VAR Part 7 - Aircraft Maintenance Basic Cat A: Training Manual

For Training Purpose Only DETAILED TRAINING
VAR Part 7 - Aircraft Maintenance Basic Cat A

TRAINING MANUAL
M17
Issue: 01
Rev: 00
Date: 25/04/2014
© VAECO Training Center
Training Manual
For training purposes and internal use only.

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PROPELLER EASA PART 66
M17
M17 PROPELLER
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!
FRA US/O-5 DaC 15.09.2012 ATA DOC Page 1

M 17 PROPELLER EASA PART 66
M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
M17.1 PROPELLER FUNDAMENTALS

GENERAL As the pressure differences on the propeller blade airfoils are small by nature, the
acceleration of the air mass is also small. This leads to low downwash speeds with
The propeller is driven by an engine with a performance measured in shaft horse high propulsive efficiency at low to medium airspeeds (mach 0.5 to 0.6).
power or brake horse power). It accelerates a mass of air and the reaction
produces thrust.
Propellers can also be used as aerodynamic brakes by reversing the direction of
air acceleration.
The propeller consists of a propeller hub and two or more propeller blades. The
propeller is connected to the propeller shaft by the hub.
The propeller blades have an aerodynamic profile. When they move through the
air (rotation of the propeller), an air mass is accelerated by the difference in
pressure on the surfaces of the blades.
The following terms apply to the propeller blade:
S leading edge
S trailing edge
S blade root
S and blade tip.
As the geometry of the blade changes from the root to the tip, details on chord
length, chord thickness and blade angle refer to a particular reference station. This
reference station is normally located from 0.7R - 0.75R.
HOW THE PROPELLER WORKS

PRODUCTION OF THRUST
The way the propeller works is based on the reactive principle. The air mass
flowing through the propeller plane is accelerated by the difference ∆v. The reason
for this acceleration of the air mass is the change in pressure in front of and behind
the propeller plane, which occurs as a result of the air flowing around the propeller
propeller plane
blade airfoil. As a reaction to the accelerating forces, propeller thrust (Fs) is
created. As the air mass in the propeller plane also receives an accelerating
component in the direction of the circumference, the air mass spirals away from
the propeller plane. Because of the higher velocity of the propeller wash behind Figure 1 Propellerstream
the propeller plane, its cross−section is reduced there.
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 2

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
HUB
BLADE TIP LEADING EDGE
anti-icing tip
Spinner
AIRFOIL BLADE ROOT TRAILING EDGE
BLADE ROOT
reference chord length
station
BLADE TIP
Figure 2 Propeller Components

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
ANGLES OF THE PROPELLER BLADE
Blade Angle (ϕ)
The angle between the propeller chord and the rotational plane of the propeller is
the blade angle or the angle of incidence. The blade angle is not constant over the
whole length of the propeller (see aerodynamic twist).
In practice the angle always refers to the pressure side of the blade, even if the
profile chord differs from this. As the blade angle is not constant over the whole
length of the blade, a particular part of the blade is termed the reference station.
This station is generally at 3/4R of the propeller.
Angle of Attack (α)
The angle of attack is the angle between the profile chord line and the relative air
flow towards it. With the angle of incidence running appropriately the length of the
blade, the desired lift distribution is achieved from the resulting angles of attack.
As the propeller moves on a plane which is perpendicular to the forward movement
of the aircraft, two velocities, perpendicular to each other, are definitive for the
angle of attack:
S the relative air flow velocity, resulting from aircraft airspeed (v)
S the relative air flow velocity, resulting from propeller peripheral speed (u).
Both velocities produce the resultant relative velocity (w) and determine direction
and magnitude of the velocity (w).
Angle of Advance (β)

The angle of advance (β) is the angle between the rotational plane of the propeller
and the relative velocity (w). The angle of advance increases with increasing
airspeed (v).

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
angle of attack α
angle of advance β
chord
bladeangle
resulting velocity w
air speed
propeller plane
peripheral speed u
Figure 3 Propeller Angles

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
AIRFLOW ONTO THE PROPELLER BLADE
Influences on the Angle of Attack
A change in airspeed or a change in peripheral speed (depending on RPM) results
immediately in a change of resultant relative air flow direction and velocity.
This can even lead to a negative angle of attack, for example during descent with
idle power. The propeller would then drive the engine (windmilling). This would
mean negative torque for the engine.
As a certain angle of attack is optimal for any given propeller, a fixed propeller only
works optimally within a given speed range.
Thus fixed propellers are good for climbing performance, or optimized for towing
or for high cruising speeds.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Influences on the Angle of Pitch
Change of Peripheral Speed u Change of Airspeed v

Figure 4 Influences on the Angle of Pitch

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
GEOMETRY OF THE PROPELLER BLADE Tip Section
Blade Shapes and Profiles (Airfoil Sections)
Blade Angle
For every speed range there is an optimal profile shape with regard to lift and drag.
Thick profiles are used for low speeds and thin ones (usually laminar profiles) for
high speeds. At the same time the profile changes from thick at the root area to
thin at the blade tips. This is of advantage regarding static stress. In the root area,
where the forces are higher, we find a thicker material cross−section, so that the
stresses affecting the material do not exceed the permissible range.
The blade shape depends on the purpose of the propeller, whereby performance,
6“ Sections
airspeed and diameter play a role. The higher the circle load is, the wider the
propellers which should be used. For reasons of reducing noise, propeller tips
should be elliptical.
Blade Twist
The further the profile section of the propeller blade is from its rotational axis,
the greater will be the peripheral speed at constant rotational speed.
If a nearly constant angle of pitch is to be retained, the propeller blade must be
twisted.
The angle of incidence must become smaller the further it is from the axis in order
to keep a nearly constant angle of pitch. In practice the angle of incidence running
the length on the blade determines the angle of pitch in such a way that an optimal
distribution of lift results.
In addition to the angle of incidence, the profile shape also changes for static and
aerodynamic reasons.
Blade
Shank
Center of Hub
Blade Butt
Figure 5 Twisted Blade

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Figure 6 Twisted Prop. Blades

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Geometric Pitch
If the propeller were to spiral through the air on a course, where the angle of pitch
equalled the blade angle, the propeller would, in one rotation, have moved
forward axially by the ”geometric pitch”.
If the aircraft moved through the air according to the geometric propeller pitch, the
propeller angle of attack would be zero.
To calculate the geometric pitch of a propeller based on the blade angle, you use
the blade angle at the reference station on the blade. This is normally 3/4 of the
propeller radius.
Effective Pitch
The actual helical path on which the propeller moves through the air has an angle
of pitch which corresponds to the angle of advance.
With one rotation of the propeller the aircraft moves forward by the effective pitch.
The effective pitch can be calculated by replacing the blade angle by the angle of
advance in the above equation.
Slip
Slip is geometric pitch minus effective pitch. It is given in percentage of geometric
pitch.
PROPELLER PITCH AND EFFICIENCY

Propeller Efficiency
Propeller efficiency is basically the performance produced by the propeller in
relationship to its motive performance.
Motive performance is the same as the output power of the engine (brake power).
The performance produced is the thrust performance of the propeller. Thrust
performance can be calculated from thrust and airspeed. Propeller efficiency can
also be calculated by dividing effective pitch by geometric pitch.
Propeller efficiency ranges from 0.8 to 0.9 (80% − 90%).

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
effective pitch = angle of advance β
geometric pitch = blade angle ϕ
Figure 7 Propeller Pitch

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Aerodynamic Forces on the Propeller Blade
When air flows towards the propeller blade with the resultant (w), resultant air force
(FR) is produced. With regard to the propeller element it is termed ∆FR. This can
be split into its components ∆FL and ∆FD. The quotient of ∆FD and ∆FL results in
the lift/drag ratio. As with air flowing around a wing, here the drag ∆FD is
considerably lower than lift ∆FL. The resultant airforce can also be
divided in such a way that the component ∆Fs lies in the direction of flight and ∆FT
in the propeller rotational plane. The component ∆Fs represents the share of thrust
and ∆FT is the tangential force component. If ∆FT is multiplied by the effective lever
to the propeller’s axis of rotation, the result is the share of
propeller brake moment. The sum of all partial forces ∆Fs over the radial extent
of all propeller blades results in the propeller thrust. If the torque of all partial forces
∆FT are added together over the same area, we arrive at the resultant propeller
torque or the brake moment of air forces affecting the propeller.
At constant rotational speed the sum of propeller brake moment and engine
torque is zero.
The reason for the air forces created on the profile is the difference in pressure
on the profile, arising from the air flowing around it. As the acceleration of air in
the propeller wash is caused by the difference in pressure, the resultant air
force ∆FR can be looked upon as being the force which is reactive to the
accelerating forces of the air.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
turn direction
flight direction
Figure 8 Forces on the Blade

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
PROPELLER BRAKE MOMENT Brake Moment at Reverse Thrust
If the blade angle is reduced so far that the angle of attack is less than the zero
Brake Moment with Changing Airspeed
lift angle of attack, thrust acting against the direction of flight results. The partial
The Brake moment is produced by the partial force ∆FT, which affects the propeller force ∆FT acts contrary to the direction of rotation, so that the brake moment it
blades. As ∆FT is a component of the resultant air force ∆FR, ∆FT is to a great extent causes must be overcome by the drive. The brake moments which occur very
directly dependent on the angle of pitch. Thus the propeller blade angle of pitch quickly become very large when the blade angle is reduced. So corresponding
has a direct influence on the brake moment. engine power must be available to maintain the rotational speed.
With constant rotational speed the angle of pitch can be influenced by changes in As the air mass flowing through the propeller plane is not accelerated but
airspeed or blade angle (pitch). decelerated, maximum achievable brake thrust increases with airspeed and can
When the airspeed increases, the partial force ∆FT becomes smaller, as does the even exceed take−off thrust.
brake moment. If the engine continues to supply the same motive power and the
propeller is not adjusted, the rotational speed will increase until the moments
return to equilibrium. Accelerating to very high airspeeds, an engine with fixed
propeller can exceed its maximum permissible rotational speed. In such a case
a timely reduction in power is necessary.
Brake Moment when Changing the Blade Angle

A reduction in blade angle (pitch) leads to a reduction on the partial force ∆FT and
thus to a reduction in the brake moment. With constant motive power the rotational
speed will increase. An increase in pitch has the opposite effect.
If the pitch is adjusted to a changing airspeed, the magnitude of brake
moment can be maintained. This leads to a constant rotational speed
without changing engine power and to almost constant propeller thrust FS.
In this way propeller efficiency improves for the whole of the aircraft’s speed range.
Thus with the same engine power higher airspeeds can be achieved than in the
case of a fixed propeller.
Brake Moment when Windmilling

If with constant pitch airspeed increases rapidly or rotational speed is greatly

reduced, a flow of air to the propeller occurs which causes the propeller to windmill.
In this case the partial force ∆FT works in the direction of rotation and drive the
propeller.
As thrust ∆Fs is relatively large in this situation and directed against the direction
of flight, the aircraft drag is considerably increased by a windmilling propeller. The
drag caused by the propeller is greatly reduced if it is put in the feathering position.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Reverse
Windmilling
Reverse
direction of turn direction of turn
Figure 9 Windmilling and Reverse
M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
EFFECT ON THE AIRCRAFT
Effect of Engine Torque on the Aircraft
The counter moments caused by engine torque tries to turn the aircraft around the
longitudinal axis against the propeller’s rotation. Due to this moment the main
landing gear on that side is pushed strongly towards the ground when taxiing and
especially on take−off. This leads to an asymmetric distribution of roll resistance

and produces a yaw moment around the aircraft’s vertical axis, in other words
causing a certain run−off tendency at take−off. To compensate for the roll moment
during flight, aerodynamic means are normally used. An example of this would be
a small trim strip or a trim tab on one of the ailerons.
Exact compensation is only possible for one particular speed and engine power.
Normally cruising speed is chosen. At greater and lower airspeeds the pilot must
make corrections with small deflections of the aileron.
The Twist Effect of the Propeller Wash.
The propeller does not only accelerate the air backwards but also causes a twist
in the propeller wash. Due to this twist the flow of air to the vertical stabilizer is
asymmetric and produces a stabilizer load (FQ) or a yaw moment around the
aircraft’s vertical axis. At the same time a roll moment around the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis is created. If the propeller is rotating clockwise, as seen by the
pilot, these moments will make the aircraft slew to the left. This tendency is
heightened by engine torque.
To compensate the vertical stabilizer is normally mounted obliquely by 1° to 2° to
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis. This aerodynamic compensation is only perfect for
one operational regime (normally during cruise).
In addition, there are other effects of the propeller wash which are of note.
If the propeller is mounted in front of a wing and rotates clockwise (as seen from
behind), the propeller wash is deflected to the left. Rotating anti-clockwise, the
deflection is to the right. The main reason for this is the circulation around the wing, Figure 10 Twisted Fin
which through the superpositioning with the propeller airstream increases the rate
of flow in the upper propeller semi-circle while reducing it in the lower.
In a homogenous parallel stream these changes in velocity would lead to a
downwards deflection. But as the propeller wash is twisted it causes, in the same
way as a gyro, a pitching motion known as precession.
The described deflection of the propeller wash to one side can, depending on how
the tailplane and fin are arranged, lead to a change in the direction of air flowing
to these parts.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
twist effect due to propeller wash

twist effect due to engine torque
Figure 11 Effect of Propeller Wash

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
PROPELLER NOISE
The Components of Propeller Noise
If we analyses propeller noise, we can distinguish between the following
components according to their origins.
1.
A. Rotation Noise
The rotating pressure field of the propeller produces rotation noise. At mach
numbers of the blade tips between M = 0.5 and M = 0.85 and an undisturbed
flow of air to the blade this noise exceeds all other noise components.
B. Vortex Noise
This noise is caused by the vortices leaving the blade tip and blade trailing
edge. Its maximum value is found in the plane of rotation of the propeller.
C. Displacement Noise
The origin of this noise is the displacement of the air by the propeller blades
as they have a finite thickness. It first becomes critical at higher mach numbers
at the propeller tips. At blade tip mach numbers above 0.9 this noise source
equals that of rotation noise.
D. Blade Vibration Noise
This noise occurs with periodic stalls, for example when the stall limit of the
blade is alternately exceeded and fallen below. The rotors of helicopters are
a good example of this phenomenon.
E. Noise caused by inconsistent Airflow
Normally the vortices leave the trailing edge and blade tips in such a way that
they do not affect the following propeller blade. The latter can then work in an
undisturbed airflow. This is not the case with variable pitch propellers when the
angle of pitch is negative and the propeller has zero thrust. Then the vortices
of the preceding blade hit the leading edge of the following blade. This results
in noise. A similar occurrence is possible if the airflow on the preceding blade
stalls as a result of excessive load.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
Brake Power
db(A)
Propeller Diameter
2−Blade
3−Blade
4−Blade
Speed of Sound 330 m/s

-1
min
RPM
Figure 12 Propeller Noise

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
G Influence of Propeller Blade Shape
With the same power, blade area, profile type, camber, profile section, ratio and
diameter a scimitar−shaped propeller produces the least noise, and one with
straight tips the most. This favorable effect of the sabre−shape is due to the
increasing outward sweep of the propeller blade as the locally occurring
effective mach number is reduced by the factor cos ϕ (ϕ = angle of sweep).
The following list shows by about how much propeller noise can be changed
according to various influencing factors:
S blade tip shape: 3 − 6 dB
S profile type: 2 − 3 dB
S blade contour: 1 − 2 dB
S blade twist: 1 − 2 dB
S profile camber: 1 − 2 dB
S profile section ratio: 1 − 2 dB
G Influence of Material
If the blades are not made of metal but of wood or composite construction, they
have a more favourable vibrational behavior due to better self−damping
properties. The noise caused by blade vibrations is lower in the case of such
blades. Also by using composite construction more aerodynamic and
low−noise blade shapes can be realised without problems regarding strength
and stiffness occurring.
The SAAB 2000 propeller is a good example of this. Its construction was
optimized with a view to the influences described above. In order to keep noise
development as low as possible, this composite propeller rotates when cruising
at only 950 rpm.
Figure 13 Different Shapes of Propellers

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
a) Scimitar Shape
b) Elliptical Shape,
with rounded Tips
c) Straight Tips
swept propeller
Figure 14 Propeller Shapes

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
PROPELLERBELASTUNGEN t
BLADE SHAPES AND PROFILES (AIRFOIL SECTIONS)

For every speed range there is an optimal profile shape with regard to lift and drag.
Thick profiles are used for low speeds and thin ones (usually laminar profiles) for Clark Y d
high speeds. At the same time the profile changes from thick at the root area to
thin at the blade tips. This is of advantage regarding static stress. In the root area,
where the forces are higher, we find a thicker material cross−section, so that the
stresses affecting the material do not exceed the permissible range. Clark Y
The blade shape depends on the purpose of the propeller, whereby performance,
airspeed and diameter play a role. The higher the circle load is, the wider the
propellers which should be used. For reasons of reducing noise, propeller tips
should be elliptical.
RAF 6
PROPELLER LOADS
The components of the propeller are subject to very high loads when in operation.
We differentiate between static and dynamic loads. RAF 6
G Static Loads
Centrifugal force is the main static load on the propeller.
Furthermore the propeller is subject to loads from brake moment and the
NACA 16
thrust acting on the blades. Torque loads affect the propeller because of the
off−centre shift in the centre of pressure and from the blade’s mass
distribution together with the centrifugal force.
The static loads are superimposing at the blade root. Thus the greatest
stress from static loads occurs in the region of the blade root. NACA 16
Damage and repair work, for example the blending of strike damage, are
not permitted in this area.

As the blades are attached to the hub, this too is subject to high loads, and
thus high stresses also affect its material.
Laminar-Profil
Figure 15 NACA Shapes

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
centrifugal
force
thrust distribution
thrust FS
Bending by braking moment
Bending by thrust loads
centre of
pressure
point of rotation
torque loads due to mass distribution and

centrifugal force torque loads by difference of point
of rotation and pressure
Figure 16 Static Loads

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
F. Dynamic loads
Maximum dynamic loads occur in the range of the natural frequency of the
propeller. The vibrations are excited by the inconstant drive RPM of piston
engines as a result of the operating stroke phases of the individual cylinders
or by vibrations of the propeller gearbox. Additionally unfavourable aero
dynamic conditions cause vibrations.
The natural frequency of the propeller blades depends on blade length, blade
shape, blade root and material. The basic frequency ranges from 20 Hz (metal)
to 60 Hz (wood). The blade’s natural frequencies also change over the RPM
range due to differing centrifugal loads.
At a distance of about 20% of the blade radius from the blade tip the highest
vibrational loads occur. This region is therefore particularly susceptible.
Nicks caused by scratching, corrosion and strikes affect the durability of metal
propellers particularly severely.
For this reason it is essential to look out for such damage during a blade
inspection. Damage is to be rectified in accordance with the manufacturer’s
manual.

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
nodal point unsymetr.
1.Order symetr.
R= 0,8
Point of max. 2.Order

Vibration Loads
(Outer Nodal
Point)
3.Order
Figure 17 Dynamic Loads

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
B. Dynamic loads due to Resonance
The exciting frequency for propeller blade vibrations changes with RPM. The
combination of engine and propeller is chosen in such a way that the vibrational
behaviour of the combination is not critical in the operational range of the
engine.
With some propellers the frequency excited by a certain RPM range may lie
within the natural frequency range of the propeller. With 2−blade metal
propellers used on small aircraft this resonance is found at about 2100 − 2200
propeller RPM range. This range is therefore not suitable for
continuous operation and should be avoided.
In order to have a picture of the vibrational behaviour of the propeller, a
resonance diagram is constructed. The horizontal line shows engine RPM
(min−1) and the vertical line the calculated frequencies (min−1). Frequency lines
1 − 4 and the line of the natural frequency of the propeller are drawn on the
diagram. The natural frequency line of the propeller must not cut through the max. design load
lines of exciting frequencies in the operating range.
off limit
rpm range
propeller rpm
Figure 18 Keep out Zone

M 17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
M17
resonance diagram
operating range
natural frequency 1
natural frequency 2
engine rpm
Figure 19 Resonance Diagram
M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
M17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION

GENERAL Wooden blades are either made in one piece from laminated wood or as a
combination, with kunstharzpressholz (Synthetic Resin Compressed Wood)
Propellers are designed as either pusher or puller (tractor) propellers, which are at the blade root and a light wood (e. g. spruce) for the body of the blade.
then subdivided into fixed pitch propellers, adjustable pitch propellers and variable
The certification of these propellers requires a great deal of time−consuming work
pitch propellers.
and a vibration examination. They have not become very popular and are used
Variable pitch propellers are further categorized according to the method of pitch only in special cases.
changing, for example hydraulic, mechanical or electrical, according to the type
of change, e. g. changing to a particular angle or a particular RPM or according
to the scope of change. In this respect there are propellers which, in addition to
normal change of pitch, can also be feathered and/or put into reverse thrust.
FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS

Fixed pitch propellers are used for up to about 200 kW (250 hp) performance and
speeds of up to 250 km/h (160 mph). The blade angle (pitch) cannot be changed
and is determined in accordance with the purpose it is to be used for. For steep
climbing and towing low (fine) pitch is needed and for more gradual climb and
cruising flight a higher (coarse) pitch is preferred. Greater efficiency can only be
achieved over a small range of speeds. Fixed propellers are favourable with regard
to production and maintenance costs.
These propellers are generally manufactured from forged light alloys or layers of
bonded wooden strips (typically birch).
The fixed pitch propeller has a thick hub to create a smooth transition from the thick
airfoil section at the blade root (with its high blade angle) to the hub. In most cases
these propellers can be attached directly to the engine with bolts. To maintain a
larger distance from the engine flange, which allows for a more favourable engine
cowling, spacers are used, which are available in different thicknesses.
ADJUSTABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

The blade angle of an adjustable pitch propeller can be changed on the ground Figure 20 Adjustable Pitch Propeller
when the engine is shut down. The blades are clamped in the hub. When the
clamping bolts are loosened, the blades can be turned in the hub. There are
generally adjusting marks in the blade and the hub.
The hub is usually made of forged light alloy or steel. The blades are manufactured
from forged light alloy or wood.
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15, 2012 03|17.2 CONSTRUCTION|A Page 28

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
CRANK SHAFT
Propeller Installation REAR SPINNER

BULKHEAD
PROPELLER
DOWEL PIN
RING GEAR
SPACER ASSEMBLY
SPINNER DOME
FORWARD SPINNER BULKHEAD
Figure 21 Fixed Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
In the case of a variable pitch propeller the blade angle can be changed during
operation. In this way it can be adjusted for different operating conditions. This type
of propeller is therefore more efficient over a wider range of speeds. Nowadays
hydraulically controlled variable pitch propellers are almost exclusively in use,
except for motorized gliders, the propellers of which are often adjusted
mechanically (3 position propeller) or electrically.
The blades of a variable pitch propeller are mounted on ball, roller or needle
bearings in the hub and can be turned to adjust the blade angle. They can be made
of forged light alloys, steel, fibre reinforced plastics, or of a wooden composite
construction. The components for adjusting the blade angle are normally found on
the front of the hub but in some cases they are inside the hub itself.
The main parts are the pitch change piston and the pitch change cylinder, whereby
either the piston or the cylinder can move axially. The axial movement of the piston
or cylinder is converted into a rotational movement of the blade via pins, bevels
or linkages. The oil needed for the hydraulic action is taken from the pressurized
oil in the engine lubrication system. It is supplied to the pitch change piston and
cylinder via a valve on the governor and through the hollow propeller shaft.
PITCH CHANGING MECHANISM

(McCauley BLACKMAC)
Figure 22 Pitch changing Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
PITCH CHANGE RANGE
In the range between the low (fine) pitch stop (for low airspeeds) and the high
(coarse) pitch stop (for high airspeeds) the propeller can be adjusted to any angle.
In the case of multiple engine aircraft and motorized gliders an engine should
produce as little drag as possible when it is shut down. Therefore their blades can
also be moved into the feathering position (least drag).
With large aircraft the production of reverse thrust is intended to shorten the
distance on landing. For this purpose the propellers are turned to reverse pitch,
where air is accelerated forwards while the propellers continue to turn in the same
direction. Thus reverse thrust is produced.
The following types of propeller commonly have hydraulic pitch change
mechanisms:
S Constant speed propellers (pitch change from low (fine) to high (coarse) pitch)
S Constant speed propellers with feathering position
S Constant speed propellers with feathering and reverse (for turboprop engines)

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Low Pitch
High Pitch
Pitch Change Range
Reverse
Feather Position
Figure 24 Pitch Ranges

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
SINGLE ACTING PROPELLERS
Some propeller systems operate in such a way that oil pressure changes the pitch
in one direction only. Movement in the opposite direction is the result of spring
force and the torsion moments of the blades themselves. Propellers which have
such a pitch change mechanism are called single acting propellers.
Single Acting Propellers for Single-Engine Aircraft

With these propellers the oil pressure moves the blades in the direction of high
(coarse) pitch and the spring moves it towards low pitch. After engine shut−down
the blades are in the lowest (fine) pitch stop position, which is optimal for restarting
the engine. Should the engine fail during flight, this blade position is favourable for
windmilling, which makes it easier to restart the engine.

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Oil Pressure increases

Pitch
Spring Force decreases Pitch

Pitch Changing Mechanism

for Single Engine Aircraft
Figure 25 Single Acting one mot

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Single Acting Propellers for Multi-Engine Aircraft
If single acting propellers are used on multi-engine aircraft, oil pressure moves the
blades in the direction of low (fine) pitch. The springs and torsional moments of
the blades move the blades towards high pitch. If engine failure occurs during flight
with decreasing oil pressure the blades move in the high (coarse) pitch direction.
In this way they have already covered part of the transition to the feather position.
PITCH CHANGE-
MECHANISM
FLYWEIGHTS BLADE
HUB

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
oil pressure
decreases pitch
flyweight in-
creases pitch
Figure 27 Single Acting dual or quat mot

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
PITCH CHANGE MOMENTS FROM CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
(FLY WEIGHTS)
The centrifugal force of the propeller blade mass produces a pitch change moment
which turns the blade in the direction of low (fine) pitch. The creation of this natural
pitch change moment (or flymoment) is due to the distribution of the propeller
blade mass.
The mass elements not lying on the blade axis create a proportion of centrifugal
force, the effect of which is at a small angle away from the blade axis. Thus this
force has a component in radial direction FZR and one in tangential direction FZT.
The latter component is at right angles to the blade axis. This tangential force
component affects the blade laterally to its axis. This means that the force
components work with a lever on the blade axis, on which the blade turns, and
therefore produce torque in the direction of low (fine) pitch.
If the propeller blade is to turn towards high (coarse) pitch as a result of centrifugal
force (for propellers with feathering position) then a flyweight must be attached to
the blade root. The creation of the pitch change moment from the centrifugal force
of the flyweight is based on the same principles as for the propeller blade. The
torque in the direction of high (coarse) pitch produced by the flyweight is as a rule
twice the amount of the natural torque in the direction of low pitch.

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Figure 28 Flyweight and its Moment

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
DOUBLE ACTING PROPELLERS If the control valve, as in the Dowdy propeller of the Fokker 50, is mounted
Large propellers are generally constructed with pitch change mechanisms where behind the gearbox in the PCU, the propeller shaft must have two oil transfer
oil pressure leads to pitch change in both directions. These are called double tubes, one for the front and one for the back of the piston. These oil tubes are
acting propellers. The valve for controlling the flow of oil to the two ends of the constructed as coaxial tubes (here beta tube).
piston is mounted either behind the gearbox or in the propeller hub.
COARSE PITCH OIL
COARSE PITCH OIL
FINE PITCH OIL
FINE PITCH OIL

COARSE
COARSE
Figure 29 Moving Cylinder Propeller

Figure 30 Moving Piston Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
BLADE ASSEMBLY COUNTERWEIGHT
CYLINDER
PROPELLER
PISTON CYLINDER
CROSSHEAD
SHAFT
HUB
OPERATING PIN
PISTON
ASSEMBLY
DOWEL HOLE
HUB CROSSHEAD
BLADE
YOKE
ROOT
BETA TUBE
CROSSHEAD YOKE
Figure 31 Double Acting Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
SPINNER
Spinners are mounted for reasons of better aerodynamics, as a mechanical
protection for the hub and for visual reasons. They are usually manufactured in
one piece from aluminium alloy or glass fibre composites. They are attached to
the spinner backplate (or spinner bulkhead) and there is normally a support at the
front end of the propeller hub for centering.
The dynamic load on the spinner is extremely high. If there are cracks on the blade
recesses or in the spinner mounting the parts are to be replaced. Repairs are
limited (mostly drilling to stop a crack is allowed). On installation it must be ensured
that no noticeable wobble is present. Balanced spinners which are identified as
such must be installed in accordance with the identification.

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
STARTER RING
SPINNER
O-RING SEAL
GREASE POINT
MOUNTING NUT
STUD
Figure 32 Constant Speed Propeller Installation

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
PRODUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS

Propellers are categorized according to the material used for their blades. There
are:
S Wood propellers
S Metal propellers
S Composite propellers
WOODEN PROPELLERS
Construction of Wooden Propellers
A wooden propeller consists of several layers of wood bonded together with a
watertight resin glue. At least 5 layers are used. Birch is the most commonly used
wood. But mahogany, cherry, ash, beech, oak and walnut may also be used.
After bonding, the propeller is given its desired shape by planing. If necessary,
glass fibre laminations and edgings are applied. A final coating of poly-urethane
paint will act as both mechanical and UV protection .
Wooden propellers have metal strips on the leading edges and may also have a
glass fibre jacket. The outer thin areas of the propeller blade tips are often
reinforced by a fabric sheathing.
Wooden propellers are lighter than metal ones, more economical and because of
the better damping effect are less likely to be cracked by vibrations. They do
however have slightly poorer efficiency.
Because of damaging UV rays wooden propellers should be protected by a coat
of coloured polyurethane paint. No vibration measurements are required for the
registration of wood propellers. Special attention must be paid to the torque of the
hub bolts, as the wood of the hub can be damaged by bruising if over−tightened.
Figure 33 Propeller Manufacture

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
BONDED WOOD LAYER
SHAPED PROPELLER
FINISHED PROPELLER
FABRIC SHEATING
LAMINATED WOOD BLADE HUB ASSEMBLY METAL TIPPING
Figure 34 Production of a Wood Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
METAL PROPELLERS
Metal propellers are used for greater engine power. Generally propellers forged
or milled from aluminium alloy are employed. But there are also propellers made
from steel plate.
Aluminium Propellers
Aluminium propellers are milled to the desired profile shape after forging. The
twisting of the blades is optimized afterwards.
When the propeller has been ground to its final shape and balanced, the surfaces
are protected. This is done either by painting, coating or anodizing.
It is possible to make aluminium propellers thinner than wooden ones. The
propeller profiles can be made very efficient without having to worry about
structural limitations. Aluminium propellers need a great deal less maintenance
than wooden ones and therefore have lower operating costs.
Steel Propellers
Steel propellers are not in common use. They are found on some older aircraft or
often on transport aircraft. Steel blades are normally hollow, but solid blades are
also in use.
Solid blades are forged and then worked in the same way as aluminium ones. The
twisting of the blades follows to give them the desired aerodynamic twist.
Hollow steel propellers have a ribbed structure which is foam filled in the region
of the blade tip. In this way the profile shape remains intact and the blade vibrations
are dampened.
Steel propellers are extremely durable and resistant to damage.
Figure 35 Metal Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Figure 36 Metall Propeller

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
COMPOSITE PROPELLERS The spar absorbs the centrifugal force and the bending load. The shell gives the
component the necessary torsional rigidity.
Construction of Composite Propellers with a Metal Spar
There is a heating element on the inner part of the surface of the leading edge and
Composite propeller blades can be constructed in the manner shown in the picture a metal guard on the outer part. The surface is protected by a coat of conducting
below. The spar runs through the centre of the blade, with foam or honeycomb in polyurethane paint. This serves as protection against erosion and as a precaution
front and behind as filling material. The fibre−glass shell is constructed around against the blade becoming statically charged.
these parts.
SOLID ALUMINIUM ALLOY

FIBERGLASS SHELL
HONEYCOIMB
OR FOAM
FILLING METAL TIPPING
MATERIAL
BLADE RETENTION HEAT MAT
SPAR
Figure 37 Composite Blade with Spar

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Figure 38 Composite Blade with spar

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
Construction of Composite Blades without Metal Spar. blade the spar is attached to the metal blade−root components. The operating pin
The picture below shows a blade without a metal spar. The two carbon fibre is inserted in the pitch change mechanism.
components in the blade form the spar and the hollow centre is filled with
polyurethane foam. The fibre−glass shell surrounds the spar. At the root of the
Polyurethane Glas fiber
foam core blade envelope
Polyurethane leading Aluminium braid Glas fiber Carbon

edge protection lightning conductor envelope fiber spar
Outer
sleeve
Polyurethane foam core Carbon fiber blade spars

Glas fiber
Inner sleeve
wedges
Figure 39 Composite Blade without Spar

M 17.2 CONSTRUCTION
M17
POLYURETHANE FOAM
CARBON FIBER
CUFF
POLYURETHANE
POLYURETHANE CARBON FIBER
COATING
FOAM CORE SPARS
GLASS FIBER
DE-ICER
BLADE ENVELOPE
BOOT
LEAD WOOL
RUBBER PLUG
BALANCE TUBE
OUTER
SLEEVE
METAL
POLYURETHANE BRAID LIGHTNING NICKEL LEADING-
SPRAY COAT OPERATING
CONDUCTOR EDGE GUARD
INNER PIN
SLEEVE
Figure 40 Dowdy Blade (F 50)

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M 17.3 PITCH CONTROL
M17
M17.3 PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL

CONSTANT SPEED PROP. FOR PISTON ENGINES
FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE OF THE CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER
With a propeller working on the constant speed principle the RPM selected by the
pilot is kept constant by changing the blade angle (pitch).
If the propeller RPM changes, for example as a result of changes in flight attitude,
the propeller change mechanism reacts by altering the blade angle. This has an
effect on the brake moment of the propeller and the RPM returns to the selected
value. A reduction in pitch leads to a smaller brake moment and thus higher RPM.
Increasing the pitch creates a greater brake moment and revolutions decrease.
However this system can only keep RPM constant if the blade is not at either pitch
stop. If for example engine power is greatly reduced by operating the thrust lever,
higher RPM cannot be achieved, even if the propeller is at its lowest (finest) pitch.
If the propeller control lever in the cockpit is pushed right forward during static
ground operation, the propeller moves to the low (fine) pitch stop. In this position
RPM is dependent only on the motive power of the engine, i.e. on the position of
the thrust lever.
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15, 2012 05|17.3 Pitch Control|A Page 52
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
Airflow
RPM = const.
if
Brake Moment MB = Drive Torque MA
Drive Torque
MA
P = MA * n * 2π
Brake Moment
MB
Figure 41 Brake Moment

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
THE CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER SYSTEM

Apart from the variable pitch propeller the components which belong to the system
are the propeller control lever in the cockpit, the propeller governor and an oil
supply from the engine hydraulic oil and scavenge oil system.
The governor receives its RPM signal either from its installed position on the
engine. The governor is set to the selected RPM via rods or a push−pull cable from
the cockpit.
Inside the governor there is a pilot valve. This valve either supplies hydraulic oil
to the change mechanism, allows the oil to flow back into the scavenge oil system,
or locks the system hydraulically to keep the selected blade pitch constant.
The pilot valve is controlled by a centrifugal regulator (flyweights), which is also
located in the governor and is sensitive to engine rpm. This regulator works against
a spring, the tension of which can be adjusted by the propeller control lever in the
cockpit. (RPM selection).
The governor continuously compares the selected RPM with the actual RPM and
adjusts the pilot valve accordingly.
The propeller control lever is also called speed lever or condition lever.
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
single acting-
single engine
propeller gover-
ning
system
SCAVENGE OIL
SCAVENGE OIL SCAVENGE OIL
Figure 42 Constant Speed System

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
PROPELLER PITCH CHANGE SPEED ADJUSTING
Small single engine aircraft usually have propellers without a feathering position. CONTROL LEVER
With propellers of this size oil pressure causes a change only in one direction,
towards higher (coarser) pitch. This kind of variable pitch propeller is known as a HIGH RPM STOP
single acting propeller. LIFT ROD
The effect in the other direction is from the force of the built−in spring and from the SAFETY
centrifugal force of the propeller blades itself. Additional flyweights may also be SPRING
attached. When stationary the blades are at low (fine) pitch because of spring ADJUSTING WORM
pressure and there is less drag when starting the engine.
SPEEDER
SPRING
FLYWEIGHT
DRIVE
TOE
GEAR SHAFT
FLYWEIGHT
PILOT VALVE
HEAD
PLUNGER
BYPASS
BYPASS PLUG
PLUG
RELIEF VALVE
PROPELLER
CONTROL
LINE
ENGINE OIL
INLET
Figure 43 Any Governor
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
Shown: Nact = Ncmd
Nact
ENGINE OIL INLET
Figure 44 Propeller Pitch Control

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
PROPELLERS FOR TURBOPROP ENGINES

RPM Ranges TAKE OFF
CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBOPROP ENGINES
The efficiency of the compressor and turbine is dependent on RPM. For this
FLIGHT IDLE
reason turboprops can only supply the power needed over a small RPM range. As
the maximum output power of the engine at any given RPM is only a little above
the brake power of the propeller, an increase in RPM would take place only slowly. GROUND IDLE
Thus the propeller of a turboprop rotates with constant RPM within its operating
ranges. Changes in power are achieved by changes in torque. To adjust the brake
PERCENT PERCENT
moment to drive moment over the total range of performance, the propellers of
turboprops have a greater range of pitch change than those of piston engines. RPM RPM
RECIPROCATING TURBO PROP
Beta mode
At the smallest available power in constant speed mode (alpha mode) and with the
propeller in flight idle position thrust would be relatively high when stationary. This
would make it difficult to taxi slowly. To enable thrust to be reduced on the ground
even further, turboprop engines have a second control mode, the beta mode. This FLIGHT IDLE (GLIDE RPM)
can only be selected on the ground.
In beta mode the blade angle is changed directly with the power lever, so that any
angle between zero thrust and flight idle can be selected. Here the RPM is selected
with the condition lever and remains constant. Engine speed (and propeller RPM) P
in beta mode are generally lower than in alpha mode. When the power lever is
moved behind the zero thrust position, the propeller moves into the reverse beta P RECIP
range to the corresponding blade angle.
P TPE
P Prop
RPM
Figure 45 Engine Power vs. Propeller Power
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
45° MAX BLADE ANGLE

45° MAX BLADE ANGLE
CONSTANT SPEED
OPERATING RANGE
CONSTANT SPEED
20° MIN BLADE ANGLE OPERATING RANGE
GROUND IDLE
5° FLIGHT IDLE
PLANE OF ROTATION ZERO THRUST

GROUND IDLE
BETA RANGE
REVERSE
PROPELLER OF A RECIPROCATING ENGINE PROPELLER OF A TURBOPROP ENGINE
Figure 46 Comparison of Blade Angles

M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
PROPELLER CONTROL The green coloured condition lever or propeller lever (speed lever) controls the
propeller rotation speed in alpha mode. The forward stop is the T/O position.
Prop. Governing Mode When the condition lever is retarded the feather position is selected. In beta
This typical engine control stand shows the control levers of the engines and the mode you take direct influence on the engine power.
propellers. The yellow coloured power lever controls the engine power and the
drive moment in alpha mode. The power lever takes direct influence on the blade
angle in beta mode.
POWER LEVERS
FWD RPM FLT IDLE LATCH ARM

THRUST HI FLIGHT HI
P
CONDITION
O
LO GROUND LO LEVERS
W FLT IDLE
(SPEED LEVERS)
E
GND IDLE
R ENGINE STOP
REV AND
THRUST EMERGENCY
FEATHER
FRICTION LOCKS
FRICTION
alpha mode beta mode

engine POWER LEVER CONDITION LEVER
governor CONDITION LEVER POWER LEVER
Figure 47 Control Stand

M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
Figure 48 Control Stand(1)

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
Prop. Governing Mode In the system shown here of the TPE 331 engine the underspeed governor is
In the flight range (alpha mode, prop governing mode) the propeller operates located in the fuel control unit. It regulates the RPM below the range controlled
as a constant speed propeller. Here the propeller is controlled with the aid of by the prop governor. The propeller is of the single acting type. The RPM range
the prop governor in the same way as the constant speed propeller of the in alpha mode is relatively small, from 95% to 100%. RPM is selected with the
piston engine. condition lever and power is set between flight idle and maximum with the
power lever.
Engine and Propeller Control in Propeller Governing Mode

(Take Off and Flight Operation)
Prop Governor
controls RPM
Power Lever movement
PROP PROP PITCH CONTROL has no effect on PPC FLIGHT IDLE
GOVERNOR (BETA VALVE) and Prop Governor FUEL FLOW
Pressure
FLIGHT IDLE GROUND IDLE

PROP RPM MAX FF
MAXIMUM
REVERSE
POWER LEVER
Power Lever Cond. Lever

Condition Lever influence on USPD
controls
sets RPM Gov. inhibited
Fuel Flow
PROP GOVERNING MODE

Blade Angle: +14° to +40°
100%
Engine RPM: 95% to 100% FUEL CONTROL UNIT
95%
METERING UNDERSPEED CONDITION LEVER LOW

GOVERNOR
SECTION (SPEED LEVER) ENGINE STOP
HIGH CONDITION LEVER FEATHER

(SPEED LEVER)
FUEL
ENGINE STOP
FLOW
Figure 49 Alpha Mode CONDITION LEVER

FEATHER
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15, 2012 05|17.3 Pitch Control|A (SPEED LEVER) Page 62
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
GUST LOCK
LEVER
POWER
LEVER
CONDITION
LEVER
FRICTION
LOCKS
Figure 50 Control Stand DO 328

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
Beta Mode
In beta mode the blade angle is changed directly with the power lever, so that any control unit with the condition lever and then remains constant. In this
angle between zero thrust and flight idle (or full reverse) can be selected. Here operational range the prop governor is ineffective. RPM in beta mode is usually
control of the blade angle works in the form of follow up control. For this purpose smaller than in alpha mode.
the power lever works directly on the beta valve. On reaching the position selected
for the propeller blades,
resetting of the beta valve takes place through mechanical feedback from the
propeller to the beta valve. The RPM is selected for the governor inside the
Engine and Propeller Control in Beta Mode
(Ground Operation)
Power lever controls

PROP PROP PITCH CONTROL Blade Angle (+14° to -14°)
GOVERNOR (BETA VALVE)
+14°
OIL PRESSURE
GROUND
FLIGHT IDLE IDLE
PROP RPM MAXIMUM
(0−THRUST)
-14°
POWER LEVER REVERSE
Power Lever Condition Lever

Cond. Lever influence
influence on controls Engine
on PG inhibited FCU inhibited RPM 65% to 96%
FUEL CONTROL UNIT
BETA MODE OPERATION

Blade Angle: +14° to -14° 100%
95%
Engine RPM: 65% to 96%
METERING UNDERSPEED HIGH
SECTION GOVERNOR
CONDITION LEVER
(SPEED LEVER)
METERING UNDERSPEED
LOW
SECTION GOVERNOR
Figure 51
FUEL
FLOW
Beta Mode CONDITION LEVER
ENGINE STOP
(SPEED LEVER)
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15, 2012 05|17.3 Pitch Control|A FEATHER Page 64
CONDITION LEVER
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
Featherlng
If the engine is shut down during flight, the propeller must be moved into the
feathering position so that there is as little drag as possible.
In the system seen here this is done by reducing the oil pressure in the propeller
change mechanism. The propeller is then moved into the feathering position by
spring pressure.
If the condition lever is pulled from low via engine stop to feather, the following PROP
occurs: PITCH CONTROL FLIGHT IDLE
2. The engine is shut down by closing the HP fuel shutoff valve. OIL PRESSURE
3. Oil pressure in the pitch change mechanism is reduced by opening the

feathering valve.
Auto Feather System
In order to keep the pilot’s work load low if an engine loses power during take−off,
auto feather systems are employed. They are activated for take−off and react to POWER LEVER
the decreasing torque of an engine in case of its malfunction.
When the engine torque has dropped off far enough, the auto feather system
switches the feathering valve to the feather position and turns on the feathering
pump.
HP FUEL
SHUTOFF
VALVE
FEATHERING
VALVE
FUEL CONTROL UNIT
OIL BLEED
METERING
UNDERSPEED
FUEL SECTION
HIGH
GOVERNOR
FLOW
CONDITION LEVER
(SPEED LEVER)
Figure 52 Feathering System
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17
A/ FROM PROPELLER NP INDICATOR

B
ELECTRONIC
POWER
Engine Power Loss During CONTROL
LEVER
Take Off
SERVO
LO PITCH VALVE
Loss of Engine Torque below
a Certain Value
BLADE ANGLE
CHANGING MECHANISM
REDUCTION
FUEL FEATHERING OVERSPEED
LEVER GEARBOX
VALVE GOVERNOR
POWER
TURBINE
FLT GND FEATHERING HP PUMP
PUMP
FEATHER ON
AUTOFEATHER COMMAND
AUTOFEATHER
UNIT FEATHER PUMP
AUXILIARY
ENGINE OIL
OIL TANK
Figure 53 Auto Feathering

M 17 PROPELLERMM
EASA PART 66
M17
ELECTRONIC PROPELLER CONTROL The PCU contains the feathering valve and the beta valve. The PCU is connected
In the case of turboprop engines with electronic propeller control the task of the to the propeller via the beta tube. This serves as an oil transfer tube and also
propeller governor is taken over by the propeller electronic control unit (PEC). A transmits the feedback signal in beta mode. The rear end of the beta tube together
mechanical overspeed governor is also installed on the engine and the pitch with the corresponding parts of the PCU forms the beta valve. In prop governing
control unit (PCU) takes over the hydromechanical functions in the control system. mode the functions of the beta valve and the feathering valve are not required.
Electrical control of the PEC is carried out via the servo valve located in the PCU.
With constant speed control (prop governing mode) the flow of oil to the propeller
is controlled solely by the PEC via the servo valve.
M 17 PROPELLER
MM
EASA PART 66
M17

M 17.5 PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION
M17
M17.5 PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION

GENERAL
Icing of the propeller when in operation leads to vibrations and to lower propeller
efficiency. When the aircraft is flying under icing conditions, icing protection is
necessary to prevent ice from forming on the propeller blades. There are two main
methods:
S Fluid anti−icing system
S Electrical de−icing system
THE FLUID ANTI−ICING SYSTEM

A very simple and problem−free method to prevent ice formation is the fluid anti−
icing system using an alcohol based liquid. A pump injects the fluid into a slinger
ring on the propeller. From there it runs by centrifugal force onto the grooved
anti−icing rubber. The amount supplied by the pump can be varied to suit the
intensity of icing.
The disadvantage of this system is that the amount of anti−icing fluid on board the
aircraft must be constantly monitored. The system works only as a precaution and
must therefore be activated before icing begins. It is not able to remove ice once
it has formed.
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep. 15, 2012 08|17.5 ICE PROTECTION|A|B1 Page 70
M17
Ice Accumulation on a Propeller
Figure 54 Iced Propeller

M17

M17
SLINGERRING
BULKHEAD
BOOT WITH
GROOVES
VENTLINE
FLUIDTANK
RIVET
CHECK
VALVES
BULKHEAD
RHEOSTAT
FILTER
SLINGER-
RING
RIVET
FLUIDPUMP
SLINGERRING
FLUIDFEEDSHOE ANTI ICE LINE
Figure 55 Fluid Anti-Icing System

M17
ELECTRICAL DE−ICING SYSTEM

There is a greater number of electrical de−icing systems in use. They are
employed in larger aircraft as these can provide the necessary electrical power.
The blade has de−icing rubbers which are heated by two heating elements
embedded in them.
Electrical power is supplied via slip rings from the aircraft electrical system. Control
components in the system switch the heating element segments alternately on
and off. In this way the current used is kept to a minimum.
SPINNER
EXTENSOIN
DOME
BLADE
BULKHEAD AND BLADE SWITCH

RING ASSY
Figure 56 Anti Icing Ring
M17
DEICING POWER CIRCUIT DE-ICING POWER LINES

BREAKER OR LIMITER
POWER RELAY
NACELLE BUS
SHUNT
STAINLESS
PROPELLER BLADE STEEL
RIBBON
POWER RELAY
LOADMETER
TO OTHER
PAIR
CONTROL TO OTHER OF BLADES
PANEL PROPEL-
PROPELLER
LERS
DEICE ROOT
BONDED TO
BLADE
QUICK DISCONNECT
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL WIRING HARNESS
HEATING ELEMENTS
TIMER OR
CYCLING
UNIT
PROPELLER
FUSE- HUB
LAGE
BUS
CONTROL SWITCH
CONTROL CIRCUIT
BREAKER
Figure 57 Electrical De-Icing System

M 17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENACE
M17
M17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE

GENERAL INSPECTION & REPAIR
The propeller is a component which is subject to high loads. In particular, the
WOODEN PROPELLERS
influence of stresses at points for which the propeller is not designed are critical.
Therefore it is not permissible to push or pull smaller aircraft by the outer parts of Inspection and repair
the propeller. Influences of the environment, such as corrosion, erosion or stone
When examining the blades the surface protection coating must be inspected. It
strikes together with high dynamic loads create points from where cracks can start
must be 100% intact so that no moisture can penetrate. Cracks at the beginning
(stress riser). In the case of variable pitch propellers water produced by
of and along the metal tipping are usually insignificant and caused by differing
condensation in the lubricants can lead to corrosion, with the result that propeller
expansion of the material.
blades may become jammed and that leaks will occur. For these reasons the
instructions of the propeller and aircraft manufacturers must be strictly adhered Cracks in the paint across the blade are signs of flexural vibrations. Cracks through
to. the leading edge tipping are the result. If the tipping is cracked in this way, it must
be replaced immediately. In the case of riveted tipping, loose rivets are a sign that
The UK Civil Aviation Authority Airworthiness Notice No. 75 is a Mandatory notice
the wood beneath it is damaged. The propeller should be taken out of service
detailing the maintenance requirements for variable pitch propellers installed on
immediately.
aircraft holding a UK Certificate of Airworthiness.
Less significant damage on the trailing edge or on the blade can be filled with
TIME BETWEEN OVERHAULS plastics. Indentations in the metal tipping can be filled by soldering. In this case
the use of any significant heat is to be avoided and balance must be taken into
The manufacturer determines the times between overhauls. For some types of consideration. Perforated tipping must be replaced.
propellers fitted to commercial aircraft permissible operating periods for the
When checking the surface for damage, attention should be paid to any signs of
propeller hub, actuator and blades often differ from each other. For operational
delamination of the layers of the wood.
reasons the propeller blades are combined in such a way that their periods of use
on one propeller are not the same. In this way only one blade has to be changed The following damage cannot be repaired and renders the propeller unusable:
at the end of the respective operating time. S Cracks across the grain
Generally the intervals are tied to a particular number of operating hours of the S A splintered blade
aircraft. In addition to this stipulation many manufacturer also demand a calendar S Delamination
time limit so that propellers which are not used so regularly are included. The
S Missing material
reason for this is not the operational but the ageing of lubrications and seals, and
the effects of corrosion over time. In this respect the following abbreviations are S Cracks in the hub
important: S Enlargement of the hub shaft bore
S TSN = Time since new (i.e. total operational time since manufacture) S Elliptical bolt holes
S TSO = Time since overhaul (i.e. operational time since last overhaul) After installation of a new fixed pitch wood propeller the attachment bolts must be
S TBO = Time between overhaul (i.e. permissible operating (sometimes re−tightened after 25 hours with the torque prescribed. Afterwards the tightness
calendar) time between two overhauls) must be checked at least every 50 hours as humidity causes the wood to shrink
and expand.
The aircraft operator is required to keep a log of TSN and TSO.
FRA US/T XyZ Mmm DD, YYYY 09|17.6 MAINTENACE|A Page 76

M17
CRACKS IN LEADINGEDGE CRACKS
BLADE ROOT
LATERAL CRACKS IN THE PAINT
DUE TO VIBRATION
LAQUER RESIN
METAL TIPPING
TYPICAL EROSION METAL TIPPING
SOLDER BRONZE MESH
Figure 58 Typical Damages on a Wood Propeller

M17
METAL PROPELLERS
Metal propellers are particularly prone to metal fatigue. This is caused by the high Nicks must be worked out with a large radius (10 x depth of nick). The profile shape
dynamic loads. Scratches, hairline cracks, impact marks and the effects of of the leading edge must remain intact. The place repaired must be checked for
corrosion are potential starting points for cracks. As a result of additional bending cracks and the surface smoothed with fine abrasive cloth. This prevents cracks
and centrifugal forces the crack extends, usually over the matt black sprayed back extending from marks left by tools. Working and polishing must always be done
side of the propeller blade. in the direction of the blade axis. Repair also includes removing any compressed
material beneath the nick.
Care of Metal Propellers
When repairing the blade tips the minimum permissible diameter must be
In order to avoid a failure of the propeller blades the following measures are observed. Under no circumstances is it allowed to apply material using heat
recommended: treatment or to fill nicks with plastics. All types of cold working are also prohibited.
4. Maintenance instructions and intervals are to be strictly observed. On completion of the repair the surface is to be appropriately protected.
5. RPM limitations are to be observed. After material has been removed, a ground run should be conducted to check
6. Never taxi at high power if sand, stones or other material can be sucked whether the propeller has become unbalanced. In the case of a two−blade
into the propeller. propeller the removal of about 2 − 3 gm is noticeable as a vibration. When in doubt,
the propeller must be rebalanced.
7. Clean the propeller regularly (not with alkaline cleaning agents) and rub
with an oily cloth or car polish. Lubrication
8. Do not cover the propeller (moisture forming can cause corrosion). Many variable pitch propellers have no provision for additional lubrication. In this
9. When handling small aircraft do not pull using the outside of the propeller case filling with lubricant during overhaul will be sufficient. Those propellers which
blades but use the propeller root instead. have provision for additional lubrication are treated in accordance with
10.Carry out careful pre− and after−flight inspections for nicks, scratches and manufacturer’s instructions using the appropriate approved grease. The nipple on
other damage. Deep nicks must be repaired immediately according to the opposite side must be removed on various Hartzell propellers so that the seal
manufacturer’s instructions. is not forced out.
11.Every 100 hrs or at least at every annual check inspect the propeller Inspection of the hub
thoroughly for damage after cleaning. In case of doubt use a magnifying
During periodic inspections the hub must be checked for cracks and corrosion.
glass or other methods of checking for cracks (using dye check).
The exterior parts of the pitch change mechanism and the hub should be free from
Repair of Damage corrosion. Grease leaks indicate damage of the blade attachment seals. Oil leaks
are a sign of damaged seals in the pitch change cylinder or of damage to the blade
Information on permissible repairs can be found in the manufacturer’s manuals.

attachments (oil−smeared blade bearings). As a protection against corrosion
If no information is available, the following source can be used: lubricant spray can be applied to the hub after cleaning.
FAA AC 4313−1A Aircraft Inspection and Repair If there is excessive play on the blade tips or of the blade angle, the cause may
Permissible repair on the blade width is normally 1.2mm from the root to 0.6R and be damage to the blade attachment or the pitch change mechanism. It is equally
from 0.6R to blade tip 2.4mm, however not under the permissible blade width. serious if the blades stick (stiffness can be due to construction).
Permissible repair on the blade thickness is 0.7mm over the whole blade, however
not under the minimum blade thickness nor across the whole of the blade.
WARNING: NO REPAIR WHATEVER IS PERMISSIBLE ON THE BLADE
ROOT

M17
MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF BLADE

SECTION AT POINT APROX: 0.3
OF LENGTHS SHOWN
CORRECT
METHOD CROSS SECTION CROSS SECTION
BEFORE REPAIR AFTER REPAIR
0,3 CHORD
LENGTH
ORIGINAL
SECTION
REWORKED
BLADE
NOTE:
A : MAINTAIN ORIGINAL RADIUS

B : REWORK CONTOUR TO POINT
OF MAX.THICKNESS DAMAGED
C :RADIUS IS TO LARGE PORTION

D : CONTOUR IS TOO BLUNT AFTER SURFACE CRACK AFTER REPAIR
BEFORE
REPAIR REPAIR BEFORE REPAIR CRACK WORKED OUT
INCORRECT METHOD
Figure 59 Repair of Metal Blades

M17
COMPOSITE-PROPELLER
Inspection & Repair
When inspecting a composite blade, this has to be checked in the same way as
all other composite structures. Damage is classified as skin perforated damage
and skin not perforated damage.
Skin not perforated damage:
S abrasion
S scratches
S gouges
S nicks
S deboning
S delamination
S dents
Skin perforated damage:
S lightning strike
S holes
In addition the condition of the tipping on the leading edge and the heating element
(if present) are to be checked.
When the propeller remains attached, only minor repairs are possible, such as the
recoating of the PU finish, for example. If struck by foreign material the edges can
be smoothed and the missing material replaced.

M17
CHECK BLADE FOR:

-ABRASION (WHOLE SURFACE)
-SCRATCHES
LIGHTNING STRAP
-GOUGES
-NICKS
-DEBONDING
-DELAMINATION
-DENTS LEADING EDGE SHEATH
-LIGHTNING STRIKE
-HOLES
-CONDITION OF LEADING EDGE
EROSION COATING,
BLADE HEATER
ALUMINUM SPAR
FIBERGLASS SHELL
Figure 60 Inspection of Composite Blades

M17


M17
BLADE CG
CG
BALANCING STAND
ROTATIONAL AXIS OF ROTATIONAL AXIS OF
PROP PROP C G
BLADE CG BALANCING
PLATE
LOCATION
STATIC IMBALANCE DYNAMIC IMBALANCE
Figure 61 Propeller Balancing

M17
AERODYNAMIC BALANCING
Propellers can be affected by vibrations because of the differing aerodynamic
loads of the blades resulting from the different blade angles. In this case the blades
produce individual thrust forces of different values. The sum of the individual thrust
forces of the blades (total thrust of the propeller) no longer lies at the propeller’s
axis of rotation. Total thrust, being off−centre, rotates with the propeller leading to
vibrations.
Aerodynamic balancing is only necessary for propellers with high performance.
Manufactured blades are compared individually with a master blade and receive,
according to deviation from the zero lift angle, an aerodynamic correction factor
in the form of a reference to the blade angle difference necessary to the basic
setting. Blade angles differing from each other are here intentionally prescribed.
The correction factor is usually marked on the blade root. Determining the
correction factor is also known as blade indexing.

M17
RESULTANT THRUST
CL CL
RESULTANT THRUST
BLADE THRUST BLADE THRUST

AERODYNAMIC BALANCED AERODYNAMIC UNBALANCED
Figure 62 Aerodynamic Balancing

M17
CHECKING BLADE TRACKING

Blade tracking is the ability of one blade to follow the other in the same plane of
rotation. Tracking is held to reasonable limits to prevent roughness. To check the
tracking, place a smooth board just under the tip of the lower blade. On controllable
props, move the tip fore and aft carefully through its small range of motion, making
small pencil marks at each position. Center the blade between these marks and
draw a line the full width of the blade. Repeat this procedure with another blade
tip. The lines should be separated by not more than 3 mm. Differences greater than
3mm may be an indication of bent blades, improper installation or foreign particles
between the hub and crankshaft mounting faces.
PROPELLER ENGINE RUNNING

PISTON ENGINE PROPELLER RUNNING
A propeller installed on an engine must be checked before, during and after the
engine has been ground operated.
A propeller whose pitch change mechanism is electrically actuated may be
checked prior to the engine being operated.
TURBOPROP ENGINE PROPELLER RUNNING

Turboprop engine operation is quite similar to that of a turbojet engine, except for
the added features of a propeller. The starting procedure and the various
operational features are similar.
Engine ground operations should be performed by qualified staff only.

M17
TRACK ADJUSTING ON A
WOOD PROPELLER SHIMS
WITH SHIMS
FACEPLATE
STICK ATTACHED
TO WING
BLADE
TRACKS
MAXIMUM
TRACK
VARIATION
Figure 63 Blade Tracking

M
M 17.7 STORAGE AND PRESERVATION

M17
M17.7 PROPELLER STORAGE & PRESERVATION

INSTALLED PROPELLERS Oil leakage at
seal on pitch
PERIODS UP TO 3 MONTHS change rod plug
Installed propellers require to be kept in a clean condition and inspected at regular
intervals for corrosion. Oil leakage between
The propeller must be exercised on a weekly basis by carrying out an engine pitch change rod and re-
ground run to lubricate the internal components such as the pitch change verse adjustment sleeve Oil leakage between cylin-
mechanism and the constant speed governor. In the event that an engine ground der base and cylinder-side
run can not be carried out then the pitch change mechanism must be exercised hub half
by feathering and unfeathering the propeller.
PERIODS OVER 3 MONTHS

If the propeller is to be stored ’on the wing’ for periods in excess of 3 months then
the pitch change mechanism should be flushed out with an inhibiting oil and then
covered with waxed paper.
All external parts should be treated with Lanolin or an approved anti-corrosive
treatment and inspected regularly for corrosion.
NOTE: ENSURE THAT LANOLIN DOES NOT COME INTO CONTACT
WITH THE DE-ICER BOOTS
Grease leakage at
lubrication fitting
Oil leakage at seal
between engine flange

and propeller mounting flange
Grease leakage
at bladesocket in
hub
Figure 64 Hub Leackages
FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep. 15, 2012 11|17.7 STOR&PRES|A|B1 Page 88

M

M17
Figure 65 Ground Engine Run

M

M17
UNINSTALLED PROPELLERS
ASSEMBLED PROPELLERS
Assembled propellers should be stored on racks or stands in a clean, dry and warm
environment.
The propeller should be kept in the original manufacturers packing but if the
original packing is not available it should be wrapped in waxed paper.
The pitch change mechanism should be inhibited with an inhibiting oil and all
external components should be coated in Lanolin. All loose components - oil tubes,
cones etc. should be coated in Lanolin and wrapped in waxed paper.
NOTE: COMPONENTS USED TO RETAIN THE PROPELLER ONTO THE
ENGINE ARE CONSIDERED TO BE PROPELLER PARTS.
Propeller bearings are required to be exercised after 6 and 9 months. After 12
months the bearings need to be cleaned, checked for ’Brinelling’ and corrosion and
then regreased. Brinelling is a material surface failure caused by contact stress
that exceeds the material limit. This failure is caused by just one application of a
load great enough to exceed the material limit. The result is a permanent dent or
”brinell” mark. It is a common cause of roller bearing failures. It is also caused by
vibrations that occur from machines nearby while stored or during transportation.
DISASSEMBLED PROPELLERS
All parts should be immersed in an inhibiting oil, drained and any bearings coated Brinelling marks
with a mineral jelly. Clean all electrical equipment and and treat external surfaces
with a rust preventer.
Figure 66 Bearing with Brinelling
Electrical connectors should be coated with petroleum jelly and stored in moisture
proof bags. all other parts should be wrapped in waxed paper and stored in suitable
crates.
The maximum storage period is up to 3 years with inhibiting checks every 12

months. All propellers and components should be labelled stating:-
S Part number.
S Modification state.
S Serial Number.
S Date of storage with a record of inspections since that date.

M

M17
Brinelling marks
Figure 67 Brinelling

P66 M17 A E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M17 PROPELLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
M17.1 PROPELLER FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
HOW THE PROPELLER WORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
M17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ADJUSTABLE PITCH PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
PRODUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS . . . . . . . . 44
M17.3 PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CONSTANT SPEED PROP. FOR PISTON ENGINES . . 52
PROPELLERS FOR TURBOPROP ENGINES . . . . . . . . 58
M17.5 PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
THE FLUID ANTI−ICING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
ELECTRICAL DE−ICING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
M17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
TIME BETWEEN OVERHAULS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
INSPECTION & REPAIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
CHECKING BLADE TRACKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PROPELLER ENGINE RUNNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
M17.7 PROPELLER STORAGE & PRESERVATION . . . . . . . . 88
INSTALLED PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
UNINSTALLED PROPELLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Page i
P66 M17 A E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ii
P66 M17 A E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Propellerstream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Figure 36 Metall Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 2 Propeller Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 37 Composite Blade with Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 3 Propeller Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 38 Composite Blade with spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 4 Influences on the Angle of Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 39 Composite Blade without Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 5 Twisted Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 40 Dowdy Blade (F 50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 6 Twisted Prop. Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 41 Brake Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 7 Propeller Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 42 Constant Speed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 8 Forces on the Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 43 Any Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 9 Windmilling and Reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 44 Propeller Pitch Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 10 Twisted Fin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 45 Engine Power vs. Propeller Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 11 Effect of Propeller Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 46 Comparison of Blade Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 12 Propeller Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 47 Control Stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 13 Different Shapes of Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 48 Control Stand(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 14 Propeller Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 49 Alpha Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 15 NACA Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 50 Control Stand DO 328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 16 Static Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 51 Beta Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 17 Dynamic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 52 Feathering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 18 Keep out Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Figure 53 Auto Feathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 19 Resonance Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 75 Iced Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 20 Adjustable Pitch Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 76 Fluid Anti-Icing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 21 Fixed Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 77 Anti Icing Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 22 Pitch changing Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Figure 78 Electrical De-Icing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 23 Pitch changing Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 58 Typical Damages on a Wood Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 24 Pitch Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 59 Repair of Metal Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 25 Single Acting one mot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 60 Inspection of Composite Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 26 Pitch changing Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 61 Propeller Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 27 Single Acting dual or quat mot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 62 Aerodynamic Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 28 Flyweight and its Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 63 Blade Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 29 Moving Cylinder Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 89 Hub Leackages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 30 Moving Piston Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 90 Ground Engine Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 31 Double Acting Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 91 Bearing with Brinelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 32 Constant Speed Propeller Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 92 Brinelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 33 Propeller Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 34 Production of a Wood Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 35 Metal Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Page i
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Page ii
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TABLE OF FIGURES
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Page iv

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FRA US/O-5 DaC 15.09.2012 ATA DOC Page 1

M17.1 PROPELLER FUNDAMENTALS

HOW THE PROPELLER WORKS

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 2

AIRFOIL BLADE ROOT TRAILING EDGE

Figure 2 Propeller Components

Angle of Advance (β)

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 4

Figure 3 Propeller Angles

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 6

Influences on the Angle of Pitch

Change of Peripheral Speed u Change of Airspeed v

Figure 4 Influences on the Angle of Pitch

Figure 5 Twisted Blade

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 8

Figure 6 Twisted Prop. Blades

PROPELLER PITCH AND EFFICIENCY

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 10

effective pitch = angle of advance β

geometric pitch = blade angle ϕ

Figure 7 Propeller Pitch

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 12

Figure 8 Forces on the Blade

Brake Moment when Changing the Blade Angle

Brake Moment when Windmilling

If with constant pitch airspeed increases rapidly or rotational speed is greatly

FRA US/O-5 DaC Sep 15,2012 01|17.1 FUNDAMENTALS|A Page 14

especially on take−off. This leads to an asymmetric distribution of roll resistance

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twist effect due to propeller wash

twist effect due to engine torque

Figure 11 Effect of Propeller Wash

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Speed of Sound 330 m/s

Figure 12 Propeller Noise

Figure 13 Different Shapes of Propellers

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Figure 14 Propeller Shapes

BLADE SHAPES AND PROFILES (AIRFOIL SECTIONS)

not permitted in this area.

Figure 15 NACA Shapes

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torque loads due to mass distribution and

Figure 16 Static Loads

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nodal point unsymetr.

Point of max. 2.Order

Figure 17 Dynamic Loads

Figure 18 Keep out Zone

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M17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION

FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS

ADJUSTABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

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Propeller Installation REAR SPINNER

FORWARD SPINNER BULKHEAD

Figure 21 Fixed Propeller

VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS