the design of the network for measurement of precipita-
tion, the technique of its measurement and thereafter the processing of precipitation data for
its use computing the streamflow.

5.2 PRECIPITATION

Causes of Precipitatiou
Free air, seldom if ever, is perfectly dry. However, the amount of water it contains hu a
 168 Applied Hydrology

Precipitation 169
little beating on the amount of precipitation expected at any ·point. ln fact, precipitation
can result only when air containing the moisture is cooled sufficiently so as to condense a
part of the moisture and the condensed droplets to grow around condensation nuclei, which
are usually present in adequate quantities in the atmospliere. If factors capable of this
cooling are not present, precipitation cannot occur.

Precipitation Types
Adiabatic cooling is the main cause of condensàtion. and is responsible for most rainfall.
Thus it can be seen that vertical transport of air mass is a requirement for precipitation.
Precipitation may be classified according to the conditions responsib1e for vertical air motion.
ln this respect, four major categories of precipitation type are: convective, orographic,
cyclonic, and thunderstorms

Convective Precipitation
Convective precipitation is.typical of the tropics, and is brought about by heating of the air
at the interface with the ground. This heated air expands with a resultant reduction in
weight. During this period increasing quantit.ies of water vapour are taken up; the warm
moisture-laden air becomes unstable; and pronounced vertical currents are deve1oped.
Dynamic cooling takes place which then causes condensation and precipitation. Convective
precipitation may be in the form of lighi showers or storms of extremely high intensity"
Orographic Precipitation
This results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents over natural barriers
such as mountain ranges. Precipitation is heavier on windward slopes and lighter in leeward
slopes.
Cyclonic Precipitation
This is because of the movemept of air masses from high-pressure regions to low-pressure
regions. These pressure differences are created by the unequal heating of the earth's surface.
The details of this kind of precipitation have already been dealt with in Chap. 2.
Fig. 5.1 Cumulus, mature and dissipating stages of a thunderstorm cell. Legend: •,
rain; x, snow; and o, ice crystals (Department of the Army)
The strong updrafts and entrainment support increased condensation, resulting in water
droplets and ice crystals. Finally, whe.n the particles increase in size and number, precipitation
occurs and the storm is said to be in the mature stage. During this, strong downdrafts are
created as falling rain, and ice crystals cool the air below. updraft velocities at the higher
altitudes often reach up to 120 km/h in the early periods of the mature stage while downdraft
speeds of about 30 km/h are usual above 1600 m in elevation. At lower leveis, frictional
resistance tends to decrease the downdraft velocity. Gusty surface winds move outward from
region of rainfaU. Heavy precipitation is often derived during this period which lasts for 15 to
30 min.
Finally, during the dissipating stage, the downdraft becomes predominant, until all the air
within the cell is descending, and consequently getting dynamically heated. Since the updraft
ceases, the mechanism for condensation ends and hénce the precipitation tails off and ends.
Thunderstorms are common in humid tropical regions, such as Indonesia, Malaya, Central
and West Africa.
5.3 DESIGN OF NETWORK

Thunderstorms All forms of precipitation are usually expressed as the vertical depth of water that would
accumulate on the earth's surface if there were no losses. ln countries using metric units it
These storms, although usually very local in nature, are often productive of very intense
is expressed as millimetres. The rrecipitation data is basic to any water resources planning
rainfall, which are highly significant when local and urban drainage works are considered.
and management and is used to extend records of run-off both in time and space .. Neverthe-
Thunderstorm cells develop from vertical air movements associated with intense surface
less, whatever may be the use of precipitation data, the first and foremost consideration is
heating or orographic effects. There· are three primary stages in the life history of a tbunder-
to design a proper network of rain gauges in a given watershed to collect the necessary
storm, namely the cumulus stage, mature stage and dissipating stage (Fig. 5.1).
precipitation data.
1'he cumulus stage is characterised by strong updrafts reacbing altitudes of over 8000 m with
vertical wind speeds as great as 55 km/h. Temperatures inside the cell are greater than tbose
outside ang the number and size of the water droplets increase as the stage progresses. Problems of Network Design
Cumulus stage lasts for approximately 1O to 15 mins.
M easurement
There is a wide variety of rain gauge types. However, to select a rain gauge for a particular
170 App/ied Hydrology
watershed, the best criterion which mostly governs the choice..,of rain gauge is compatib~lity
with the other gauges being used within a country. ln India the installation and observation of
raio gauges throughout the country are controlled by the India Meteorological Department
(IMD) and a standard raio gauge called the Symon's gauge is being used at ali the places.
Addition of antifreeze is worthwhile where ice formation can damage the gauge. Three
gauges used for the measurement of rainfall are: (1) Nonrecording gauges, (2) recording
gauges, and (3) weather radars.
Nonrecording Gauge A Symon's type rairi gauge consists of a cylinder 122 mm in
diameter with its base enlarged to 21 O mm. Over the cylinder is fixed a funnel 122 mm in
diameter and is provided with a brass rim measuring exactly 122 mm inside diameter. The
funnel shank is inserted in a glass bott]e which receives the rainwater. The wàter collected
in the bottle is measured by pouring it into a measuring cylinder which gives the number of
millimetres of raio that has fallen into the funnel. This is shown in Fig. 5.2.
122
... IIÍII t-
2~· ◄ fftlft
m •
Cyllhdncal
~===~~-:.;,. rwi.-x----::Y~~ssel
29. .
fig. 5.2 Symon's rain gauge
Recording or Automatic Rain Gauges Three types of these are: (1) Tipping bucket raio
gauge, (2) weighing bucket rain gauge, and (3) syphon raio gauge. Bach has its merits but
the tipping bucket instrument is usually considered as having the worst faults-the stepped
record being one of the poorest features. Most recorders suffer from too condensed a time
scale on their charts. Obviously the system with great potential gathering information would
be preferable. The following are the difliculties in the measurement of rainfall.
I. Almost any receptacle suitable for use as a raio gauge extends above the surface of the
earth and thus creátes eddy currents which may affect the amount of the catch.
2. Relatively, few sites are sufficiently sheltered from wind to reduce these effects to a
minimum, and at the sarne time, sufficiently clear of obstructions to make them typical
of the surrounding area for storms coming from all directions.
3. A measurement of precipitation is never subject to check by repetition and seldom (and
only approximately) by duplication.
4. The sample constituting the measurement is almost unbelievably small; thus a raio
gauge of 200 mm diameter sampling area located 30 km apart provides a s~mple of
only on.e part in thirty billion of the precipitation over the whole area.
Precipitation 111
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge This is electrically operated and is equipped with a remote
recorder located inside the building of the meteorological observation station. The 300 mm
diameter collector funnels the rain into two compartments. 0.25 mm of rain will fill one
compartment and overbalance it such that it tips, emptying into a reservoir and moving the
second compartment, of the bucket into place beneath the funnels. As the bucket is tipped
by each 0.25 mm of rain, it actuates an electrical circuit causing a pen to mark on a
revolving drum. This type of gauge is not suitable for measuring snow without heating the
collector. This is shown in Fig. 5.3.
Reciever
t1pping Buck et
fig. 5.3 Tipping bucket type raín gauge
There are two main objections to this type of gauge. Fiist, if the buckets are designed
to tip at exactly the right instant for any given intensity of rainfall, then they will tip either
too soon or too late for other intensities because of inertia. As a result, both the intensity
and total rainfall recorded will be in error except during the period when the designed
rainfall intensity prevai1s. The total rainfall, as determined from the record at the end of the
day can be corrected by measuring the water that has been dumped by the buckets into the
bottom of the gauge. The intensities can be corrected by judiciously distributing the total
error among the different periods when the intensity as reco!ded exceeded the intensity for
which the gauge was designed. The second objection to this gauge is because of the incon.:.
venient form of the record obtained. When the intensity of rainfall is high the bucket tips
so rapidly that the jogs in the record tend to overlap and blend into one broad. so1id line;
making it difficult, if not impossible to read. · Furthermore, the determination of the intensity
for any given period neçessitates the counting of jogs in the record during thàt period.
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge This weighs the rain that falls into a bucket set on a platform .
of a spring or lever balance (Fig. 5.4). The increasing weight of the bucket and its contents
 111 A_pplled Hydrolcg:,
Precjpitation 173

oead Lood ( auch r + PI a t~ ror m +- and the pen returning thereafter to the bottom of the chart. Toe syphoning process starts
supporting Frome) with no tendency for the water to 'dribble' over and should not take more than 15 s.

Ftftf>r
Pen carne, __....,_....,
set scrgw ----~~111- omm
Enttance rube
Ppn ~ - - - r -
0

smoU Opffl 10g Floot ROd

Geoss cop-.....,..YIIII Thumb Nut·
Dischorge ......,__ Faoat e homb~r
Tube ~i.!laliltl.. Ffoot
Pen Arm -svphon
Chamb
fig. 6.4 Automafü: welghing rain gauge Disc
wosh~r
are recorded on the chart held by a clock-driven drum. The record thus shows the accumula-
tfon of precipitation with time in the shape of a mass curve of precipitation (Fig. 5.5). The TJfe
- Recotding
-
~
E
u
-'
-'
la.
85 15

20 z:
~
J
..J
fig. 5.6 Syphon type recordlng rain gauge

z:
i 'º
..J
~ 2~
<!(
1-,- o ...
~ 2 3 419 5 8 1
TJME (Ooys)
fig. 5.5 Mass curve of precipitation as recordeei by an
automatic weighing type rain gauge
gauge must be serviced about once a week at which time the clock is rewound, the chart is
replaced or reset and the total catch is measured volumetricaUy as a check. When rainfall
is heavy within the normal ·period of ·renewal of the chart and exceeds the depth reptesented
by the width of the chart, the ·recording mechanism reverses the direction of record
immediately on reaching the upper edge of the recording chart due to its limited width.
This metbod of measuring both the intensity and total rainfaH is believed to give more
aoourate results than can be obtained by the tipping bucket type of gauge, and consequently
its use is becoming more general.
Syphon Rain Gauge In the syphon gauge, also called the float type of recording rain gauge
(Fig. s:6) the rain is led into a float chamber containing a light, hollow. float. The vertical
movement of tbe float with the rise of water levei is transmitted by a. suitable mechanism
. ·into tbe movement of the pen on a revolving chart. By suitably adjusting the dimensions of
the receiving fünnel, float and float chamber, any desired scale value on the chart can be
obtaincd. To obviate the necessity of a big chamber to oollect sizeable rainfaH, syphonic
arrangement is provided for emptying tbe float chamber quickly· wheneve~ it beco~es fuH,
Weather Radar The radar. is based on the principie of echo sounding. High frequency
,c.,,...,..
« electromagnetic waves are sent out which travel at the speed of light. An extremely small
..J-
5 portion of this energy is reflected by objects in the sky and is detected by the radar .
<i:( By ·calibration of the echo intensity with rainfall, it is possible to measure the
...o intensity of rainfall. With the present technology, it is possible to cstim.ate the
rainfall within 10% accuracy of the amount recorded by the rain gauge. Moreover, the
intensity of rainfall in a 24-h period, which cannot be obtained.from a J)onrecording rain
gauge, can be obtained from the radar because this instrument records the rainfall continuously
as it takes place. Therefore, the weather radar can. be of great advantage in finding out
rainfall in hi\l head-water reaches of streams where rain gauges cannot be inst~Ued due to
inaccessibility of the sites. The chief use of the weather radar is however in flood forecasting.
India has a few weather radars which are useful purely for .forecasting local thunderstorms.
The country could do wen with a good network of weather radars, but theirhigh cost makes
this prohibitive.
Errors of Measurement The following are the common errors in the measurement of
precipitation:
1. 0.02 cm of each rain measured with a gauge initially dry is .required to moisten the
funnel and inside surfaces.
2. The most serious error is the deficiency of measurements due to wind. The vertical
acceleration of air forced upward over a gauge imparts an upward acceleration to precipitation
about to enter and results in a deficient catch. Equipping gauges with wind shields increases
the catch by about 20% in open areas. However, artificial wind shields cannot overcome
the defects of inherently poor gauge exposure. The best 'site is on· level ground with bushes
or trees serving as wind breaks, provided that these are not so dose to the puge as to
reduce the gauge éatch.
114 Applied Hydrology Precipltation 175

3. When rain is faHing vertically, a gauge incHned 10% from the vertical will catch 1.5% Table 5.2 Minimum Densities for Raio Gauge Network
less than· it should. Some investigators feel that the gauge should be perpendicular to land in. the United Kingdom for Country-wide Networks
Giving Monthly Percentage of A verage Estimates*
slopes. Since the area of a basin is its projection on a: horizontal p]ane, the measurement
from the tilted gauge must be reduced by multiplying by the cosine of the angle of inclina-
Watershed area Number of
.tion. Considering the variability of Jand slope. and wind direction, it is virtually impossible (sq.km) rain gauges
to instai a network of tilted gauges for general purposes.
26 2
Nwnher of Sites to be Sampled 260 6
For a basin where rain gauges have not been · instálled, there is no simple method of 1300 12
determining as to how many gauges are needed. The only course is to put in a pilot network
2600 15
with density as recommended in Tables 5.1 through 5.3, and wait until results are available
for statistical analyses. 5200 20
7800 24
Table 5.1 Minimum Density of Precipitation Station Networks*
*Source: WMO, Guide to Hydrometeorological Practices,
Range of norms for Range of provisional
minimurri network norms tolerated in 1964.
Type of Region
area for 1 station difficult conditions
(sq. km) for 1 stativn (sq. km) Table 5.3 Minimum Densities for Raio Gauge Networks in the United
Kingdom for Networks in Reservoir Basins*
2 3

Watershed area Raio gauge type

1 Flat regions of temperate, mediterranean and (sq. km)
Daily Monthly TotaJ
tropical zones 600-900 900-3000 1
II Mountainous regions of temperate, medi- 2 1 2 3
terianean and trop!cal zones 100-250 250-10004
4 2 4 6
III Small mountaiµous islands with very irregu-
20 3 7 10
lar precipitations, very dense hydrographic
network 25 41 4 11 15
IV Arid and polar zones 2 1500-100003 81 5 15 20
122 6 19 25
Notes: 1. Last figures of the range should be tolerate$i only under exceptionally difficult conditions. 162 8 22 30
2. Great deserts are not included. '
3. Depending on feasibility. - *Source: WMO, Guide to Hydrometeorological Practices, 1964.
4. Under very difficult conditions, this may be extended to 2000 sq. km.
•source: World Meteoro1ogical Organisation, Guide to Hydro-Meteorological Practices, 1964
for the construction of a cumulative frequency curve of (Cv) values, from which the value of
C.,(C') exceeded on 5% of the occasions can be determined. If C' is 10 or less, then the
The second method is to saturate the area with gauges·and ata later stage to remove those
that are not needed to estimate the mean to the desired accuracy. However, this approach number of gauges in the network is considered adequa te. If C' is more than I O, then the
is suitable only for experimental basins. number of gauges required can be calculated from:
Once observations from a network have been collected, there are several ways of estimating
its adequacy. Its adequacy can be ~scertained by using the record to derive a statistic.
N= (C'IO)2n (5.1)

McCtilloch34 employed the idea that for monthly totais recorded in a network of n gauges
that were fairly uniformly distributed, the coefficient of variation of the mean for each
month (C.) could be employed in determining the adequacy of the network. Values of C.,
are calculated for the network using monthly rainfall amounts expressed as a percentage of
average annul rainfall. This calculation is performed for the number of months sufficient
It would be desirable for northern Indian watersheds to construct at least two frequency
curves: one for the monsoon, and the other for nonmonsoon months. ln general, a basin
should have one to two recording rain gauges or one recording rain gauge for every five
non-recording rain gauges if located, not single but along with nonrecording gauges. A
recording rain gauge should cover an area of 200 km 2•
 Precipitation 117

116 Applied Hydrology 45 ,e

li li ll.l
..--.. -.... fmphicol (Grü,dl~y►--,111 ♦''
1
ln one study to a~sess network adequacy in Great Britam, the results obtained were ~ Moy. To 0ctob er
· ºF·1gs. 5.7 and 5•8• The sarne type of curves should be plotted for any :z /~ã5""'AH Months
plotted as shown m '-' 36- objeetive (AlfMonths)" - - Nov. ro Apri 1
basin under study.
(/)
30 bbJective (Convect1ye Months1 • 11
.,.~ 30
UJ
(!) IOl:,rectivecorç:,groph,c Montfls>•
. V~

] ~;;o: Monrh~• ◄~ a,
w :::, 2;:; 25
~ .e( .• Ár
u>- ,,
.
(!)
<(
z 20 ... ~ 20
1-
:z w &I..
,, I,'_,,,
w:::, o 15 111 11 15
~
;....-"'
•
ººa:
2:W
I.IJ
o 10
z •
l-....,i.,
10
CL 1.1.

16
.O 2.5 50 7!5
cvm
10 12.5 15 17.5 20
fj

o
- ~~
5
o
14
e'
12 C':13,1
•
AAEA (
2 34 5
Sq, km)
10 2050 50 iooJ200 ~.0)0
'fbrkshire Northern
Englond
rn~o
a
nd
Wc?les
N= (C'/Jó) 2 X n Fig. 5.8 Minimum numbers of gauges against area for estimating monthly rainfal!
,o N= ( 13.1/10)2 X 22 (After WMO Guide to Hydrometeoro/ogical Practlces, 1964)
N= 38 Gouges
8
Example 5.1*
6
Table 5.4 presents the data of monthly means m and their standard deviation ªm calculated
~ 4 from the primary records of the existing 26 gauges in the 11,520 sq. km (7200 sq. miles)
CJ
wide basin of river Damodar (the plain area of the lower basin has been neglected). Deter-
2
mine the required number of gauges for the above watershed.
E>
o JO 20 30 40 !}0 60 10· IO 9095 DO
Solution
CUMULAlfVE Pf RCENTAGE FREQl)EHCY
Table 5.4 in column 22 shows that throughout the 34 years (1915-48) the total monsoon
fig. 5.7 (a) 6900 sq. km convective months: N =
22 (after WMO,
Guide to Hydrometeorological Praétices, 1964)
(June to September) intensity has not generally been below the order of 75% of the actual
intensity. Detailed examination of data has, therefore, been confined to these four dominant
months above. The number n of gauges in columns 3, 7, 11, 15, 19 has not always remained
the sarne partly because new gauges have been in the process of installation from time to
time and partly because the data of a few stray gauges have not been correctly recorded
at times. ,
Thirty-three values of the coefficient of variation computed in column 21 (Table 5.4),
which do not generally exceed ± 5.2%, point to the sufficiency of the existing number of
c'=7.7 .2
gauges for estimating the annual means with the desired degree of accuracy. ln the case of
N= (7. 71 IOí X 22 monthly means the existing gauges seem to be just on the border of su:fficiency during July
S t---------=N.:...•__:...13:;_::6:...:;0..;;,;UG:::..;ts;.;;,__ _~ and August. During June and September when the phenomenal variations are wider, the
coeflicients of variation respectively touch 14.5 and 15.0%. If these also must be brought
6
within the conventionally accepted ± 10.0% range, then from Eq. (5.1), we have

E 2
N = G~)\ 22 = 49·:.5
>
u oL_,.--.--r----r--,--.--,--..--r-- Thus a total of about 50 gauges randomly distributed over the 11520 sq. km basin will be ·
0 ,o 20 ao ◄O eso eo 10 ao 90~100 just sufficient for estimating the mean monthly rainfall with a margin of ± 10 per cent
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY standard error.
fig; 5.7 (b) 6900 sq.km orographic months: N = 22 • After Ganguli. m
(A1ter WMO, Guide to Hydrometeoro-
logical Practices, 1964)
 T:able 5.4 Means, Standard Devi:atiou, ud .coefficients of Variattou by the Simple A verage Method ~

Month June July August September Aníiual % of Monsoon

"
~
rainfall to th~ 1.
Year m n Um Cum m ªm Cum m n qm C.,m m n Um C91m m n C1m Com annual i
$
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 §-
~

i
~
1915 5.3 20 0.69 13.0 9.1 20 1.00 10.9 7.3 19 0.54 7.1 8.2 20 0.71 8.6 X X X X
1916 10.l 20 0.58 s:; 8.1 21 0.35 4.4 11.5 20 0.96 8.3 9.8 21 0.80 8.2 52.0 21 2.01 3.9 76

1917 10.7 21 0.55 5.1 14.1 21 0.66 4.7 16.3 21 1.41 8.7 10.3 21 0.56 5.5 73.0 21 1.53 2.1 70
1918 13.4 21 0.94 7.0 4.2 21 0.35 8.3 15.9 21 0.53 3.4 6.2 21 0.70 H.2 43.3 21 1.36 3.1 92

1919 13.8 21 1.09 7.9 13.1 21 0.97 7.5 14.1 21 1.05 7.4 9.0 21 0.86 9.5 62.7 21 2.95 4.7 80
1920 4.6 21 0.58 12.5 21.4 21 1.43 6.7 8.4 21 0.70 8.3 7.6 21 0.63 8.3 48.2 21 1.64 3.4 87

1921 7.6 21 0.77 10.2 11.4 21 0.61 5.3 13.1 21 0.71 5.4· 7.0 21 0.34 4.9 43.0 21 1.39 3.2 91
1922 14.1 21 1.22 8.7 14.0 21 0.87 6.2 15.7 21 1.09 7.0 10.4 21 0.66 6.3 59.2 21 2.42 4.1 92

1923 7.4 22 0.72 9.7 14.2 22 0.87 6.1 18.5 22 0.91 4.9 4.4 22 0.36 8.2 50.6 22 1.77 3.5 89
1924 6.4 22 0.49 7.7 20.9 22 0.83 4.0 11.9 22 0. 77 6.5 12.0 22 0.57 4.8 59.6 22 l.Sl 2.S 87

1925 6.7 32 0.45 6.7 15.6 22 1.12 7.2 12. l 22 0.91 7.5 5.9 22 0.89 15.0 48.4 22 2.54 5.2 84
1926 2.0 22 0.25 12.6 19.5 22 0.55 2.8 14.1 22 1.02 7.3 12.8 22 0.54 4.2 56.3 22 1.70 3.0 87

1927 4.4 22 0.63 14.5 14.5 22 0.79 5.5 10.1 22 0.74 7.3 6.4 22 0.57 8.9 47.6 22 1.77 3.7 75
1928 15.7 22 0.84 5.4 14.9 22 0.55 3.7 6.1 22 0.55 9.0 3.6 22 0.27 7.5 53.4 22 1.10 2.1 76

1929 4.2 22 0.49 11.7 16.2 22 0.83 5.1 17.1 22 1.13 6.6 4.9 22 0.57 11.6 59.9 22 1.86 3.1 71
1930 5.9 22 0.26 4.4 20.9 22 ).47 7.0 11.3 22 0.73 6.4 8.3 22 0.64 7.8 55.5 22 2.26 4.1 83

1931 2.9 22 0.29 10.1 13.4 22 0.78 5.9 11.7 22 0.92 7.9 8.1 22 0.48 6.0 47.4 22 1.65 3.5 76
1932 3.4 22 0.31 9.7 13.1 22 0.56 4.3 10.2 22 0.60 5.9 7.9 22 0.43 5.5 42.3 22 1.33 3.1 82
1933 9.0 23 0.54 6.0 13.5 23 0.70 5.2 15.0 23 0.67 4.5 6.7 23 0.39 5.8 55.2 20 1.41 2.6 79
1934 6.0 23 0.44 7.4 12.7 23 0.76 6.0 12.0 23 0.58 4.8 6.6 23 0.44 6.7 43.5 22 1.35 3.1 82

193S 4.1 23 0.36 8.8 10.0 23 0.66 6.6 20.0 23 0.84 4.2 9.5 23 0.41 4.4 46.8 23 1.44 3.1 93
1936 8.3 24 0.62 7.5 14.7 24 0.65 4.4 12.5 23 0.56 4.5 13.S 26 0.80 6.0 61.l 24 2.04 3.3 80

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1937 5.6 26 0.47 8.4 12.9 26 1.02 7.9 11.0 26 0.71 6.5 11.4 26 0.88 7.7 52.7 26 2.72 5.2 77
1938 7.2 26 0.53 7.3 9.5 26 0.54 5.7 11.3 26 0.44 3.9 7.1 26 0.56 7.$ 40.9 25 1.18 2.9 84

1939 9.5 26 0.61 6.4 13.0 26 0.64 4.9 15.5 26 0.75 4.8 10.5 26 0.70 6.7 57.3 26 1.58 2.8 85
1940 3.8 26 0.35 9.0 9.8 26 0.58 5.9 15.2 26 0.71 4.7 4.2 26 0.33 7.9 42.7 26 1.16 2.7 77

1941 11.9 26 0.72 6.1 10.5 26 0.71 6.8 12.1 26 0.85 7.0 8.5 26 0.33 3.9 55.2 25 1.55 2.8 78
1942 5.8 26 0.37 6.5 18.1 26 0.73 4.0 17.2 26 0.71 4.1 12.0 25 0.64 5.3 59.0 24 1.71 2.9 89

1943 3.9 24 0.44 11 .3 18.7 22 1.02 5.4 17.1 23 0.15 6.7 8.3 20 0.56 6.7 56.0 20 1.55 2.8 85
1944 5.7 24 0.38 66 13.8 23 0.47 8.4 15.1 24 0.72 4.7 4.8 24 0.35 7.4 48.2 20 1.47 3.0 84

1945 5.5 24 0.46 8.2 12.1 24 0.83 6.9 9.5 23 0.63 6.6 9.4 23 0.60 6.4 49.1 21 2.31 4.7 75
1946 8.8 23 0.51 5.8 13.2 24 0.80 6.1 U.9 23 0.87 7.3 9.5 24 0.95 10.0 57.4 21 2.65 4.6 76

1947 3.5 24 0.41 11.7 10.9 22 0.61 5.6 1'.M 23 0.84 6.8 10.3 23 0.60 5.8 44.3 22 1.95 4.4 83
1948 6.7 21 0.59 8.7 13.9 24 0.79 5.9 12.2 24 0.68 5.5 6.5 23 0.52 8.0 49.9 19 2.04 4.l 76

X Doubtful data
m = Mean rainfall in inches
n = Number of stations for which records are available
um= Standard deviatíon of the mean
evm = Coefficient of variation of the mean-'-in, ·percentage

~
~-~
1·::-
a·
:=
....
~
 Precipitation :uu
180 Applied Hydrology
in some cases while in others, basins have been divided into topographic domain-areas
Location of Sites where factors such as slope, aspect and elevation é;Xtend over a Hmited and definable range,
Once the number of gauges has been determined for a particular basin, selection of sites is that make it possible to differentiate one domain from another. Gauges are sited at random
the next step. This selection must be considered at two leveis: (i) should the gauges be spaced within domains, but obviously this method is unsuitable for flat areas.
soas to form the network; and (ii) where should a gauge be placed in relation to its immedi- For networks where records have been collected for some time, the adequacy of gauge
ate surroundings ? spacing can be ascertained by computing correlation between catcb,es for each pair of gauges
As regards spacing of gauges, the gauges in the network could be established to a pattern in the network. A value of r can be selected to indicate whether the network is sufficiently
or installed according to accessibility or availability of observers. However, some networks dense. In one study, the investigator chose r = 0.9 for his work on storm rainfall. The so-
have been constructed to an entirely random design, while others comprise systematically caUed correlograijl of the type as shown in Fig. 5.9 can be plotted by correlating rainfaH
placed gauges. Moving gauges at random within the area of the experiment is a ;;nethod record of one rain gauge station to the record of other rain gauge stations in the catchment
favoured for interception studies in .forests. Equal divisions of space have been en::-ployed so as to ascertain the decay -of correlation with increasing gauge separation. Further sophis-
tication can be achieved _by plotting such curves for the sarne type of rainfaU or for records
DI STANC.E BE km)
TWEEN RAIMG/1iUGES ( of the sarne duration. -
2 3 4 '3 6 7 S 9 10 11 As regards the characteristics of site where a gauge should be 1ocated most codes of
r.0-----.---..------.......---...----r--,.----,---..-------
instrument practice recommend certain conditions. The following considerations should
• 4 -A-Oonv ille, VI
·9 Israel · · · · • •
United Kingdom. · ·
Howail · · · · · · · · ~~::;:::~:::=:::=:=::::=::::;:::::=:;:::;:::::::::~........-
•raiwan ....... • -~:;;:~;:;~~=:::;=:::;~~~:;::;~...,
,8 frel.and. • • • • • ..
Pigeon Roost,
.e=:==::::::=;~:!::~:;:!
ftaly .. · · · · · · · · ·

x\º~.
Miss.
Japan .......... ~~::::::~~~~~'::'
Austrio ... • • • • •
Belgium •...... • -:;;~;;;;::;~~~~~~\::~~-
Switzerlcind • • · · · · ~~:!:;~;:!:;!:;~
Oenmark ....... -~~~~::::=;~::,:
.6 ~o Germony ..... ~ • ~~~:::;:~;:--i--

~ •!!!!!!!!!i:.._stote
Ceylon • . · ..... .
Connecticut ..... with highest density gouges in contiguous Unite.d Stotes
___ --X r.0.51_ Coshocll>n,0/lio Portugal .. •..... • ~ ~ ~ ~ w 1 1 1
.5' Spain ..........
France ....... .
-~~~=-
\ Victoria.,Australia- -~~:.;:;;
South Rhodesia · .. .
Norway ........ .
Sweden ....... .
lndio ......... -·
F'inland , ••••.
United States . • • 0veroll density for contiguous United Stotes
:z l( Nyosalond . • ••••
o

~
; : : fl 2 Thailond, · · · • •
,q Philtipir.es • • •
..J Woln"1' 6ulch Pakistan •• • •
l&J
Q: Ariz. Greece ••••••
e:
8 .1 Maloya • . • • • .
Nevado • . • . • . ,.._ State with lowest density of gauges in contiguous United States
Turkey •••• • •
o '----L------l>-_-..J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _......__ __ Burma ••••••
o 2 4 6 6 7 VietNam •...• •
Alaska •••• • • _ ____,,_ __.__ __.___ _....__~.,_________,_ _....__ _ _ _ _ _ __
OfSTANCE 8ETWEEN RAIN GAOGES (Miles) o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Statlons per 100 sq, mHes
Fig. 5.9 Generalised relationship between correlation coefficient
and distance between rain gauges for five watersheds Fig. 5.10 Rain gauge denslty in different countries (After Ven Te Chow [31)
(After WMO Guide to Hydrometeorological Practices, 1964)
 182 Applied Hydrology Precipitation 183

the selection of a gauge site: Table 5.5 (Contd) Table 5.5 (Contd.)
1. The site should be an open place.
SI.No. Station Date of installa tion SI.No. Station Date of installation
2. The distance between the rain gáuge and the nearest object should be at least twice the
height of the object. ln no case should it be nearer to the obstruction tban 30 m.
15 Arogyavaram 8.6.1967 50 Buldhana 25.9.1969
3. If a suitable site on a levei ground can be found, tben tbe gauge sbould never be
situated on the side or top of a hill. 16 Arrah 11.7.1967 51 Burdwan 6.6.1968
4. ln tbe hills wbere it is difficult to find levei space, tbe site for the gauge sbould be chosen 17 Asansol 4.7.1950 52 Buxaduar 14.10.1969
where it is best sbielded from high winds and where the wind does not cause eddies. 18 Baga]kote 6.10.1969 53 Calcutta June, 1930
5. A fence, if erected to protect the gauge frqm cattle, etc., should be so located that the
19 Baghdogra 22.8.1962 54 Calcutta June, 1955
distance of the fence is not less than twice its height.
Thus to summarise the procedure of network design, first establish the purpose of the 20 Bagratawa 1.8.1950 55 Calicut 26.4.1967
network. If records are already available from the area under consideration, analyse their 21 Balasore 16.3.1967 56 Chambal Dam Site 15.2.1955
variability in space and time. If there are no records, then a pilot network should be 22 Banga1ore C.O. 6.1.1935 57 Chamba 12.8.1968
installed to collect information as per the time available or until the degree of variability is 23 Bangalore F.O. 1.9.1949 58 Chandankiary 23.6.1968
established. Then the adequacy of the density of the network should be investigated. The
24 Bankura 16.6.1967 59 Chandbali 31.8.1969
density should be improveq and, if necessary, a study should be carried out for ascertaining
25 Banswara 60 Chandrapura 11.1.1967
the value of the data the network produces to establish which stations may be closed or
relocated. The rain gauge density in different countries is given in Fig. 5.10. 26 Barakatha 12.5.1968 61 Chandrapura 19.6.1968
27 Barakshetra 6.3.1947 62 Chandw1. 1.2.1951
28 Bareilly 24.2.1967 63 Chaparmukh 23.3.1968
5.4 PRECIPITATION DATA 29 Barhi 2.8.1959 64 Chapra 6.7.1969
30 Baripada 25.5.1968 65 Cherrapunji 3.5.1950
ln India considerable data on precipitation are available from the publications of India
31 Barkangaon 16.5.1968 66 Chbindwara 1.8.1968
Meteorological Department (IMD). The total number of rain gauges whose data are being
published in India at present is more than 4000. Besides these, there are about 2500 rain 32 Barkisuriya 16.6.1968 67 Chikalthana 15.10.1951
gauges maintained by the various railway administrations and other official agencies in the 33 Baroda July, 1938 68 Chitradurga 15.8.1969
different States whose data are at present not being published. 34 Barrackpore 69 Cochin 21.4.1967
The Indi~ MeteorologicaJ Department offers necessary assistance and technical advice to 35 Begumpet 1.4.1952 70 Coimbatore 20.5.1961
all the States. Two annual volumes entitled Daily Rainfall of lndia and Monthly Rainfall of
36 Bellary 30.6.1967 71 Colaba 1930
India, in addition to the preparation of normais are compiled by rainfall registration
authorities. Table 5.5 gives the list of existing self-recording rain gauge stations in India. 37 Berhampore 31.5.1961 72 Cooch Behar 24.1.1967
38 Betul 3.12.1967 73 Cuddalore 5.12.1967
Table 5.5 List of E:dsting Self-Recording 39 Bhabua Road 28.2.1968 74 Dadeldhura 22.5.1956
Raia Gauge Stations• Table 5.5 (Contd.)
40 Bhadrachalam 22.3.1968 75 Dalhousie 24.3.1966
SI.No. Station ,.Date of lnstallation Sl. No. Station Date of installation 41 Bhagalpur 4.3.1967 76 Daltongunj 12.3.1967
42 Bhinga 20.4.1968 77 Darbhanga 7.3.1967
1 Agartala 1.12.1953 8 Allahabad 21.8.1933 43 Bhopal 2.4.1952 78 Darjeeling 25.3.1966
2 Ahmedabad 13.12.1949 9 Ambikapur 27.2.1967 . 44 Bhubaneshwar 19.10.1963 79 Dehradun 3.12.1968
3 Aizàl 3.2.191>8 10 Amindivi 1.6.1963 45 Bhuj 1.11.1963 80 Dera Gopipur 11.1.1968
4 Ajmer 10.1.1967 11 Amritsar 3.7.1951 46 Bikaner 25.5.1967 81 Dhanbad 12.8.1956
5 Ak.ola 26.6.1969 12 Anantnag 27.2.1968 47 Bishungarh 10.3.1950 82 Dhanwar 21.8.1968
6 Alibag 14.3.1940 13 Anantpur 48 Bokaro 12.9.1949 83 Dharamsala 27.3.1966
7 Aliwal 24.6.1969 14 Angul 15.5.1967 49 Bolangir 21.6.1968 84 Dholpur 22.2.1955
184 Applied Hydrology \

Table 5.5 (Contd) Precipitation 185

Tabie 5.5 (Contd.)
Table 5.5 (Contd) Table 5.5 (Contd,)
SI.No. Statioe Date of instaHation SI.No. Station Date of installation
SI.No. Station Date of installation SI.No. Station Date of installation
85 Dhond 30.9.1968 118 Hiranpm 3.8.1961
86 Dhubri 20.12.1968 151 Kokrud 27.9.1968 184 Mukhim 10.12.1955
119 Imphal 24.4.1954
87 Digboi 21.12.1967 152 Konar 20.8.1958. 185 Mukteswar 8.7.1967
120 Indore 14.1.1963
88 Dimapur 14.11.1967 153 Koraput 18.8.1967 186 Mussoorie 23.3.1966
121 Jabalpore 25.8.1951
89 Dungarpur 20.12.1967 154 Kozhikode 26.4.1967 187 Muzzaffarpur 27.8.1967
122 Jagdalpur 4.8.1952
90 Dumka 15.3.1961 155 Krishnanagar 3.6.1961 188 Mysore 22.2.1967
123 Jaipur 1.6.1959
91 Dumri 25.2.1961 156 Kurnool 21.9.1967 189 Nagapattinam 11.9.1967
124 Jalpaiguri 20.3.1967
92 Durgapur 12.9.1964 Lucbipur 8.8.1967 190 Nagpur 17.5.1946
125 Jammu 22.3.1966 157
93 Erinpura 22.12.1954 158 Lucknow 15.8.1952 191 Nai::lital 26.3.1966
126 Jamshedpur 17.4.1941
94 Farakka Barrage 7.2.1965 159 Ludbiana 26.6.1969 192 Najibabad 5.7.1967
127 Jamua 22.8.1968
95 Ferozepur 28.9.1967 160 Lumding 26.3.1966 193 Nàlbari 25.11.1968
128 Jamui 24.8.1955
96
97
Forbesganj
Faizabad
15.10.1966
8.8.1967
129
130
Jangipur
Jarwa
27.5.1961
161
162
Madhopur
Madhupur
27.9.1966
1.8.1961
194
195
Nandadih
Nandurbar
.
12.6.1968
11.7.1948
22.1.1969
98 Gadag 28.6.1967 163 Madras 1954 196 Nanpara 19.1.1969
131 Jayanagar 27.3.1966
99 Gangtok 7.5.1955 164 Madras Sept. 1943 197 Narsingpur 25.9.1969
132 Jharasuguda 9.2.1951
100 Gannavaram 4.11.1962 165 Madurai 3.4.1968 198 Nautanwa 15.4.1967
133 Jodhpur 1.4.1938
101 Gansadih 21.6.1968 166 Mahabaleshwar Sept. 1931 199 blellore 23.3.1967
134 Jorhat 22.12.1968
102 Gauhati M.M.O. 7.1.1955 167 Mainpuri 31.1.1969 200 New Delhi 7.1.1955
135 Jorhàt 24.7.1969
103 Gaya 1.3.1940 168 Maithon 12.4.1958 201 New Delhi 19.8.1965
136 Kakinada 23.3.1967
104 Goalpara 30.3.1966 169 Malda 23.7.1967 202 New Delhi 6.10.1942
137 Kalimpong 29.3.1966
105 Gobpur 22.3.1966 170 Mandar 18.5.1968 203 New Delhi 17.5.1961
138 Kanker 8.8.1968
106
107
Golaghat
Gondia
12.3.1967
30.8.1969
139 Kanpur 29.1.1969
171
172
Mandla
Mangalore
3.12.1967
25.5.1959
204
205
.
'Nighasan
Nizambad
19.5.1969
14.9.1967
140 Kanpur
103 Gopalganj 20.7.1968 173 Manoharpur 27.10.1968 206 Okha 2_8.1.1963
141 Kathmandu 1.1.1949
109 Gorakhpur 26.2.1967 174 Masulipatnam 12.4.1967 207 Okhladunga 26.11.1947
142 Keonjhargarh 11.8.1967
110 Gorkha 1.6.1956 175 Mawsynram 8.4.1960 208 Ootacamund 2.2.1968
143 Khalari 4.8.1959'
111 Gulmarg 176 Mercara 28.2.1967 209 Orai 4.8.1967
144 Khandwa 27.7.1968
112 Guna 29;1.1967 177 Midnapore 12.2.1967 210 North Lakhimpur 20.101956
145 Kharagpur 28.8.1969
113 Gwalior 5.8.1952 178 Minicoy 1.4.1962 211 Padma 10.5.1968
146 Kheri Lakhimpur 28A.1967
114 Hajua 19.3.1967 179 Mohanbari 1.6.1953 212 Palganj 14.6.1962
147 Khijrawan 11.6.1956
115 Hazariba.gh 8.5. t95J 180 Moradpur 25.3.1966 213 Pamban 22.2.1968
148 Kodaikanal 15.9.1930
116 Hetampur 21.3.1968 181 Mormugao ·15.12.1963 214 Pancbet Hill 1.6.1953
149 Kodar~a 19.8.1968
117 Hirakud 29.2.1948 182 Motihari 25.8.1967 215 Panchmarhi 19.10.1967
150 Kohima H.5.1969
183 MountAbu 26.12.1967 216 Panjim 13~U966
186 Applied Hydrology
Precipitation 187

TabJe 5.5 (Contd) -Table 5.5 (Contd,) Table 5.5 (Contd.) Table 5.5 (Contd.)

SI. No. Station Date of installation SI.No. Station Date of installation SI.No. Station Date of installation
SI. No. Station Date of installation

283 Umaria 18.8.1968 287 Vengurla 9.5.1950

217 Patna 16.12.1961 250 Santacruz 1.1.1948 17.2.1952
284 Uttarkashi 2.5.1968 288 Veraval
218 Patna 14.10.1969 251 Satna 3.3.1957
219 Pedong 285 Vallabh Vidyanagar 24.8.1967 289 Vishakhapatnam 8.1950
6.10.1969 252 Saugar 29.11.1967
220 Pendra 24.10.1967 286 Varanasi 27.12.1967
253 Shanti Niketan 28.7.1960
221 Petarbar 20.5.1968 254 Sheopur Kalan 1.2.1967 • After CWC [128!
222 Pokhara 15.5.1956. 255 Shellong 29.10.1956
223 Poona 9.4.1931 256 Sholapur 24.1.1967 Precipitation VariabHity
224 Porbandar 8.3.1967 257 Sibsagar 28.4.1966 ln general, precipitation is heaviest at the equator and decreases with increasing latitude.
225 Port Blair 1.7.1951 258 Silchar 8.3.1967 However, the geographic distribution of precipitation depends more on other effective
226 Punasa 1.6.1950 259 factors than merely the distance from the equator. The factors affecting the mean annual
Silchar 24.1.1963
227 Purnea 24.8.1967 260 rainfall of an area are: (1) Distance from the ocean; (2) direction of prevailing winds;
Siliguri 5.7.1968
228 Purulia 27.7.1969 261 .,. (3) mean annual temperature; (4) altitude; and (5) topography.
Sillaichak 14.5.1968
229 Putka The main source of moisture for precipitation is evaporation from the surface of Iarge
16.7.1959 262 Simla 15.9.1956 bodies of water. Therefore, precipitation tends to be heavier near the coast lines. Normally,
230 Raichur 31.12.1968 263 Sindri 29.7.1959 with prevailing winds from the ocean, the mean annual rainfall will be high near the shore,
231 Raiganj 11.12.1967 264 Sonipur and except where the topography is steep, the precipitation will decrease slowly towards
25.2.1948
232 Raipur 8.1.1962 265 Srinagar the interior. However, if prevailing winds are from the land to the sea, the mean annual
5.3.1940
233 Rajdaha 24.8.H68 rainfall will not be excessive, and the effect of the ocean's presence would be correspondingly
266 Sultanpur 21.12.1967
234 Rajkot reduced. The mean annual temperature a:ffects rainfall insofar as it is an important factor
27.2.1967 267 Surat C.W.O. 21.3.1967 in the process of evaporation and wind movement.
235 Ramban 1.10.1966 268 Suri 21.5.1961 Since lifting of air masses is mainly responsible for almost all precipitation, rainfall
236 Ramgarh 5.5.1948 269 Talcher amounts and frequency of heavy rainfall are genera11y greater on the windward side of
26.9.1969
237 Ramagundam 7.9.1967 270 Taplejung mountain barriers. Precipitation generally increases with incn;asing elevation. Precipitation
7.1947
238 Rampurhat 22.5.1961
also varies in time. The time distribution of precipitation can be obtained from the recording
271 Tehri 1.12.1955 type of rain gauges. The information on time variations in rainfaH intensity is extremely
239 Ranchi 3_1.8.1969 272 Tejpur important in determining the streamflow from precipitation for the design of water resource
240 Ranchi 25.10.1967 273 Thikri 14.6.1948 projects.
241 Ratlam 24.1.1967 274 Tikunia 12.8.1967
242 Raxaul 23.3.1966 275 Tilaiya 7.4.1956 Record Precipitafüm
243 Roorkee 1958 276 Tinsukia 15.3.1967
244 Rongo 9.10.1969
Many engineering problems, such as flood protection, size of spillways, flood gates in
277 Titlagarh 21.3.1967 dams, etc., are affected by the possible maximum flow in streams, which are often dependent
245 RourkeJa 278 Tiruchirapalli 1.6.1953 upon the knowledge of the intensity and distribution of the maximum rainfalls that must
246 Rupsi 28.2.19(;8 279 Trivendrum 23.2.1952 be expected and the flood flow that will result therefrom. While the flood volume in aH
247 Sabour 26.7.1968 280 such cases depends on many factors, the most important one is the amount of rainfall that
Tura 17.12.1967
248 Sagar Island 6.1.1948 281
may occur on the area under consideration within a given period of time.
Tuticorin 16.8.1968
249 Salar The actual maximum runóff from a given area is always the best information to be used
24.5.1961 282 Tuticorin 1,1.1966 as a basis for the solution of such problems. Nevertheless, such knowledge is seldom
available because runoff data are seldom collected until a need for such information arises.
188 Applied Hydrology Precipitation 119

However, precipitation statistics for a considerable period of-time are usually available at Table 5.6 World's Greatest Observe«! Point RainfaUs"'
nearby stations or at stations where the conditions are sufficiently similar to warrant
conclusions based on the sarne. A study of such records often becomes essential for the Depth
Duration (cm)
Station Date
solution of some problems where runoff data is not available.
The comparative magnitude of a rainfall will depend on three factors, each one of more
2 3 4
or less relative importance, ac.cording to the nature of the problem under consideration.
The factors are: intensity, duration and area covered by the rainstorm. Intensity refers to the
rate of precipitation or amount of rainfaU within a given time. Duration defines the time 1 min 3.12 Unionville, Md. USA July 4, 1956
limit within which the precipitation takes place and area defines the geographic extent 8 min 12.60 Fiissen, Bavaria May 25, 1920
of the storm or of as much of it as may be covered by the rain of given intensity and 15 min 38.10 Plumb Point, Jamaica May 12, 1916
duration.
20min 50.80 Curtea de Arges, Rumania July 7. 1889
Table 5.6 lists the world's greatest observed point rainfalls. If the values of this table
42min 30.48 Halt, Ma USA June 22, 1947
are plotted on a logarithmic paper, they would define an enveloping curve closely approxi-
mating a straight line. 2 h, 10 min 48.26 Rock-Port, W. Va, USA July 18, 1889
The equation for the enveloping curve of values given in Table 5.6 with P as precipitation 2 h, 45 min 55.88 D'Hanis, Texas, USA May 31, 1935
in centimetres and D as duration in hours is: 4 b, 30 min 78.23 Someth Port, Pa, USA July 18, 1942
(5.2) 15 b 87.63 -do- July 17-18, 1942
18 b 92.46 Thrall, Texas, USA Sept. 9, 1921
Piiuu:ms has given this relation as
24h 116.81 Baguio, Philippines July 14-15, 1911
p :_ 42.16Dº·475 (5.3) 39h 158.47 -do-
Bleasdale gives a simple relation as 2 days 167.11 Funkiko, Taiwan July 19-20, 1913
2 days, 15 b 200.96 Baguio, Philippines July 14-17, 1911
P = 29.471)0·~ (5.4)
3 days 207.11 Funkiko, Taiwan July 18-20, 1913
4 days 258.67 Cherrapunji, India June 12-15, 1876
Binnie's Coefficients 5 days 290.83 Silver Hill Plantation, Jamaica Nov. 5-9, 1909
6days 311.15 -do- Nov. 5-10, 1909
Alexander Binnie studied records of 42 places in ·India and suggested the following:
7 days 333.12 Cherrapunji, India June 24-30, 1931
1. Observations for a period of 32-35 years are necessary for working out the average
8 days 343.03 -do- June 24-July 1, 1931
rainfall.
2. The extreme deviation of the annual rainfall from the average in countries with rainfall 15 days 479.76 -do- June 24-July l, 1931
exceeding 50 cm is remarkably constant in all parts of the world. 31 days 930.00 -do- July, 1861
3. At a place in one year: 2 months 1276.68 -do- June-July, 1861
3 months 1636.88 -do- May-July, 1861
Maximum ann~al rainfall = 1.51 x average rainfall
4 months 1873.76 -do- April-July, 1861
Minimum annual rainfall = 0.60 x average rainfall 5 months 2041.19 -do- April-Aug., 1861
4~ At a place in two consecutive years: 6 months 2245.44 -do- April-Sept., 1861
Í1 montbs 2299.00 -do- Jan-Nov., 1861
Maximum rainfall of both the years = 2 years x 1.35 X average annual rainfall
1 year 2646.12 --do- Aug., 1860-July, 1861
5. At a p)ace in three consecutive years: 2years 4076.83 -do- 1860-1861
Maximum rainfall of 3 years = 3 years x 0.75 x average annual rainfall
Binnie also gave the magnitude of percentage error which is introduced dueto processing •Source: Jennings,. A.H., World's greatest observed point rainfalls, Monthly Weather
Rev.• vo}. 78, pp. 4-5, Jan. 1950
of smaller records for the averages Q.f rainfall (see Table 5.7)~
190 Applied Hydro/ogy

Table 5.7 Percentage Error Introduced in-Computing

Average RainfaH by Processing SmaHer
Records (After Binnie)

Length of record % of error in average

processed rainfall introduced

2 years 14.92

3 years 8.20

20 years 3.27

30 years 2.26

35 years 1.79

Blandford Studies
Blandford studied rainfall records of 29 places in India of which three stations had rain-
fall less than 50 cm. Barring these three stations? he concluded:
Maximum annual rainfall = (1.24 to 2.54) x average annual rainfall
Minimum annual rainfall = (0.29 to O. 78) x average animal rainfall
It should be noted that the coefficients given by Binnie and Blandford can only be used
as a guide.
Figure 5.11 shows the mean annual rainfall in India and its neighbourhood. This has been
worked out by analysing the data of ·1700 rain gauges of the country. It is evident from
the figure that rainfall is heavy on the western ghats and decreases rapidly towards the
eastern side so much so that at places the rainfaH is about 600 cm, and this reduces to 60 cm
within a distance of about 80 km.
Similarly, on the southern slopes of Khasi-Jaintia hills, the annual rainfall is over
1000 cm with Cherrapunji, the wettest spot in the world recording an average of 1140 cm.
Figure 5.12 shows the rainfall variation. Figure 5.13 shows the heaviest rainfall in the
eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, while the heaviest rainfaH in the western
part was recorded in 1924 as given in Figs. 5.14 through 5.17.
The spatial variation of heaviest 2-day and 3-day rainfaHs is given in Figs. 5.18 and 5.19
respectively. Some int~nse storms are of short duration, and Fig. 5.20 shows the maxi-
mum 5-min intensities, while Fig. 5.21 shows the maximum hourly intensities.

Studies of Local Intensities

One of the early studies of the intensity of local rain storms was made by Talbot235 • He
plotted all available records of local rainfall from all the stations in certain groups of states
where he considered the conditions were similar and developed the relationship between the
intensity of rainfall with respect to time. A number of other investigators also attempted
it- and the formulae developed by Talbot and others are given in Table 5.8.
 Precipitation 191

N
2
A
/
(
• NANGAL • BILASPUR

SONEP~T

• ROHTAK

5RI

LANK t)

1 92 . ai Departmen . miles
. Meteorolog,c
4 (lnd,a . ce of twe lve nauhcal . measured
f India extend
, ohyetal Pattern, 28 September, 1 mto
. the sea .to a d1Stan
f the Surveyor G eneral of Ind1a.
s . 1 aters o . iss1on o .
The territona ;,iate base Jme~P with the perm ·1h the pubhsher.
from
Based the appJirvey
upon t for of. Incdi~;:'ight,
of Ind1a o tness of1986.
mtern ai details rests w1 .
oRespons1b1hty
Gover!l~~n the correc

, ai
 Precipitation 193
192 Applied Hydrology

N 5
5

A '32º
32'"

10

eNANGAI.

...._ eAI.~//
-.......__.,,,,
•MIJKTÉSHWAR

KAT

•
ROHTAK
BHIT

5
PALWAL •

7 • 78° U'

LEGEND
77° 80°
• ~AIN GAUGE STAllON
LEGEND RIVERS
1. RAIN GAUGE STATION ..............- lSOHYETS IN INCHES
2.RIVERS
3.ISOHYETS IN INCHES
Fifí; &.1é lsohyetat pattern, 28-30 September 1924 (lndla Meteorologlcal Departmertt)
Fig. 5.15 lsohyetal pattern, 28-29 September 1924 (lndia Meteorologi.cal Department)
194 Applied Hydrology
Precipitation 195
r,.
Table 5.8 Formulas for Maximum RainfaH fotensity
N

,o A SI.No. Formula Author Remarks Country of study

., 'o....._ 2 3 4 5
' '\
\
1
\
1
*. _ 266.70 A.N. Talbot Ordinary maximum Rocky mountains,
( •BANJAA \ l - **t + 15 (USA)
)suNOER
~ 2
i= 457.20 A.N. Talbot Maximum occurring once -do-
t + 30
• 1

in about 15 years

914.40 Maximum exceeded 2 or 3 -do-

3 i=-- A.N. Talbot
t + 30 times per century
,,,,,.. .--1()
/

/
/
/
/
/ IS
4 i= J3:8 E.W" Clarkc To be expected each year USA

/
/
I
'--✓
/
5 i = Jl0t45 E.W. Clarke Exceeded once in 8 years -do-

6 ;= J20:o E.W. Clarke Exceeded once in 15 years -do-

7
.
l=
J774.2
-- Kuichling
t+ 20
98.15 Sherman Maximum -do-
8 i =tº•687
--

•.l =63.80 Sherman Ordinary

eKATHGODAM 9 ---
** 1º•687
30.48 C.E. Gregory Ordinary sev.ere storm,
11!
10 i=- -
tº•5

~\ u i=- -
15.24 C.E. Gregory Winter storm

~K~L'ª""
fO•S

15 .., 81.28
,. / 12 i=-- C.E. Gregory Maximum
tº·ª

l3 1

76.
PALWAL•

77• ,o•
2tf!
5 min
lOmin
15 min
25.4
22.9

17.8
K.B. Khushalani
K. B. Khushalani
K. B. Khushalani
Maximum Precipitation

-do-
-do-
l Area near bead of
Upper Jhelum canal,
India

LEGEND:
1.RAIN GAUGE STATION •
60min
120 min
6.3
4.4
K.B. Khushalani
K.B. Khushalani
-do-
-do-
j
2.RIVERS ~
3.ISOHYE TS IN INCHES - -
*i = Intensity of rainfall (cm/h)
Fig. 5.17 lsohyetal pattern, 27-30 September 1924 (lndia Meteorological Department)
**t = Duration of rainfall (min)
196 Appll~d Hydrolog_i

Inten~ity over Large Areas

The local intensity of rainfall, which has been previously considered, is that determined E
::,
from a single station or groups of stations, and is, therefore, applicable only to limited E
areas. X
Such intense rains never extend to large areas.and the estimates based on such observations o
cannot be appHed to any considerable drainage areas. It is to be noted, however, that it 2
is by no means certain that the maximum intensity recorded by a given gauge in a certain area
represents the maximum intensity of rainfall that has occurred on that area. ln fact, it is pro-
bable that the records in practically ali cases are· actually below the maximum that has occur-
red, as the gauge area is such a small part of the area which any storm covers. This fact
somewhat offsets the error in the application of the data to areas of considerably greater size,.
which would not be warranted otherwise. ln the consideration of flood flows of streams.
and the maximum discharge of considerable drainage areas, the factors of both intensities
and area become important and the engineer must again have recourse to the records of
rainfall.
Rainfall intensity is maximum over a small area at the storm centre and goes on decreasing
as we move away from the storm centre. Thus the average intensity over a large area is a
function of area as well as the maximum rainfall intensity near the small centre denoted
mathematically as
0 11')~--~l\i~o.___ _~ :-1.n--~º:-lc----::º.lJ.()_ _ _..,,º_jo_ __J
{= if(À) (5.5) ,..., ta,
0
M ~ ....-.

where i and i are average and maximum rainfall intensities while À is the area. Thus, an
average intensity over an area À with Às as the area of storm is given by

l-=- = ·(i -32JA)

l . Às (5.6)

Now, if A.= Às, then

i =i/3
This means that the average intensity over an area symmetrically dispersed about its centre
would graduaHy decrease with an increase of this area till it becomes equal to the storm
area when it is one-third of the maximum intensity.
Figure 5.14 gives the isohytes of the 1924 storm. By measuring the areas surrounded
by various isohyetal lµies, the distribution of the one-day rainfall of this storm for different
intensities can approximately be determined. By a similar measurement of Figs. 5.15 and
5.16, the distribution of maximum rainfall for two and three days can be obtained. A more
complete information of the storm showing the rainfall area curves for one day and two
days curves can be drawn similar to Fig. 5.22. Table 5.9 lists maximum depth-area-duration
data for the United States and the storms producing them. They represent the enveloping
values for over 400 of the country's major storms analysed by the Corps of Engineers in
cooperation with the US Weather Bureau. Different authors analysed rainfall data and carne
out with different relationships between the area covered and rainfall intensity, etc. as
given below.
• U'l
ºº f"I t".l

1
l
 winter Season Hot Weather Sea.so'YJ W. ter Se oson Hot Weather Seoson
1n ·""'
,:--- ·'\.,•, .
e-'-,.
> ~ ·~;
<.
)
-..... ] <,.••""'\. -
'>--,
./ { . (
-
':-, 1,,. ~ 5 2 ~- t· 2 (

./. xi...
1 2 f''
} ) O,.S i.... \ .... 3 S
'l"\C'I UI • 0•~ /'•'>.
·\..-~_.r·'-· _.,,.':t
/ I .'>
,,.,_,/DEL~I ''---.... ..,
t
,,,,f_."f"
_.,,,..1.
<.t
.)
•'/.~ELHI
•
.'>
·-. Zfl.,.
(d/- ? 5
1 . ..-'\,
,,-
> .4
\
\
/'"l..-l

~}(~~~(
('-
\1
1 A'·""- ........
f--_j . .....•JI.._,') /

~r
·A-·t. ·-? / N /
... ,. -~tf)\QvC~Lc;UlT_;j,Jtt ~":-:, /
. !J., J 2
/eOM,AY'-X,2
,
~y /
","' I 1 5 CALCVT'TA
/\~
,5 ·
.__, 0-5

.,..' . j: .-
J·
·., lRIVANORUM .. ,,:

• \ \~
,..._
South West Monsoon Post Monsoon Season West Monsoon
South,,,...,,.._, Post Monsoon Seoson
·'-1 -"--- Season é",,
')-·'-·iSéason ......
2

\ \;>
1
· r
t.>
r)-..'-·"'1
•
t? ( '>
r.' ,~-
5
"- -\
(1

t'
,:
.
2\ ·.,_ ·,
(
---..
J
/1

BOM)(
~
~
./'\../1·vl~•<c- 1 .
"'(.~ -
..J I J) 1
·-......;t', ·-·J..
A rL:, ,)
A · •· • -·-·- -\ ~\;
µ.,
LCUrTA
\
./·-,_.l
r ·"'

O·S -
-

1
' (.
,;\
_,,../ DE•
....; 1 N D

oM•A'f \
NAGPUR
)'
HI

•
i...
l'l .-
I A t -~ /
1/-~~•J
\r-4
.....~'7

" · ".~-t-:-,-·J r' -'

r-1"""\
.✓-bELI-H.
'>
(.
~·,cJ1
,,....._~
5

l':"i:-_·:-, /

~[
~\~ur{
ir'
_.r·).,
r
/'/
. r::Lul <.. - ~ 2
r.-./.~l'h.,..
e.
~
..
'·'>
•..._

,.
n '(" _,/" •,,~. ,
''--·~':.-...·'
•. ,_)'

C.UTTÀ
J
j
"'

\ \1
2::,
'\:
·!"
J
l-:°. t--- ~::·. /:.' !·~-. ~
r
·~:
.. ....·
•

Fig. 5.20 Maximum Rainfall (cm) in 5 min. (lndia Meteorological Fig, 5.21 Maximum Rainfall (cm) in an Hour (lndia Meteoro~
Department)• loglcai Department)
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a
distance of twelve nautical mi]es measured from the distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the
appropriate base line. appropriate base line.
Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of
the Surveyor General of India. the Surveyor General of India.
C Government. of lndia Copyright, 1986. e Government of Jndia Copyright, 1986.
Responsibility for the correctness of internai details rests Responsibility for the correctness of interna} details rests
with the publisher. with the publisher.

AA!NFALL OEPtH (cm)

e,.
O)
O"
"-> ,..,w .,:,.
o
Jli.
(t) "'
O" à
.,, à
o __________,______...__~,----'--,----..1-.-.,----,,.....--J'--------.....,.---------
(Q

. ..,
~>
::,;-n ~ u,
N
VI N
VI VI 2.,ri> e,"
;-'
N
N
UI
\0 o
~ N °' (1)
-o
\O
~ ~I
00 .i:,.
cr
°' = ~
=- = =r!ll
e> e~-
1).)
ã;
e= ~
O'\ ...:i
O'\ VI
8: $1 N _s= e....~t::, :;e:.e.
tO l>
:X,

cr cr = '= õ' rrt

l>
* =-1 ::,
~~
~~
(')

...:i 00
--.J 00 ; = < -....::::T e

~ '°I ~ ~be: o
(1)
(1)

CT cr :;, ; 2. e
g g. -,
$1)
f/'I
o
,a· :::s 5· ::,
00\011~ ~o ;- a.
:-"!'J
0--.J ~=
s· s- =
N C:
.i:,...,
w-
cr cr g. = -· ::,
;·~ -< ';,e'
.e,/)
.o ll,)
"""a

;::,, e =- 3
::::11 .... ~
3
-
.. t')
00 \O
~
tO
e
!'l e:: ::,
W VI

~VII~ = $1) C)
cr cr
i
'C/)_
(')
a
o
"O"'
t)
......
00 \O it
:::T
3
.....
W VI
v. v. 1 .i:,. i (1)
~
...:i 00
~ -4.
cr cr ~ .§
::;, ....
~ o
00 \O
:.0:"1...:i
'C/)_ -1 I ~
~ VI N i -;· ~
o O' 8.
11.1
~ $1)
~·....
i» ..... ~
g ~
~-
-
==
~
" """'
~
198 Applied Hydrology Precipitation 199
Table 5,9 (Contd) Table 5.10 Storm Duration versus Area Covered in
British Isles (After GJasspoole)
Duration, lz
Area Storm duration Area coverage
(sq.km) 6 12 18 24 36 48 72 (days) (sq.km)

510 45.47 b 61.72 b 72.9 b 75.44 b 77.98 b 81.03 e 87.63 e

13000
1280 39.12 b 54.36 b 65.02 b 67.56 b 70.10 b 76.96 e 85.34 e 2 26000
3 52000
2560 34.04 b 47.75 b 58.17 b 60.96 b 65.02 d 73.15 e 81.79 e
6 78000
5120 28.45 b 39.88 b 49.53 b 52.32 b 58.67 d 66.80 e 74.93 e

12800 20.57 bj 28.19 35.81 b 38.10 b 47.50 d 52.58 d 61.98 d

Hazen' s Formula
25600 14.48 j 20.07 k 25.65 e 30.73 e 38.35 d 44.20 d 54.10 d
Hazen gave bis formula for southern states of USA as below:
51200 10.16 j 15.24 k 20.07 e 24.38 e 29.46 d 35.05 d 44.70 d :- l.13i
l = Aº•l3 (5.7)
128000 6.35 eh 10.67 g 13.46 e 16.00 e 20.07 e 22.61 e 29.21 f
The formula is valid for catchment area A between 1300 to 16000 sq. km.
256000 4.32 h 6.35 ih 8.89 e 10.92 e 14.22 e 16.76 f 22.61 f

Storm Dated Location of Centre

G/ass' s Observations

The analysis of floods and rain storms of river Damodar, India gave the following results
a July 17-18, 1942 Smethport, Pa. for a 5-day storm of about 70 cm.
b Sept. 8-10, 1921 Thrall, Texas
Aug. 6-9, 1940 Miller Island, La. Table 5.11 Area Covered versus Percentage Average
e
RainfalJ in Damodar River
d June 27-July 1, 1899 Hearne, Texas
e March 13-15, 1929 Elba, Ala. Area covered Percentagy average
(sq.krn) rainfall
f July 5-10, 1916 Banify, Fia.
g April 15-18, 1900 Eutaw, Ala.
2.5 100
h May 22-26, 1908 Chattanooga, Okla.
250 94
Nov. 19-22, 1934 Millry, Ala.
2250 90
j June 27-July 4, 1936 Bebe, Texas
5000 85
k April 12-16, 1927 Jefferson Parish La~
10000 75

* Shands, A.L. and D. Ammerman, "Maximum recorded US point rainfall for 5 minu- 15000 68
tes to 24 hours at 207 first order stations", US Weather Bur. Tech. Paper 2, 1947.

Glasspoole' s Observations
Robert's Study

Glasspoole gave the following coverages of rainfalls of different durations based on his Robert, R.H. roade an interesting study,on: 2-day rain storrns of about 34;.cm rainfaH in
southern Rhodesiaand gave thefoHowing;
observation in British Isles.
 Precipitation 201
200 Applied Hydrology
be due to a change in the immediate surroundings of the gauge such as the construction of
Table 5.12 Area Covered versus Percentage"Rainfan a building or the growth of trees, or a change in the measurement technique itself.
Intensity

Percentage rainfall Testing and Adjusting Precipitation Record

Area (sq.km) intensity on the area
Nonhomogeneity occurs when a sudden change develops in the hydrologic ecosystem or
2.5 100 in the méthod of observation or reduction of the basic data. There are many examples in
the hydrologic ecosystem where the response changes suddenly. These include the occurrence
1250 77
of large fires in the watershed, landslides, earthquakes, etc. The techniques and hardware:
2500 70 for making measurements of precipitation have been evolving and maturing. These improve-
5000 63 ments certainly reduce the uncertainty about some of the measurements but they do cause
10000 54 nonhomogeneity of the record.
15000 48 Consistency exists in the record when each measurement appears to spring from the sarne
parent population. The consistency of the record may end at each occc.rrence of nonhomo-
geneity. The record of a hydrologic variable should be tested for known or suspected
nonhomogeneity.
Horton Formulae
Horton used storm data processed by the Miami conservancy district, USA and found
that the envelope curve of 24-h amounts for five great northern storms could be repre- Double-mass Ana/ysis
sented by A relatively simple (but not always) fool-proof method of testing a record for nonbomo-
i = 40. 7e-0.07o3Ao.24 (5.8) geneity is the double-mass curve technique. Precipitation data and runoff data are most often
tested by means of the double-mass curve. Changes in the gauge location, exposu;e,
and for five great southern storms by instrumentation, or observational procedure can cause a relative change in the precipitation
i = 55.9e-o.o9Ao.23 (5.9) catch. Frequently, these changes are not disclosed in published records.
Double-mass analysis tests the consistency of the record at a station by comparing its
accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent accumulated values of
Formulae for Jndian Subcontinent
mean precipitation for a group of surrounding stations. ln Fig. 5.23, 1931 indicates a
1. For Bibar and Madhya Pradesh, P.K. Raman and B.M. Chhabra gave the following. change in the precipitation regime at a station. A change due to meteorological causes
relationship: would not cause a change in slope as all base stations would be similarly affected. Thus,
i= i exp(- 0.000JA0-72) (5.10} to make the record prior to 1931 comparable with that for the more recent location, it
should be adjusted by the ratio of the slopes of the two segments of the double-mass
where
curve (0.81/1.19). The consistency of the record for each of the base stations should be
i = maximum central rainfall (cm) tested, and those showing inconsistent records should be dropped before other stations are
i= average rainfall ( cm) tested or adjusted.
Considerable caution should, however, be exercised in applying the double-mass technique.
2. O.N. Dhar and P. Rakhecha gave the relationship as: The plotted point will always deviate from a mean line. However, changes in slope should
P = - 7.0104 (log A - 0.4133) log T - 10.3632 (5.11) be accepted only when marked or substantiated by other evidence. ·
where T is the return period There is criticism of the use of the double-mass technique because the records of the
stations in the base may also contain errors which could account for a suspécted inconsis-
tency. This might be especially true if only a few stations are used in the base. Many
hydrologists prefer the use of the t test on the two (or more) segments of the inconsistent
5.5 INTERPRETATION OF PRECIPITATION DATA
record to more rigorously estab1ish the fact and magnitude of the inconsistency. This
ln order to avoid erroneous conclusions, it is important to gi·✓e the proper interpretation to- method is, however, more involved and requires prior knowledge about the existence of the
precipitation data, which often cannot be accepted at face value. For exampl_e, a mean inconsistency. A clue to· this occurrence can be quickly obtained from a double-mass
annual precipitation value for a station is of little use if the gauge site has been changed graph.
significant1y during the period for which the average is computed. The changes éou]d also
 Precipitation 203
202 Applied Hydrology

Example 5.2 The·cumulative totals of station A and the average of 10 stations are plotted in Fig. 5.23.
The change is found in 1931 when the slope of 1.19 changes to 0.81.
Table 5.13 gives the annual rainfaU at a station A and ,the average, annual rainfall of 10
stations ih the vicinity for a period of 30 years. It is suspected that there has been a change
in the Iocation of the rain gauge at A during the period of this record. Determine the year
when the change has occurred and the corrected rain gauge readings prior to this year. V
/i 1
~ i
1
1
t
Solution mo n _Q
"-'
.✓
"r
,,A
./• lT
v_ . ..i,a.
Table 5.13 Computations for Double-mass Curve

Rainfall at station A
(cm)
Average rainfall of 10
stations (cm)
"E
"
◄
~ºr
'::>
-<"1 / ,,.

/ //'
,. ~
l
1

325
1
1 :
1
I
l
!
Year Cumula tive Average Cumulative // 1
Rainfall
at A
(Given)
rainfall starting
from last
rainfall
(Given)
rainfall starting
from last
t,,-
◄
.J
11 ........ -
~/
--
1
t l
2 3 4 5
J
◄
""%. @/
V
1321.5 ~ V
1921 50.5 1178.7 71.5 «500 A t,.
90.0 1128.2 57.0 1250.0 A • 1,4 o
1922
w f.<e
1923 6.0 1038.2 27.5 1193.0 t-
1924
1925
21.5
50.5
1032.2
1010.7
25.0
60.5
1165.5
1140.5
<
..,J
.:>
~
:,
- w"~'º
.
V

1926 62.5 960.2 22.0 1080.0 'I.)

u
< ~
V
1927 69.5 897.7 55.0 1058.0
57.0 1003.0 · l/

vv
36.0 828.2
1928
36.5 946.0 JO n ✓
1929 42.0 792.2
1930 42.0 750.2 19.0 909.5
27.5 890.5
1931
1932
36.0
42.0
708.2
672.2 60.5 863.0 o 'ºº AVER.AGIE ACCUMULATE o PREC' PI TATION (
fOOO
cm)
1300

1933 18.0 630.2 55.0 802.5

1934 30.0 612.2 38.5 747.5 Fig. 6.23 Doub!e-mass curve
1935 54.0 582.2 38.5 709.0
1936 48.0 528.2 47.5 670.5 Correction factor = 325/475 = 0.6842
1937 12.0 480.2 49.5 623.0
1938 36.0 468.2 24.0 573.5 Table 5.14 Correded Values of RainfaH
1939 42.0 432.2 44.0 549.5
Corrected
1940 36.0 390.2 60.5 505.5 Year Original reading reading = 0.6842 X (2)
1941 44.,5 354.2 47.5 495.0
1 2 3
1942 9.5 309.7 29.5 397.5
300.2 40.5 368.0 1930 42.0 28.78
1943 45.5
1929 42.0 28.78
1944 31.2 254.7 56.0 327.5
1928 36.0 24.60
1945 43.5 223.5 40.5 270.5 47;60
1927 69.5
1946 39·.5 180.0 38.5 230.0 1926 62.50 42.80
1947 24.0 140.5 55.0 192.5 1925 50.50 34.60
1948 44.5 116.5 42.0 137.5 1924 21.5 14.70
72.0 46.0 95.5 1923 6.0 4.12
1949 36.0
1922 90.0 61.60
1950 36.0 36.0 49.5 49.5
1921 50.50 34.60
 l«M Applied Hydrology
Extemliog Point RainfaU Record
Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific lo~a~io~s, and the _data so ~~ll~cted
is used to determine the frequency and character of prec1p1tat10n events rn the v1cm1ty of
the site. Point-precipitation data are used collectively to estimate the areal variabili_ty_ of
ràin and snow and are also used individually for developing the design-storm charactenstlcs
for small urban or other watersheds. Point-rainfall data are also used in deriving the
intensity-duration-frequency curves similar to those given in Fig. 5.24.
10
Precipitation 205
was available for 25 stations, it might be a:ssumed that tthis was equivalent of 500 years at
a single stati(?n. Thus, if during the 20-year record, a oertain prescribed event (such as, say,
1.0 cm rainfall in 10 min) occurs four times at one of ilhe,. stations and only once at each
of the other 24 stations, then we have a total of 28 occurrences in a total of 500 station-
years of record. From this it is assumed that the combined data are equivalent to a record
of 28 occurrences in 500 years at one station, with the help of which empirical frequency
distribution can be deriwed as dealt with in Chap. 3. Similarly for durations other than
10 min, the empirical frequency distribution curves can be d.erived giving thereby the
frequency-duration-intensity curve of th.e type of Fig. 5.24.

\
...
.e
'E
8
' ' 1\
Limitatians: The method is applicable only when the following essential requirements
are satisfied:
'f
o

6
\
\
\ 'I
1. Independence 0f station records. Independence of the individual stations means that
the statiom ~elected are sufficiently far apart so that storm intensities of the magnitude
~ ~ under study ;are recorded at not more than one of the stations for any single storm.

3
\~ '
"~ "
~ ~~ ~ ~ 4 , ,_
2. Substantial climatological homogeneity of the area in which the stations are located.
Substantial climatological homogeneity means that the stations selected for analysis are all
subject to the sarne storm types and sources. Preferably, the mean annual precipitations
~ should be at leait approximately the sarne at a11 stations.
N.et~~~- r-- r---
- -- ,_ 3. Over a long period stations will have very nearly the sarne frequency distributions.
1

o
-..~
~ :----

- r----_
~

Arithmetical Average M ethod

o 10 20 30 4o so 60 10 eo 90 100 uo 120 Many precipitation stations have breaks in their records due to some reason or the other.
To fill this missing data, three stations as close to and as evenly spaced as possible around
the particular station with the missing record are selected such that the normal annual
Fig. 5.24 Typical intensity-duration-frequency curves precipitation at each of the índex stations is within 10% of that for the station. Then a
simple arithmetic average of the precipitation of the índex stations provides the estimated
These curves are used in the 'rational method' for urban-storm drainage design wherein amount. Thus, if P is the amount of rainfall and suflix A Js for a particular station, and
the rainfall intensity for the desired frequency is computed from these curves for the 1, 2, 3 are for index stations, then
duration equal to the time of concentration of the watershed. The frequency chosen should
reflect the economics of fiood-damage reduction. GeneraHy, frequencies of l to 10 years
(5.12)
are used for protection of residential areas. ln fact, local conditions and practice normaUy
dictate the selection of these design criteria. The procedure to plot these frequency curves
has been dealt with in Chapter 3. It is occasionally necessary · to estimate point rainfaB at Normal Ratio Method
a given Iocation from recorded values at surrounding sites. This can be done to co1?plete
the missing records or determine a representative precipitation to be used at the pomt of If the normal annual precipitation at any of the index stations differs from that of the
interest. The following methods are used for the purpose. station in question by more than 10%, the arithmetical average method does not work.
Under such circums~ances, the normal ratio method is used in which the amounts at index.
stations are weighted by the ratios of the normal an:nual precipitation values. Thus,
Station-year M e-thod precipitation at station A, say P A, is given by
The method is based on the assumption that the records for the sarne or different periods
of records at a number of stations may be considered as a composite record for a single PÀ = !(NA.pl + NA •P2 + NA•P3) (5.13)
3 N1 N2 N3
station for a period equa] to the number of years involved. For example, if a 20-year record
where N stands for normal annual precipitation.
206 Applied Hydrology Precipitation 201

National Weather Service Method p _ EPW _ 316.37

A - EW - 83.63
This is a more suitable method in practice and has been verified on both theoretical d
. . lb Th · an = 3.78 cm
emp1:1ca ases. e ramfall. at point A (Fig. 5.25) is computed by establishing a set of axes
runnmg through A. Determme the absolute coordinates of the nearest surrounding point y
B, ~, D, E, ª.nd F. _Record these in col~mns 3 and 4 of Table 5.15. The estimated precipi~
tat10n at ~tat1on A 1s computed as a ~e1ghted average of the other five points. The weights
W are rec1procals of the squares of d1stances D between A and the index stations such that eo
2
D = L1x
2
+
L1y 2 , and W = 1/D2 • The ,estimated rainfaH at A is H
e
PA = E(P X W)/L'W. 10 •
(5.14)
ln the special case, if the rai~fall is known only in two adjacent quadrants (I and IV for .o
20 10 A
example), the estimate is given by ' ){

PA = I:PW (5.15)
.r:: "F

Th~s has the eff~ct of reducing estimates to zero as the points move from an area of precipi- 10
, li tv
tation_ to on_e w1th no records. This is co:0.sidered to be the most logical procedure for
handlmg thrn unusual case. The estimated result wiH always be less than the greatest and 20
?reater than the _smallest surrounding precipitation. For special effects such as mountain
mfluences, an adJustment procedure can be applied. y

fig. 5.25 Four quadrants surrounding precípitation station A

Example 5.3

Rai~faH of di~erent stations of Fig. 5.25 is given in Table 5.15 with missing record at Areal Precipitation
station A. Estlmate the rainfall at A from the record of surrounding stations.
A precipitation gauge measures the precipitation at one geographical point and cannot
Solution be representative of the precipitation on a larger area ~xcept in its immediate vicinity.
The probability of a given intensity over a homogeneous areais always somewhat less
The procedure for estimating the missing rainfaH record at station A is given in Table 5.15. than the probability of the sarne intensity at a point in the area, because a given
storm might produce a 25 year rate at its centre but only a 5-year. rate a short
Tabie 5.15 Computation of Point RainfaH at A from Data at Nearby Gauges distance away. _The larger the area, greater the error in the assumption; because
meteorological conditions may occasionally produce- inte~sities at a point greater than
RainfaH, P D2 w any possible combination of circumstances could produce over an area greater than a
Point X y PxW
(Given)
(cm) (Given) (Given) (3)X(3) + = 1/(5) = (2)x(6) few hectares. It seems probable, however, that the difference between point intensity and
(4)X (4) X 10- 3 X 10-3
areal intensity can be ignored in ordinary design problems involving areas with concentration
2 3 4 5 6 time of less than 1 or 2 hours for frequencies of once in 20 or 25 years. However, in
7
applying precipitation data to drainage basins of more than a few square kilometres for
A the estimation of runoff, it is necessary to estimate the average depth of precipitation on
B 3.5 8 4 80
watersheds of various sizes for different durations of rainfall.
12.50 43.75
The reliability of rainfall measured at one gauge in representing the average depth over
e 4.o 2 12 148 6.76 27.03 a surrounding areais a function of (1) the distance from the gauge· to the centre of the
D 3.4 6 4 52 19.23 representa tive area; (2) the size of the atea; (3) topography; (4) the nature of the rainfall
65.38
E 4.2 6 6 72
of concern (e.g. storm event versus mean monthly); and(5) local storm-pattern characteristics.
13.89 58.33
For most hydrologic analyses, we need the areal distribution of precipitation. Usually,
F 3.9 4 4 32 31.25 121.88 average depths for representative portions of the watershed are determined and used for
the purpose. However, this approach of arithmetic averaging is all dght if the gauges are
Total 83.63 316.37 uniformly distributed and the topography flat. Other commonly used methods are the
thiessen and isohyetal methods.
208 Applied Hydrology
Precipitation 209
Thiessen Polygon Method
This method consists in subdividing th~ area into polygonal subareas using rain gauges as
centres. The subareas are used as weights in estimating the watershed average depth.
To subdivide the area, the rainfall stations are first plotted on a base map and perpendicular
bisectors erected at mid-points from straight lines joining adjacent stations (Fig. 5.27).
These bisectors form polygons around each station permitting the assignment of weights on
the basis of the relative areas of the respective polygons. The Thiessen network is fixed for
a given gauge configuration, and polygons must be reconstructed if any gauges are relocated.
If P is the mean rainfall on the watershed V(hose area is A, and Pi, P 2 , ••• , Pn represent )(
the rainfall records at the stations whose surrounding polygons have areas A1, A2, ... , Am 34·8
then
(5.16)

The procedure, however, is not suitable for mountainous areas because of orographic
influences.
46·7
Jsohyetal Method y._ '/.._

41·6
An isohyet is a line joining places of equal rainfall intensities on a rainfaJI map of the )< ~

basin. An isohyetal map can be prepared for any area to interpolate areal rainfall values. 4-?>•5 49·1

(
The first step is to plot the rain gauge location on a suitable map and then to record the
rainfall amounts (Fig. 5.28). Now an i-nterpolation between gauges is performed and rainfall
X
amounts of selected increments are plotted. Identical depths from each interpolation are 53·6 X X
then connected to form isohyets. By planimetering the areas between adjacent isohyets, the 52·7 49·0
mean rainfall on the watershed can be found from Eq. (5.16) in which now A 1, A 2 , ••• , An y.
are the areas between the successive isohyets and P 1, P2 , ••• , P11 represent the mean rainfalls 7/ ·, 61·7
X.
on the respecti ve a reas.
X
The is~hyetal metho,d is the most accurate approach for determining the average 54•0
precipitation over an area: but its proper use requires a skilled analyst and careful attention
to topographic and other factors that affect the areal variability. Fig. 5.26 Watershed plan showing the location of rai11 gauge stations and
their observed rainfalls
Exampk 5.4
(b) Thiessen Polygon Method: Thiessen polygons are drawn as shown in Fig. 5.27 and
Figure 5.26 shows rain gauge stations and their annud rainfall in centimetres for a the calculations for average rainfall depth are given in Table 5. 16.
region. Find the average depth of precipitation using: (a) the arfthmetic mean method,
(b) the thiessen polygon method, and (e) the isohyetal map method. Table 5.16 A verage Rainfall-Thiessen Polygon Method

Area x Rainfall
Solution Rainfall, P Area of (2) X (3)
Sl.No. (cm) polygon, A ( X 103)
(a) Arithmetic Mean Method: Three rain gauge stations outside the basin are omitted
from analysis. 1 2 3 4

1 1 52.0 200 10.40

P=
22 (41.8 + 34.8 + 43.7 +
70.l + 46.7 + 61.3 + 39.2 31.9 +
37.3 +
49.8 + 2 41.8 360 15.10
500 19.50
+ + +
+ 57.7 + 43.5 + 41.6 46.7 49.1 + 61.8 53.6 + 52.7 + 49.0 +71.9 3
4
39.2
31.9 950 30.30
+ 61.7 +
54.0) 5 43.5 670 29.10
= 1099.9/22 = 50.0 cm 6 61.8 430 26.60
(Contd)
210 Applied Hydrology Precipitation 2U
Table 5.16 (Contd)

2 3 4

7 71.9 450 31.40

8 54.0 470 25.40
9 61.7 400 24.70
10 49.1 647 31.70
11 57.7 465 26.80
12 61.3 495 30.40
13 76.2 395 30.10
14 70.1 1090 76.50
15 61.8 70 4.3
16 34.0 795 27.70
17 43.7 980 42.80
18 37.3 935 34.80
19 46.7 900 42.10
20 41.6 805 33.60
21 46.7 708 33.00
22 49.8 458 22.80
23 53.6 560 30.00
24 52.7 650 34.30
25 49.0 500 24.50
Total EA = 14783 EAP = 737.90

P = 737900/14783 = 50 cm

lsohyetal Method
Isohyets have been drawn in Fig. 5.28 and areas planimetered between two isohyets.

Table 5.17 Average Rainfall-Isohyetal Method

Area within Average Precipitation

:sohyet basin boundary Net area precipitation volume
(cm) (km 2) (3) X (4)
(km 2) (cm) ( x 10 3 cm km 2)
Fig. 5.27 Thiessen polygons of rain gauge stations of w~tershed of Fig. 5.26
1 2 3 4 5
35 850 850 35.0 29.70 Time-Intensity Pattern for DaiJy RainfaJI
40 2900 2050 37.5 76.80
45 5050 2150 42.50 91.50 Where no continuous record of the storm precipitation is available at any station,. daily
50 7850 2800 47.50 132.0 rainfall records are corrected for intensity variation at nonrecording gauges on the basis of
55 ··9950 2100 52.50 110.0
the law of probability. If the observer reads the gauge at 8.0 AM a 24-h rainfall is justas
60 11050 1100 57.50 63.50
65 12000 950 62.50 59.50 likely to start· at 8.0 PM (or at any other hour) as at 8.0 AM. If it begins at 8.0 .PM and js
70 12600 600 67.50 40.50 of mdorm intensity, this 24-h rain having a depth of say .6 cm will be recorded as a 2-day
>70 13550 950 10;00 66.50 rain with 3 cm falling on each day. With no continuous record available, however, it would
Totál EA = 13550 l:AP = 670.00
be impossib_le to determine from the records whether this rain was received in 48-h or in
24-h or even in a much shorter period. As far as one could learn from the p.ublished reeords,
it is possible that the maximum rainfall in any 24-h period was 3 cm. lt is equally possible,
670000
Average depth P ==· 13 550
however, that it was 6 c1n. These two figures, therefore, represent the minimum and
maximum depths of rain that could possibly have faUen at this station in any 24-h period,
== 49.5cm during this storm. The most probable value should be the mean of these two or 4.5 em.
 lU Applied Hydroloty
Precipitation 213

where water stored on these surfaces eventually gets depleted through evaporation. Precipi-
tation that reaches the ground can take several paths. Some water will fill depressions and
eventually evaporate while some will infiltratc into the soil surface. A part of the infiltrated
water may strike relatively impervious strata near the soil surface and flow approxirnately
parallel to it as interflow until an outlet is _reached. Other portions may replenish the soil
moisture in the upper soil zone, while some of the infiltrated water may reach the ground
\V-ater rescrvoir which sustains dry weather streamflow. The component of the precipitation
input that exceeds the local infiltration rate will develop a film of water on tbe surface
(surface detention) until overland flow comrnences. Overland flow ultimately reaches óefined
channels and becomes streamflow.
Figure 5.29 gives the schematic representation of the distribution of rainfall into various
components, while Fig. 5.30 shows the runoff process with an ideal disposition of a uniform
storm input to a natural drainage basin. It should, however, be realised that the actual
graphs of infiltration and/or other factors may differ from those given here due to the
effects of nonuniform storm patterns, antccedent soil moisture, and other conditions.
Nevertheless, the nature of the curves depicts the general runoff process.
Precipitotion

Snow Rourine

Roin,Snowmelt,
Evoporotíon
-----+------a
Soil Mois ture zone

Fig. 5.28 lsohyets of watershed of Fig. 5.26

Therefore, if daily rainfall records indicate. that the rainfall occurred for two or more
successive days, the probable m~ximum depth of rain that fell in any 24-h period during
that storm should be determined by adding to the maximum recorded total of daily rainfall
one half of the noxt larger total that fell on either .the preceding or succeeding day and so
------e
on for longer storms. For example, suppose the daily totals for three successive days are
1.20, 2.75 and 0.86 cm. The maximum 24-h total would be
Trons t
2.75 + ½x
1.20 = 3.35 cm
Function Q
and the maximum 48-h total would be
2.75 + +
1.20 ½ x 0.86 = 4.38 cm Fig, 5.29 Schematic representation of the distribution of
rainfall into varlous components

S.6 _ DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRECIPITATION INPUT
Total precipitation is distributed in numerous ways. Some of it is intercepted by vegetation
and trees. Opce interception storage is filJed, rain drops begin to fall from leaves and grass>
A storm input of uniform intensity i is shown in Fig. 5.30(a). This input is subdivided
into components i1 through i4 such that the sum of these is i at any tjme t. Figure 5.30(b)
illustrates the manner in which the infiltrated water is further subdivided into interflow,
grnundwater and soil moisture. Figure 5.30(c) shows the transition from overland to stream-
flow. The details of the mechanics of these processes wil1 be dealt with in Iater chapters.
 Precipitation 215
214 Applied Hydrology
When subjected to a precipitation input, large watersheds react different1y from smaller
ones because of factors such as geologic age, relativç impact of land use practices, size
differential, variations in storage characteristics, etc. Chow defines a small watershed as a
drainage basin whose characteristics do not filter out: (1) fluctuations characteristics of high
intensity, short-duration storms, or (2) the effect of land-management practices. Thus,
small watersheds are up to 250 sq. km. A large •Watershed is that in which the channel
Roin1all Input
storage effectively filters out the high frequencies of imposed precipitation and effects of
land-use practices.
lnterception

t
. 5.7 AMOUNT OF PRECIPITABLE WATER

Estimates of the amount of precipitation that might occur over a given region with favour-
able conditions are often useful. These may be obtained by calculating the amuunt of
i: ;, + i2 + r.3 + j◄ storo~ water contained in a column of atmosphere extending up from the earth's surface. This
t quantity is known as the precipitable water W, although it cannot all be removed from the
atmosphere by natural processes. Precipitable water is usually expressed in centimetres or
inches. Since the overwhelming part of the vapour content of the atmosphere is present in
~ Land
14~
the lower layers, and unless great accuracy is desired, it is satisfactory to ignore the amounts
/ F t o ~ p ly present above the 300-mb level. ·
If the dew point and pressure in a given volume of air are known, the amount of water
la} t
/'"'
\ 5486·3

)/
\
"""'18
Moisture 5000 """
O,)
'f'Soil if l 61-1r-~1r---+-"'T"'-t--'\-+---t--t---t--""'I

11
\

' water -
.§,
o
oQ 14 l----"t--~r----t,..._--++---t'r--+ .
4000 2$,
i4
t t
IJt
..J
w
>
w
...J
l1J
12 t--lr--t--~t--~t--~t---\
(b)
..J
<(
>
UI
w 3000 ...J
Me-chanics Streom Flow f/)
<(
Of surfoce Hydrogroph z l1J
<( (/)
Runoff w

~·~
:i 2000 2
==t w <( 6
o>
w
m ~
<(
4
l1J
(e) ...
:e
1000
>
o
Fig. 5.30 The runoff process: (a) disposition of precipitation; (b) components of <.!) 0l
infiltration; and (e) disponition of overland flow supply w <(
:e
o I- o ......._....___...o;__..._.....,.;:..-..-.---.......- - -
The rate and areal distribution of runoff from a watershed area are as a result of the
I
52 0 5 'º JS 20 2'5 30 35
com bined effect of physiographic and climatic factors. The main physiographic factors are: UJ
TEMPERATURE tºCJ
:::t:
geometric properties of the watershed, land-use characteristics, soil type, geologic structure,
and characteristics of drainage channe]s (geometry, slope, roughness and storage capacíty).
Important climatic factors include: the form, type, time distribution of precipitation, the fig. 5.31 Elevation adjustment of surface dew point. The chart is assuming
character of the regional vegetation cover, prevailing evapotranspiration characteristics~ saturation with a pseudoadiabatic lapse rate
and the status of the soil moisture reservoir.
 Precipitation .217
216 Applied Hydrology

vapour in the volume can be exactly determined from thermodynamic considerations. ln
practice, dew point is known only at the surface. Hence to estimate the amount of precipi-
table water,' an assumption is made that the dew point in the atmospheric column varies
with altitude as indicated by pseudoadiabates, i.e. the column has a pseudoadiabatic lapse
rate of the dew point. With this assumption the precipitable water in a column of air can
be determined by summation from the sea levei to any elevation. The observed dew point
at any elevation can be reduced to the 1000-mb elevation (sea levei pressure) by means of
Fig. 5.3 l, which shows the lapse rate under the assumed atmospheric conditions, i.e. the
pseudoadiabatic lapse rate. The precipitable water depth can be read from Fig. 5.32
corresponding to the converted dew-point temperature at 1000-mb pressure.
TEMPERATURE ( C)
ln computing tbe depth of precipitable water, the effect of tbe inflow barrier shouJd
be taken into consideration. An inflow barrier for a streamline of air flow into a basin is the
bigbest ground point on the streamline. The height of the inflow barrier for a broad stream
of air flow is thus calculated by averaging the inflow barrier heigbts of the narrow air
streams that comprise it. The effect of the barrier is to reduce the amount of precipitable
- water as the precipitable water in the column extending from sea_ levei to the inflow barrier
beigbt is not available for precipitation in the basin.
Example 5.5
The dew-point temperature on 28-29 September 1924 was 53ºF {l l.67ºC) at Chakrata
whose elevation is 7170 feet (2186 m). The elevation of the inflow barrier of the basin is
4000 feet. Ca]culate thé d~pth of precipita'ble water.

Solution ·
Dew-point temperature on 28-29 September, 1924 = 11.67ºC

Elevation of Chakrata station

(taken from Survey of India maps) = 7170 feet

40 Equivalent dew-point ..temperature at M.S.L. for l l.67ºC at

elevation 7170 feet (Refer Fig. 5.31) = 2 l.2ºC
Depth of storm precipitable water at 21.2ºC, i.~. l 000 to
300 mb (refer Fig. 5.32) = 2.28 in.
Depth of precipitable water at inflow · barrier (1000 mb to
4000 feet) {refer Fig. 5.32) = O. 78 in.
700~.u._:a,~~~~..a.L....,.C..-'-'t.....J.~.4.....~:..,__._-f-L-à-~---..................u...L...................~u..+,,L.,U.J Precipitable water (4000Jeet to 300 mb) = 2.28-0.78
O 0-'5 l·O l·S 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·S 4·0 4·5 s·o '5·'5 6-0 6·5 7·0 7·5 = 1.50 in.
PRECIPI TABLE WATER (inches)
= 3.81 cm
0c -I0-6~02468 IOl2J416 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
700
5.8 PRESENTATION AND PROCESSING OF PRECIPITATION DATA
i
D
800
Chronological Cbarts
!,
"'a:=>
(n
Daily, weekly, monthly or annual rainfall shown either by dots or by lines joining the dots,
1ft etc. are known as chronological charts (Fig. 5.33). Chronological charts may be plotted
l.&I
a: with a moving mean.· A moving mean may be used to damp out or smootbe out some of
o. 1000 the random variations of the variable such as precipitàtion. Let us consider a set of obser-
o 1· 0 l·S 2·0 2·S 3·0 3·5
vations of precipitation, say xi, x 2 , ••• , xN. The moving mean is:
PRECIPITABLE'. WATER (lnchn)
X1 + X2. ·. + XN X2 + X3 + · · · + XN+l X3 + X4 + · ·, + XN+2
Fig. 5.32 Precipitable water above 1000 mb assuming saturation with pseudoadiabatic N N N
lapse rate for the indicated surface temperature
 Precipitation 219
218 Applied Hydrology
Table 5.18 Computations for Five-year Moving Mean .
These sums are called moving sums of order N. The order N can be any value. If it is too
small, 'it•may be less effective in reducing the random variability, while if it is too large, Annual ppt Five-year Five-year
some of the desired cyclic components are hidden. Preéipitation data are often analysed by Year (Given) total mean
means of a five-year moving mean of the annual precipitation. Statisticians prefer to pio~ (cm) (cm) (cm)
the moving mean at tbe mid-point of tbe period to which it refers, while some meteoro-
1 2 3 4
logists and hydrologists customarily plot it at the end of the period because it more exactly
~ 1940 33.34
E
1941 25.20
~
z 150 1942 40.42
o
.:: 1943 40.22
...
<(

125 1944 29.96 169.14 33.82

õ.:
ü 1945 36.66 172.46 34.50
w
cr 1946 15.46 162.72 32.54
a.
..J
'ºº 1llllJ1 1947 24.70 147.00 29.40

...o
<t: 1948
1949
25.34 132.12 25.42
.... :75 18.32 120.48 24.10
..J
1950 17.94 101.76 20.22
<l
::) 1951 22.54 108.84 21.76
~ !50
~ 1952 15.34 99.48 19.90
cr
O 5 10 15 20 25 !O 3~ .«) 45 50 ~ 00 85 1953 35.38 109.52 21.90
1954 19.36 110.56 22.12
YEARS
1955 30.08 122.70 24.54
fig. 5.33 Typical chronological chart of annual total precipltation 1956 44.14 144.30 28.86
1957 41.56 170.72 34.14
1958 20.18 155.52 31.10
reflects the natural storage in the hydrologic system. It makes a little difference as to how
tbe plot is done but because of the two conventions, it is always desirable to state on the 1959 43.88 180.04 36.00
graph 'mean plotted at the mid-point' or_ 'mean plotted at the end of the period' as the 1960 31.38 181.34 36.26
1961 49.02 186.22 37.24
case may be.
It so bappens that five years are sufficient to damp out most of the random components 1962 25.02 169.48 ']3.90
leaving the effects of longer wet and dry cycles in the record. The wet periods can be 1963 24.96 174.26 34.86
recognised by comparing the five-year mean line with the mean for the entire record. 1964 43.12 173.50 34.70
During a wet period, the five-year moving-mean line is always above the long-term mean. 1965 30.84 172.96 34.60
During a drought period the five-year moving-mean line will always be below the long-term 1966 34.30 158.24 31.64
mean. Information about wet or dry periods is needed to simplify some of the other 1967 19.02 152.24 30.44
calculations in hydrology. 1968 28.02 155.30 31.06
1969 20.46 132.64 26.52
1970 20.18 121.98 24.40
Example 5.6
1971 27.98 105.66 23.14
The annual precipitation data for the station is given below for the period 1935-70.
1972 36.24 132.88 26.58
(a) Plot tbe annual precipitation as a time series, 32.60
1973 137.46 27.SO
(b) compute the 36-year mean ·annual precipitation, 1974 26.76 143.76 28.76
(e) compute the five-year moving mean and plot it at the end of lhe period,
1975 28.12 151.70 30.34
(d) identify any drought periods, and
(e) find the highest and lowest annual precipitation. Compute the ratio of these extremes E 1058.04
to the long-term mean.
220 Applied Hydrology
Precipitation llJ
36.year mean = l058.04/36
= 29.39 cm (b)
Highest year 1961 = 49.02/29.39 = 1.67
(e)
orought Period Lowest year 1952 = 15.34/29.39 = 0.52
(e)
1947 TO 19 56 The annual precipitation time series is plotted along with its five-year moving mean in
Fig. 5.34.
44
Frequency Curve

The frequency curve is an elementary statistical <levice that can be found useful for a
number of purposes. The procedure to derive the frequency curve he.s a1ready been dealt
40 " orought Peri od with in Chap. 3. Frequency analysis can be carried out not only for the annual precipi-
.·
(968 To 1974 tation record, but also a relationship between frequency, intensity and storm duration can
be established .
... The relationships between frequency, intensity and storm duration vary sufliciently from
36 place to place, and hence local studies can be made wherever important work is contem-
eo .' plated. Moreover, periodic revisions are desirable in each locality, say every 3 or 1 years,
-..J
z to take advantage of the constantly accumulating data .
1
:
º
!i .
The relationship between duration, intensity and frequency at any location can be
obtained from an analysis of the rainfall records obtained at that location. First, the rainfall-
.... 32 : .. '
5 -veorMeon
ii'. (Plotted A1 End intensity record of a given rainfall duration say 15 minis collected for the location, and the
õ .....•. of Period)
I.IJ frequency analysis of this is carried out to get the rainfaH intensity for different freque 1cies.
a: . ...,._ 36 vear Meon
a. : Then the whole process is repeated for different selected rainfall durations, say 3( min,
29 .39 cm 60 min, and so on. If then the average intensity is plotted against duration for a particular
s
.: ~ frequency, a curve similar to Fig. 5.24 can be drawn through the points. Such curves may be

...
:
:
:
' Annuol Precipiiofíon used to determine the average intensity of a 10-year frequency rain for any desired duration.
It has been found that sets of such curves tend to plot logarithmically in terms of

24
~-- : lntensity, duration and frequency leading to the general equ~tion:
: kTx
i = -tb (5.17)
: where
.. = precipitation intensity (cm/h)
~ i
2o
T = recurrence interval (years)
,,
~ wet period t = duration of precipitation (min)
1956 To 19 58
k, x and b = empirical constants which identify the pattern of a given set of intensity-
16 - duration curves
1
1935 4S 6'5 75 To establish the relationship of Eq. (5.17) long records of precipitation are needed. lf
such records are not avai1ab1e, it can be extended by the methods already discussed.
VEAR
Example 5.7
f 1g
• • i:: ->4
.p,.;, Plot of annual precipitation and its five•year moving mean
Annual rainfall data of Janes Ville, Wisconsin is given in Table 5.19. Find the arithmetic
mean, median and mode. Also, perform the frequency analysis.
 Precipitation 223
222 Applied Hydrology
Table 5.19 (Contd)
Solution
2 3 4 5 6
Table 5.19 Frequency Analysis
31 1945 56.92 -5.16 26.63 2.61
Annual
rainfall in Deviation Recurrence 32 1886 57.56 -4.52 20.43 2.53
Order ascending Deviations interval
of term Year from the squared 33 1900 57.56 -4.52 2.45
order of mean (N+l) 81 20.43
m (4)x(4)
magnitude [(3)-62.08] ---;;;- = (1) 34 1874 58.10 -3.98 15.84 2.38
(cm)
35 1917 58.80 -3.28 10.76 2.31
2 3 4 5 6 36 1871 58.90 -3.18 10.11 2.25
37 1930 59.76 -2.32 5.38 2.19
1 1895 26.98 -35.10 1232.01 81.00
38 1907 60.58 -1.50 2.25 2.183
2 1889 40.34 -21.74 472.63 40.50
39 1926 60.66 -1.42 2.02 2.08
3 1901 40.48 -21.60 466.56 27.00
40 1909 61.66 -0.42 0.18 2.03
4 1939 40.80 -21.28 452.84 20.25
41 1923 62.02 -0.06 0.003 1.98
5 1872 44.88 -17.20 295.84 16.20
42 1902 62.50 0.42 0.18 1.93
6 1897 45.16 -16.92 286.29 13.50
43 1904 62.50 0.42 0.18 U8
7 1875 45.60 -16.48 271.59 11.57
44 1933 62.50 0.42 0.18 1.-84
8 1888 46.12 -15.96 254.72 10.13
45 1896 62.70 0.62 0.38 1.80
9 1891 48.48 -13.60 184.96 9;00
46 1893 62.92 0.84 0.71 1.76
10 1910 48.74 -13.34 177.96 8.10
49.18 -12.90 47 1940 63.56 1.48 2.19 1.72
11 1894 166.41 7.36
12 1932 49.52 -12.56 157.75 6.75 48 1898 63.82 1.74 3.02 l.69
49 1929 63.88 1.80 3.24 1.65
13 1946 50.42 -11.66 134.56 6.23
50 1922 64.08 2.00 4.00 1.62
14 1905 50.98 -11.10 123.21 5.19
51 1944 64.34 2.26 5.11 1.59
15 1908 51.34 -10.74 115.35 5.40
52 1912 64.64 2.56 6.55 1.56
16 1936 51.62 -10.46 109.41 5.06
53 1906 64.76 2.68 7.18 1.53
17 1925 52.26 -9.82 96.43 4.76
1943 53.26 -8.82 77.79 4.50 54 1924 64.76 2.68 7.18 1.50
18
19 1899 53.62 -8.46 71.57 4.26 55 1911 65.44 2.36 11.29 1.47

20 1948 53.62 -8.46 71.57 4.05 56 1927 66.38 4.30 18.49 1.45

21 1937 53.84 -8.24 67.90 3.86 57 1915 66.48 4.40 19.36 1.42

22 1920 54.32 -7.76 60.22 3.68 58 1903" 68.80 6.72 45.16 1.40

1918 54.54 -7.54 56.85 3.52 59 1931 69.96 7.88 62.09 1.37
23
1935 54.90 -7.18 51.55 3.38 60 1947 70.18 8.10 65.61 1.35
24
1873 54.98 -7.10 50.41 3.24 61 1919 70.32 8.24 67.90 1.33
25
-6.74 45.43 3.12 62 1879 70.42 8.34 69,56 1.31
26 1877 55.30
-5.82 33.87 3.0 63 1916 71.06 8.98 80.64 1.29
27 1870 56.26
32.95 2.89 64 1941 71.50 9.42 88.74 1.27
28 1914 56.34 -5.74
29 1934 56.38 -5.70 32.49 2.79 (Contd)

30 1942 56.56 -5.52 30.47 2.70

 124 Applied Hydrology
Precipitation 225
Table 5.19 (Contd)
times. The perccntage of thc data falling within a 2~cm increment are plotted as ordinatcs
l , 2 3 4 5 6 in Fig. 5.35. The shaded area then rcprcsents thc number of terms in the series. For
comparison, a curve of normal probability with thc sarne area mean and spread is sho\vn.
65 1928 71,78 9.70 94.09 1.25 From thís figure it is found that even 80 terms are insufficicnt to determine whether the
66 1913 72.08 10.00 100.00 1.23 data would evcntuaUy conform to the normal probabiiity law.
67 1876 72.30 10.22 104.45 1.21 V)
68 1890 73.96 11.88 141.13 1.19 ~ Jr::>.-----.----.-----,----rr-- --------12
W
69 1892 74,20 12.12 146.89 J.17 >-
70 1869 75.16 13.08 171.09 1.15
71 1921 77.12 15.04 226.20 1.14
72 1887 7•7.78 15.70 246.49 1.13
73 1938 78.68 16.60 275.56 1.11
74 1878 79.08 17.00 289.00 1.09
15 1885 81.16 19.08 364.05 1.08
76 1883 82.26 20.18 407.23 1.07
77 1882 85.78 23.70 501.69 1.05 o '-----1----=----....i:::..a;..,,::..L-..L.'.!.L...C-.c...,LJ!,:&c:.L.-O::,,,,~LI,_--"
78 1880 93.44 31.36 O ~ 30 40
983.45 1.04
A N NUAL RAINf ALL
79 1884 98.38 36.30 1317.69 1.03
80 1881 105.82 43.7 ➔ 1913.19 1.01 Fig. 5.35 Frequency series for the record of annual raínfall

Total 4965.82 13642.65 Rainfall va1ues correspondíng to their recurrence interval of the last column of Table 5.19
are plotted on the normal probability paper in Fig. 5.36. This show5 the sarne normal
curve of Fig. 5.35. The lack of correlation of the central terms is better seen in Fig. 5.35;
Mean = 4965.82/80
however, the tendency of the extreme terms to upward curvature is noticeable in Fig. 5.36.
= 62.08 cm
Median = ½(61.66 + 62.02) = 61.84 cm 140
1
..
Standard deviat1on, s = Ji364Tis · 120
80
- 1
1
.
.
= 13.06 cm E 100
o "' 1..,
·-- -
-s- =
...,✓
. f . .
Coeffic1ent o vanat10n

=
= mean
0.210
13.06
-
62 .08 ..J
-'
<C
&&..
z
80

eo
- ... 1d
~
~- , .. -
-~ . --
Percentage of total time represented by each observatiori = l 00/80 <
a: V,...
--,
·40
= 1.25 .V
'!
Thus, rainfall between 48 and 49 cm occurs four times in the above table, then it occurs 20
4 .x 1.25 = 5% of the total time. Similarly, rainfall between 26 and 27 cm occurs only
1.25% of the total time.
o
O.OI 0.1 1 10 20 40 ◄O 20 10 0.1 O.OI
The median, in the absence of a middle term, is taken as the average of the fortieth and PERCENTAGE OF YEARS
forty-first Jerms. The mode is 62.50 which is the one value in the series appeâ.ring three
Fig. 5.36 Probability of annual rainfal! at Janes Vi!le, Wísconsin
226 App/ied Hydrology
Deptb-Area-Doration (DAD) Curves
To determine the probable maximum precipitation for a basin for which there is not
enough data, storm transposition is attempted in some cases. Storm transposition means
the application of a storm from orie area to another area within the sarne meteorologicaliy
homogeneous region. The purpose of storm transposition is to increase the storm experíence
of a basin by considering not only storms that have occurred directly over that basin
but also those that have occurred within the surrounding meteoro1ogical homog~neous
region.
The immediate goal of a depth-area-duration analysis of a particular storm is to
determine the !argest average depth of rainfall that fell over various sizes of area during
the standard passage of time in hours or days, such as the largest depth over 1000 sq. km
in 24 h. Such va.lues, when determined for each of the transposable storms, provide the basic
data to estimate the probable maximum precipitation (PMP) for the basin in question.
A depth---area-duration curve expresses graphically the relation between a progressively
decreasing average depth of rainfall over a progressively increasing area from the centre
or 'eye' of the storm ou_tward to its edges for a given duration of rainfall. It can be
constructed from any isohyetal map of rainfall for the given duration by planimetering the
area associated with each isohyet of the rainfall depth, and thereafter, plotting the
progressively decreasing average depth as ordinates and the corresponding areas as
abscissas. Such a curve can be constructed for the duration of the storm or for a selected
duration (usually 6 h, 12 h, 18 h, 24 h, 36 b, etc.) Incremental isohyetal maps for these
time intervals are necessary in the procedure. When these curves are plotted together and
referenced to a common areal base, they provide the depth-area-duration relations (Fig. 5.22).
Precipitation 227
The 1.'.urve bctween the equivalent uniform depth of column 7 and the net area enclosed
between two isohyets of column 3 of Table 5.20 can be plotted to give the depth-area curve
for the given duration of isobyets.
Mass Curves
Generally, a basin has a few recording type and re~aining nonrecordíng type rain gauges.
The analvsis of time distribution is confined mainly to data obtained from recording rain
gauges, \~hile in the preparation of isohyetal maps for different durations, such as 6, 12,
18 h, etc., it is necessary to know the accumulated depths of rainfall corresponding to these
intervals of time at all stations within the area under study. This can be achieved by
making use of the mass-rainfall curve of the recording gauge. The mass curves of non-
recording stations are constructed on the pattern of the mass curve obtained at the
recording station. However, this is true only when the stations being considered are under
similar topographic influences and all the stations are found to have comparable precipita-
tion regimes. Figure 5.37 shows a typical mass curve of recording and nonrecording type
rain gauges at two stations respectively. The curve of the recording station is used as a
guide to estimate the time distribution of the rainfall measured at the nonrecording rain
gauge station.
5
J
--
... "'
--
,......

- .,..
Example 5.8 Q
k:y /

For the precipitation data of Example 5.4, find the equivalent uniform depth (EUD) of
n
rainfall for plotting the depth-area-duration curve. // i,
Nora-ecordino 0auOe
J>"'
RecordiN / I
Solution o
aouoe, (
~
Table 5.20 ,,,,--- ,J
I'

Isohyet
(Given)
(cm)
Area enclosed
within basin
boundary
Net area
(km 2)
Average
prccipitation
{cm)
Volume
=(3)X(4)
( X J03)
Cumula tive
volume
=2(5)(xl0')
EUD
(cm)
!J
·-
1,···
-- -V
I
OQbservotion Token
Observer Noted
(krn 2) (6)/(2)
o _/j' aeegtnnlng •Endin.ri
6A SEPt2é,6P 6A 21 6P 6A 22 6P 23 6A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

35 850 850 35 29.70 29.70 35.00 Fig. 5.37, Typical mass curve at recording and non-recording rain gauge station
40 2900 2050 37.5 76.80 106.50 36.72
The mass-rainfall curve also permits interpretation of short-period intensity data of the
45 5050 2150 42.5 91.50 198.00 39.21
storm. The comparison of severa} mass-rainfall curves allows interpretation of storm
50 7850 2800 47.50 132.00 330.00 42.04
movement over the region. It is also required to determine a generalised summary of the
55 9950 2100 52.50 110~00 440.00 44.22
performance of the particular storm for comparison with other stations or other storms.
60 11050 1100 51.50 63.50 503.50 45.57
There is need to cvaluate the temporal patterns of storms in order to make ma:ximum use of
65 12000 950 62.50 59.50 563.00 46.92
the daily rainfall data.
70 12600 600 67.50 40.50 603.50 47.90
Generalised graphs of mass-rainfall curves can be obtained by converting thc rainfall
>70 13550 950 70 66.50 670.00 49A5 scale to the percentage of the total storm rainfa11 and the time scale to percentage storm
duration.
 Precipitation 229
228 Applied Hydrology
PROBLEMS
Example 5.9
S.1 Describe different types of tain gauges. What are the errors associated with precipítation measurement?
The a<ljacent rainfall data of three stations equipped with recording type rain gauges are 5.2 Describe the procedure to design the network of precipite.tion for a watershed.
given in Table 5.21. 5.3 Assuming rain falling vertically, express the catch of a gauge inclined 10° from tbe vertical as a
(a) Compute the accumulated hourJy rainfall for these three stations. percentage of tbe catch for the sarne gauge installed vertically.
5.4 Precipitation station A was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred. The
(b) Plot the mass-rainfall curves. respective storm totais at three surrounding stations l, 2 and 3 were 105, 88 and 125 mm. The normal
annual precipitation amounts ·at stations A, 1, 2 and 3 are respectively 980, 1,120, 935 and 1,200 mm.
Solution Estimate tbe storm precipitation for station A.
S.5 CompiJe for a particular storm the rainfall amounts observed at different rain gauge stations of water-
Table 5.21 Computations for Accumulated Precipitation at Three Statioos
shed in your area.
(a) Plot the rain gauge stations on a map.
Station A Station B Station C (b) Plot the rainfaH amounts on a map.
Date Hour Hourly 2ppt Hourly 2ppt Hourly 2 ppt (e) Construct isohyetal lines.
ppt 2(3) ppt ppt 2(7) (d) Determine the area enclosed by isohyets.
(Given) (Given) 2 (5) (Given) (e) Compute average depth by isohyets.
(f) Compute the average depth by drawing Thiessen polygons.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (g) Compare the results obtained under steps (e) and (f).
24 10 o o o o o o (h) Plota depth-area curve for this storm.
11 0.02 0.02 5.6 The annual precipitation at station A and the average annual precipitation at 15 surrounding stations
Noon 0.08 0.08 o o 2.48 2.50 are given in the table below.
1 PM 3.98 4.06 2.10 2.10 2.84 5.34 (a) Determine the consistency of the record at station A.
2 1.94 6.00 2.46 4.56 1.60 6.94 (b) ln what year is a change in regime indicated?
3 1.80 7.80 2.64 7.20 0.26 7.20 (e) Compute the mean annual precipitation for station A for the entire 34-year period without
4 0.28 8.08 2.16 9.36 1.86 9.06 adjustment.
5 1.36 9.44 0.04 9.40 0.26 9.32 (d) Repeat part (c) for station A at its 1971 site with the data adjusted for tbe change in regime.
6 0.26 9.70 0.52 9.92 0.02 9.34
7 o 9.70 0.28 1().20 0.10 9.44 Data Table Dam Table (Contd)
8 0.04 10.24 o 9.44
9 o 10.24 Annual precipitation Annual precipitation
(cm) (cm)
Year Year
Mass curves for three stations have been plotted in Fig. 5.38. 15-station 15-station
Sta. A Sta. A average
average
4 8 16
12
1938 26.8 27.8 1955 26.6 19.2
.....a. t0.2 ◄ cm. 1939 21.4 19.8 1956 32.6 20.4
~ A. 9.70 .
I - - - -e.e. ◄◄ 1940 21.8 20.. 2 1957 45.4 31.8
1941 24.0 27.4 1958 27.8 21.8
,...._ 8 1942 26.6 26.2 1959 29.4 20.4
1943 29.2 26.4 1960 28.0 20.6
e 21.8 1961 22.8 20.4
(,J
........ 1944 18.0
1945 23.6 22.8 1962 27.6 23.6
...J
...J
1946 19.4 20.4 1963 20.0 18.4
:z 4 1947
1948
30.8
25.0
27.8
26.0
1964
1965
21.0
33.4
20.4
28.0
<
a: 1949 23.0 26.2 1966 18.6 16.8
... 1950
1951
21.8
27.8
18.4
21.8
1967
1968
36•.8
28.2
23.0
18.2
o 1952 28.2 26.4 1969 39.6 26.0
MIO MIO
1953 20.8' 20.0 1970 34.2 26.2
1954 15.8 17.6 1971 ·, 32.0 21.4

Fig. 5.38 Typlcal mass curves at three recording rain gauge stations
230 Applied Hydrology

s.7 The average annual precipitation for the four subbasins constituti,ng a large river basin is 58, 67, 8Si
and go. ctft• The areas are 900, 690, 1050 and 1650 km 2 • respectively. What is the average annua
preeipitation for the basin as a whole? _
5.8 Plot the 15-station average precipitation of Prob. 5.6 as a time series. Also plot 5-year movi ng aver;ges
a~d accumulated annuat departures from the 34-year mean. Are there any apparent cyc1es or ime
trends! Discuss. 6
The Hydrograph

6.1 GENERAL

The water that constitutes a streamflow may reach the stream channel by any of the
severa! paths from the point where it first reaches the earth as precipitation. Some water
fl.ows over the soil surface as surface runoff and reaches the stream soon after the occurrence as
runoff. Other water infiltrates through the soil surface and flows beneath the surface to the
stream. This water moves more slowly than surface runoff and contributes to sustained
flow of the stream during periods of dry w~ather.
Thus, the term "hydrograph" is the graphical representation of th.e instantaneous rate of
discharge of a stream p1otted with respect to time (Fig. 6.1). This is as a result of the phy-
siographic and hydrometeorological effects of the watershed.

6,000

-E
o
q>
5.000

::,
u 3,000
~
o....J 2.000

lA.
'·ººº
o
Z,.., 1
<iE
o:~ 2

A TYPICAL R IVER HYDROGRAPH

fig. 6.1