B1-11b Aircraft Structures - LTT

Fundamentals
M11
TURBINE/PISTON_AEROPLANE_AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES and SYSTEMS Rev.-ID: 1JUN2013
Author: LaS
For Training Purposes Only
LTT Release: Jul. 02, 2013
M11.2_
Airframe Structures - General Concepts ATA 06
EASA Part-66
CAT B1
M11.02_06_B1 E
Training Manual
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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS EASA PART-66 M11A/M13
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL
CONCEPTS M11.2/M13.2
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES ANS SYSTEMS

M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!
HAM US/O-5 LaS May 29, 2013 ATA DOC Page 1

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Zonal and station identification systems
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

Introduction
You need zones, reference points, lines and planes to calculate the primary
dimensions of an aircraft.
Each section of the aircraft has a measurement system; the wings, including
the ailerons and flaps, the fuselage, the horizontal stabilizers, the vertical
stabilizers and the pylon and nacelles.
The aircraft is divided into specified zones and areas by reference planes or
coordinates. This helps you to identify the location of components quickly and
is useful for the calculation of the center of gravity and the distribution of
weight.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 01|Intro|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 2

Figure 1 Specific Zones and Areas

Introduction cont.
The reference planes are vertical planes, horizontal planes and longitudinal
planes.
The zones are the primary areas of the aircraft like the fuselage, the wings and
the engines.

Figure 2 Reference Planes

Introduction cont.
The manufacturers use different units of measurement for the reference
planes.
Boeing, for example, measures reference planes in inches and Airbus uses cm
and mm.
While you go through the lesson, you will see that there are different coordinate
systems for each of the primary aircraft assemblies.

Boeing
Airbus
Figure 3 Different Units of Measurement

Body
First we look at the details of coordinate system for the aircraft fuselage.
The body coordinates, or reference planes, are along the 3 aircraft axes:
the vertical axis,
the lateral or transverse axis, and
the longitudinal axis.
On Boeing aircraft the body coordinates are called body stations, body buttock
lines and body waterlines.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 04|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 8

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Figure 4 Body Coordinates

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Body cont.
The body station is a vertical plane at a right angle to the body centerline.
The body station is measured by the distance from a point in front of the nose
of the aircraft.
The abbreviation for the body station is B STA.

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Figure 5 Body Station

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Body cont.
The body buttock lines are vertical planes parallel to the body centerline plane.
Body buttock line 0 is the body centerline.
The abbreviation for the left body buttock lines is L BBL and for the right body
buttock lines R BBL.

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Figure 6 Buttock Line

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Body cont.
The body waterlines are horizontal planes at a right angle to the body stations
and the body buttock lines.
They are measured from a parallel imaginary plane, body waterline 0, below
the aircraft fuselage.
For example, on the Boeing 747 body waterline 0 is 91 inches below the
fuselage.

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Figure 7 Body Waterline

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Body cont.
To define locations for the installation of components and equipment in the
cabin or cockpit, the manufacturers use a reference plane.
This reference plane is a fixed waterline along the top surface of the floor
beams.

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Figure 8 Fixed Waterline

Body|L2|A/B1/B2
Wings
Let us continue with the reference planes on a Boeing wing.
On Boeing aircraft the wing coordinates are:
the wing reference plane,
wing buttock lines,
and wing stations.
First let’s look at the wing reference plane. On all aircraft this plane is inclined
so that it is the same as the dihedral of the wing.
On this Boeing 747, for example, it is inclined at 7 to the horizontal plane. It
starts at the body buttock line 127.5.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 09|Wings|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 18

Figure 9 Reference Plane

Wings cont.
The wing buttock line on Boeing aircraft is a vertical plane at a right angle to
the wing reference plane.
It is measured in inches from the intersection of the wing reference plane and
the body buttock line zero.

BBL 127,5
WRP
Figure 10 Buttock Line

Wings cont.
The wing station on Boeing aircraft is a vertical plane at a right angle to the
wing reference plane and to the rear spar.
It is measured in inches from the intersection of the extended leading edge and
the wing buttock line zero.

Figure 11 Wing Station

Nacelles
In this segment we look at the nacelle coordinates.
On Boeing aircraft the nacelle coordinates are divided into
nacelle stations,
nacelle buttock lines
and nacelle waterlines.
The nacelle station is a vertical plane at a right angle to the nacelle centerline.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 12|Nacelles|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 24

Nacelle Waterline
Nacelle Buttock Line
Nacelle Station
Figure 12 Nacelle Coordinates

Nacelle cont.
The nacelle station zero on Boeing aircraft is always in front of each forward
engine mount. The distance depends on the engine type.
On the Boeing 747, for example, nacelle station 0 is 197.5 in in front of the
forward engine mount.
As you can imagine, the distance is different from aircraft type to aircraft type.

Figure 13 Nacelle Station – Boeing

Nacelle cont.
The nacelle buttock line is defined relative to the wing buttock line on Boeing
aircraft.
Each engine nacelle has a nacelle buttock line zero. On the 747, for example,
the nacelle buttock line zero for the inboard engine is 2° from wing buttock line
470 and for the outboard engine 2° from wing buttock line 834.

Figure 14 Nacelle Buttock Line

Nacelle cont.
The nacelle waterlines are parallel to the wing reference plane.
The nacelle waterline zero is below the nacelle.

Figure 15 Nacelle Waterline

Horizontal Stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer coordinates are like the wing coordinates.
On Boeing aircraft the horizontal stabilizer coordinates are the stabilizer chord
plane, buttock lines, stations, leading edge stations and elevator stations.
The stabilizer chord plane is a plane through the leading and trailing edges of
the stabilizer airfoil. This plane is also called the horizontal stabilizer reference
plane.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 16|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 32

Figure 16 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stabilizer Chord Plane

Horizontal Stabilizer cont.

The horizontal stabilizer buttock line is a plane at a right angle to the stabilizer
chord plane and parallel to the body centerline. You measure the buttock lines
from the stabilizer buttock line zero which is equivalent to the body buttock line
zero.

Figure 17 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Buttock Lines


The stabilizer station is a plane at a right angle to the stabilizer chord plane and
to the horizontal stabilizer rear spar.
The horizontal stabilizer station zero is at the intersection of the leading edge
extension and the horizontal stabilizer buttock line zero.

Figure 18 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stations


The stabilizer leading edge station is a plane at a right angle to the horizontal
stabilizer leading edge. You measure the leading edge station from the leading
edge station zero which is at the intersection of the extended leading edge and
the horizontal stabilizer buttock line zero.

Figure 19 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations


The elevator station is a plane which is at a right angle to the elevator hinge
centerline. You measure it from the intersection of the elevator hinge centerline
and the stabilizer buttock line zero.

Figure 20 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Elevator Stations

Vertical Stabilizer
In the next segment we look at the vertical stabilizer coordinates.
On Boeing aircraft the vertical stabilizer coordinates are divided into stations,
waterlines, leading edge stations and rudder stations.
The vertical stabilizer or fin station, is a plane at a right angle to the centerline
of the vertical stabilizer rear spar.
On the Boeing 747 the fin station zero is at the intersection of the extended
leading edge and the body waterline 366.57.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 21|Vertical Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 42

Figure 21 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Station

Vertical Stabilzier cont.

The fin waterline is a horizontal plane parallel to the body waterline.

Figure 22 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Fin Waterline


The vertical stabilizer leading edge station is a plane at a right angle to the
stabilizer leading edge.
You measure it from the leading edge station zero.
On the Boeing 747, for example, the leading edge station zero is at the
intersection of the extended leading edge and the body waterline 366.57.

Figure 23 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations


The rudder station is a plane at a right angle to the rudder hinge centerline.
You measure it from the rudder station 0.
On the Boeing 747 the rudder station 0 is at the intersection of the rudder hinge
centerline and the body waterline 366,57.

Figure 24 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Rudder Stations

Airbus Identification System

On Airbus aircraft the manufacturer uses a coordinate system to define
locations and components, instead of body stations, buttock lines or water
lines.
On Airbus aircraft the body coordinates for example have X values along the
longitudinal axis Y values along the lateral axis and Z values along the vertical
axis.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 25|Airbus Identific Sys|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 50

Figure 25 Body Coordinates Airbus I

Airbus Identification System cont.

You can see the zero points for the Y and Z coordinates on the graphic.
You will also find the fuselage datum, that is point zero on the Z axis, it is 240
millimeters above the floor beams on the Airbus 320 for example.
You can also see that the coordinates have negative and positive values. The
right side of the centerline is defined by a negative Y value.
Therefore the left side is defined by a positive Y value.
The X values are all positive. They are measured in relation to station zero,
which is a fixed, imaginary point in front of the aircraft nose. On this Airbus 320
for example, station zero is 2540 millimeters in front of the nose.

Figure 26 Body Coordinates Airbus II


The Z values can be negative or positive too and are dependent if below Z=0
or above.

Figure 27 Body Coordinates Airbus III


Airbus uses this coordinate system also on the wing and the nacelles.
On the Airbus 320 for example, the wing reference plane is called the wing
datum. It is defined relative to the horizontal wing datum but only the wing
stations are defined.
On this Airbus 320 the wing stations are measured in millimeters from rib 1 to
the point where they touch the front spar.
The measurement is at a right angle to rib 1 and not along the front spar.

Figure 28 Body Coordinates Airbus IV


For the nacelles you will also find stations. The nacelle station zero for example
is located aft of body station zero. The distance depends on the aircraft type
and can vary.

Figure 29 Body Coordinates Airbus V


For the horizontal and vertical stabilizer you will find stations only. They were
named by their component. So, you will find a vertical stabilizer station as well
as a horizontal stabilizer station.
The definition of these stations is similar to the wing station system.

Figure 30 Body Coordinates Airbus VI

Zones
All modern aircraft have different types of zones.
Major zones, sub−major zones and zones are used to locate assemblies,
subassemblies, doors and panels.
The eight major zones have a three digit number.
The first digit is a number from one to eight, followed by two zeros.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 31|Zones|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 62

Figure 31 Zones
Zones cont.
Major zone 100 is for the lower half of the fuselage, 200 for the upper half of
the fuselage, 300 for the empennage which covers the aft fuselage and the
horizontal and vertical stabilizers.

Figure 32 Major Zones 100, 200, 300

Zones cont.
Major zone 400 is for the power plants and the struts, 500 for the left wing, and
600 for the right wing.

Figure 33 Major Zones 400, 500, 600

Zones cont.
Major zone 700 is for the landing gear including the landing gear doors. Major
zone 800 is for the doors.

Figure 34 Major Zones 700, 800

Zones cont.
The major zones are divided into sub−major zones for more precise location of
assemblies and components.
The sub−major zones are identified by the second digit of the number code.
The second digit is a number from one to six for smaller aircraft or one to nine
for larger aircraft.
Usually, the sub−major zones on the right hand side of the aircraft have even
numbers and the sub−major zones on the left hand side have odd numbers.
Sub−major zones are divided into zones to locate a component or group of
components exactly.
Zones are identified by the third digit of the number code.
Usually, they are numbered from forward to aft, from inboard to outboard and
from bottom to top.

SUBMAJOR ZONE SUBMAJOR ZONE

330 340
Figure 35 Sub-Major Zones

Zones cont.
If more subdivisions of a zone are necessary to identify doors and panels there
is a letter after the zone numbers.
For example when two or more access panels are located in one zone you
have a letter as shown here.
Now we show you how access panels and service doors are identified.
The first digit is for the major zone, the second digit is for the sub−major zone,
and the third digit is for the zone.
The first letter shows the position of the panel or door from forward to aft,
inboard to outboard and bottom to top, and the second letter shows if the panel
or door is on the left or the right side.

Figure 36 Doors and Panel Identification

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Construction methods
Structures Introduction
INTRODUCTION
An aircraft has 5 main structural units which consist of:
the fuselage,
the wings,
the stabilizers,
the flight control surfaces, and
the landing gears.

Figure 37 Main Structural Units

Introduction cont.
The structure of each unit of an aircraft is made up of airframe components.
For example, the nose forward fuselage.

Figure 38 Airframe Components

Introduction cont.
Airframe components are made up of various parts which are called structural
members and include stringers, frames, bulkheads, ribs, skins and other
members which are mentioned in a later lesson.
Structural members are connected to each other using brackets, rivets, bolts,
screws and nuts and these give strength to the fuselage.
These structural members are designed to carry a load or resist stress.
Generally, stress is created by the internal force of a substance which opposes
or resists deformation. An aircraft can be affected by different types of stress
during take−off, flight or landing.

Figure 39 Structural Members

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structure stress and strain
Structural Stresses
5 major types of stress that can affect the structure of an aircraft are:
tension
compression
torsion
shear and
bending.
Tension is stress that resists the forces which pull it apart. For example, engine
thrust pulls the aircraft forward, but air resistance holds the aircraft back and
thus the result is tension.
In order to calculate the tensile strength of a material, divide the load (in
pounds) of the material by its cross−section area (in square inches). The result
is in psi.
HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 04|Struc Stresses|L2|A/B1 Page 80

Figure 40 Tension
Structural Stresses cont.

Compression is stress that resists a crushing force. It causes the aircraft parts
to shorten or squeeze together. Generally, you can also measure compressive
strength in psi.

Figure 41 Compression

Torsion is stress that causes twisting. In this example, this happens when the
rudder is deflected.

Figure 42 Torsion

Shear is stress which resists a force which causes a layer of material to slide
over an adjacent layer of material. When there are 2 riveted plates that are
under tension, shear stress causes the rivets to be affected by a shearing
force.
Shear strength of a material is usually either equal to or less than its tensile or
compressive strength.

Figure 43 Shear

Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension.
In this example, compression occurs on the lower side of the fuselage and
tension occurs on the upper side of the fuselage.

Figure 44 Bending
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Airworthiness requirements for structure strength
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS
Requirements for Structural Strength

General
Security means more than that an aircraft must be able to withstand all the
forces that can occur in the period of service. The aircraft must remain at all
times in an airworthy condition.
This means the aircraft must show sufficient positive stability during all flight
phases and attitudes throughout its flight envelope.
Since the development of civil air transports flying at altitudes requiring
pressurization, the structure has been made strong enough to withstand many
pressurization cycles. These cycles are all recorded by engineers and
contribute to ’lifting’ the aircraft. The number of permitted cycles is limited.
Although the designer takes into account the strain a fuselage is subjected to
during the aircraft’s life, we still have to be aware of (and look for) signs of early
failure.
Joints and connections are carefully pre-stressed to minimize the cyclic
stresses from the flight loads.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 01|Req struc|L2|A/B1 Page 90

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Airworthiness requirements for structure strength
Damage Tolerance
Corrosion Resistance
(Stress Corrosion Resistance) Crack Propagation
Maintenance
and Repair
Fatigue Properties / Resistance
Loads
Ground Conditions :
MATERIAL Fracture Toughness
Taxiing, Maintenance
Take off and Landing
Flight Conditions :
Maneuvers, Gust, Turbulence
Price
Stiffness Properties
Strength Properties
Manufacturing Costs
Weight
Figure 45 Requirements for Structural Strength

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 01|Req struc|L2|A/B1 Page 91
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structure classification
Structural Classification
General
When designing airplanes, the loads, which work during the operation on the
different structural components, must be considered.
Therefore the structure of the aircraft is classified either as primary or
secondary structure.
Primary Structure
Primary structure is that structure which contributes significantly to carrying
flight, ground and pressurization loads.
Within the primary structure there are elements that are designated PSE.
PSE’s are those elements that contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground
and pressurization loads, and whose integrity is essential in maintaining the
overall structural integrity of the airplane.
Secondary Structure
Secondary structure is that structure which carries only air or inertial loads
generated on or within the secondary structure.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 02|Struc clas|L2|A/B1 Page 92

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structure classification
Figure 46 Primary and Secondary Structure

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 02|Struc clas|L2|A/B1 Page 93
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structural design concept
Structural Design Concepts

Damage Tolerance
Safe Life
Damage tolerance improves on fail−safety by considering multiple site cracking
The discovery of fatigue cracks and failures of major structural elements on
and the residual strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage
aeroplanes in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, forced the development of the
tolerance also considers the effects of environmental damage (corrosion), and
safe life design principle. The safe−life design principle requires that major
discrete damage (accidental).
structural elements are replaced after a fixed number of flight cycles. These
parts cannot be repaired or refurbished to extend the components life. The Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an
basis for safe−life design is fatigue analysis. aeroplane’s life. The operating loads are much smaller than the ultimate
strength. As the aeroplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to crack
Fail Safe growth and/or corrosion damage. Before the strength becomes less than the
When the cause of the structural failure was determined, new emphasis was residual requirement, the damage is detected and repaired back to original
placed on fail−safe design of aircraft structures. Stress risers, or even portions capability.
of the structure where eliminated. This process continues throughout the life of the aeroplane.
The design of a safe aircraft structure is extremely complex and evolves over a
period of time, mainly supported by full-scale airframe testing, fatigue analysis
and service experience. This method is commonly known as the fail-safe
method.
The fail-safe method relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to
ensure that if one member failed, the other would assume the load of the failed
member.
Fail−safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. In
fact, fail−safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs.
However, operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of
fail−safety do not hold true.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 03|Struc design con|L2|A/B1 Page 94
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structural design concept
Old Design (B727) Current Design (A310)

Fail Safe Design / Single Load Path Damage Tolerant Design / Multiple Load Path
Figure 47 Design Concepts

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 03|Struc design con|L2|A/B1 Page 95
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Fatigue
Stresses on Aircraft Structures

Fatigue
If an increasing load is applied to a piece of material, a value of the load will
eventually be reached at which the material fractures. This is the ultimate static
load the material can take. In most cases this situation will not apply to the
structure of the aircraft. If we assume that only a fraction of the ultimate static
load is applied to the aircraft, then the structure may bend or stretch but will not
break. Once the load has been removed, the structure reverts back to its
normal shape.
The loading cycle may be repeated many times due the service life of an
airplane and every time the material is internally weakens more. On visual
inspection there seems to be no degradation of the structure. If this cycle
loading is continued to a sufficient number of times, the material will break.
This phenomenon of fracturing after a series of cyclic loads, maybe much less
than the ultimate load, is known as fatigue.
Therefore, fatigue is not considered as a major stress but as a result of the
major loads stated above.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 04|Fatigue|L2|A/B1 Page 96

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Fatigue
Fatigue strength of materials

Aluminium
Carbon Composite
Mild Steel
Wood Epoxy Laminate
Fiberglass
Stress as % of strength
Cycles to failure
Figure 48 Whöler Curve
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 04|Fatigue|L2|A/B1 Page 97
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Drains and ventilation provisions
Drains and Ventilation Provisions

General
At places in aeroplane structures, where collection of fluids may be expected,
drainage points are provided. To prevent unintended pressure differentials and
the accumulation of hazardous gases, structures are supplied with means of
ventilation.
External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to
prevent water and other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids could
cause a fire or corrosion.
Drain Ports
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
tail section to drain any fluids overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain Valves
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These
drain valves are open when the aircraft cabin is un-pressurised, but close when
the cabin is pressurised to prevent loss of cabin pressure.
In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. Sometimes a levelling
compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The compound directs
fluid to the drains.
Ventilation Provisions
The internal structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, dams and
drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards external drain points. An example
of this is the holes drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the bilge
area.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 05|Drain vent prov|L2|A/B1 Page 98
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Drains and ventilation provisions
Internal View
Figure 49 Drains and Ventilations

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 05|Drain vent prov|L2|A/B1 Page 99
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL System installation provision
System Installation Provisions

General
During the development of the structure of an aircraft, there are to consider
certain factors, which results to increase certain points of the structure.
System Supporting Structure

The installation of brackets for the attachment of components such as hydraulic
reservoirs, fuel filter modules or valves leads to a strengthening of the structure
to accommodate the forces. The landing gear attachment or the engine mounts
are good examples of large force transmissions.
Some pipes, electrical cables and control cables must pass through critical
areas, such as a firewall or bulkhead. These bushings weaken the integrity of
the component and must be taken into account at the planning stage and be
minimized.
Grommets
Control cables are used in an aircraft to operate certain systems. These cables
run through the entire body. Detailed considerations must be made in order to
avoid damage to critical structural elements or the cable. This is achieved
through the use of grommets and pressure seals.
Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic
system fluid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducts and
air−conditioning distribution must be considered and provisions made for the
attachment and correct routing of these system components.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 06|Sys inst prov|L2|A/B1 Page 100
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL System installation provision
Washer Nut
Gasket
Bolt
Washer
(2 Locations)
Control
Seal Cover Cable
Pressure Side
of Bulkhead
Pressure
Bulkhead
Ball
(2 Pieces) Seal Plate
Figure 50 Control Cable Grommet

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 06|Sys inst prov|L2|A/B1 Page 101
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Lightning strike protection provision
Lightning Strike Protection Provision

General Lightning Strike Zones
Aircraft require an electrical contact between all the metallic and composite The aircraft is divided into three zones related to the probability of lightning
parts to avoid an arc or fibre damage. Aluminium, depending on the strike:
manufacturer in various forms, is used to provide a conductive path for the Zone 1:
discharge of electrical energy. It does not matter, whether aluminium or
− surfaces where there is a high probability of initial lightning attachment
composite materials is installed, it must be made sure that the electrical energy
(entry or exit).
can be dissipated.
Zone 2:
When a lightning strike occurs, there is an acoustic shock wave. If the intensity
of this shock wave is high, it can cause deformation of thin metal skins or − surfaces where there is a high probability of a swept back zone. The
rupture of thin composite skins. lightning strike has its initial point of entry in Zone 1 and moves into Zone
2. As an example, the nose Radom may be the initial entry point, but the
Aluminium Structure lightning channel is push back due to the forward motion of the airplane.
On an aluminium skin, the electricity will flow through the skin and discharge Zone 3:
out to the static discharger. − this zone includes all of the aircraft surfaces that are not in Zone 1 and 2.
In Zone 3 there is a low probability of an entry of a lightning strike.
Composite Structure
However, high lightning currents can go through Zone 3 by direct
Since composites do not conduct electricity, lightning protection has to be built conduction between 2 attachment points. Zone 3 currents will also go
into the component. If there is no lightning protection in the composite and the into Zones 1 and 2.
lightning exits through the composite component, the resins in the composite
will evaporate, leaving the bare fibre.
Carbon fibre composite are protected by Aluminium or Steel Plates. A barrier,
such as a layer of fibre glass, should be used to prevent a galvanic potential
between the carbon material and aluminium.
Electromagnetic Fields
The electromagnetic fields related to the lightning attachment can cause
unwanted transient voltages and currents in the aircraft wiring and systems. In
some conditions (low intensity strike, high protection), the effect on the
systems can be temporary and the systems can operate correctly again after
the strike. In other conditions (low protection, no circuit protection devices), the
damage can be permanent and it will be necessary to replace parts.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 07|Lightning strike|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 102
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Lightning strike protection provision
Figure 51 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 07|Lightning strike|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 103
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Aircraft bonding
Aircraft Bonding
General Bonding Methods on Composite Structures
In general the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite fabric. This
ensure an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating is usually done with fibreglass or Kevlar and not with carbon/graphite.
intermediate parts stop the continuity in large zones. A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If
The continuity is restored by means of: this method is used on a carbon/graphite component, it is usually
strips sandwiched between two layers of fibreglass to prevent a galvanic potential.
screws / rivets A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite
during the manufacturing process.
grounding lugs
Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten
fitted between metallic assemblies.
aluminium that is sprayed on like paint. Some companies will just paint the
Hinged parts (control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc.), removable parts component with an aluminised paint.
(unhinged inspection doors, etc.), are provided with one or several bonding
In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the
means shunting each part where conductibility may be interrupted. For
dissipation of the electrical charge out to another metal component or static
particular zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bonding provide an
wick.
efficient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are connected
to the main structure.
External protruding parts, metallic or not, are provided with electrical lead
connected to the main structure. Antennas and other equipment are not
bonded due to the fact that flash of lightning could damage only the element
struck without endangering the other parts of the aircraft. Different
manufacturers use different methods to dissipate the electrical charge on
composite structures.
HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 08|AC bonding|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 104
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Aircraft bonding
Bonding of Rivets Bonding of Composites

Bonding of movable Parts
Figure 52 Aircraft Bonding

HAM US/O-5 LaS Oct 25, 2012 08|AC bonding|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 105
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Generel concepts
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS
General Construction Methods

Introduction
Aircraft structures have evolved fully as much as have their power plants. The
very first airframes were made of open trusses of either wood strips or
bamboo. The aerodynamic surfaces were made of lightweight wood covered
with cotton or linen fabric, shrunk and made air tight with a syrup−like collodion
product that dried to a hard film.
Today most of all aircraft structures are made of alloyed aluminium because
pure aluminium was found as too weak and not durable enough. Before World
War I, the Germans discovered that by alloying aluminium with copper,
manganese, and magnesium, they could increase its strength without
increasing its weight. This new alloy was called ”Duralumin”, and it was the first
step to the high−strength and lightweight alloys such as AA7075 and AA2024
that we use in aircraft construction until today.
Metal structure has been the standard since the 1930s, but a new era is
dawning, that of composites. Composite structure can be made stronger,
lighter in weight, more rigid, and less costly than metal. Composite structural
components are able to withstand the sonic vibrations that are commonly
encountered in aircraft structure better then metal structures.
Modern composite materials use fibres of graphite and Kevlar as well as glass
for most applications, with boron and ceramic used in some special
applications. These fibres are primarily bonded into an epoxy resin matrix.
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Generel concepts
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Generel concept
Fuselage Shell
The fuselage is the main structure or the body of the aircraft. It provides space
for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment. In single
engine aircraft, it also houses the power plant. In multi−engine aircraft the
engines may either be in the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended
from the wing structure.
There are two general types of fuselage construction:
Truss Type Construction
Monocoque Construction
Truss Type Construction
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts, and
bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss−framed fuselage is
generally covered with fabric. On some aircraft, principally the light,
single−engine models, truss fuselage frames are constructed of aluminium
alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross−bracing achieved
by using solid rods or tubes.
The truss type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded
together in such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension
and compression loads.
This is further classified into the true monocoque construction and the more
common semi-monocoque construction.
The name monocoque means single shell, and in a true monocoque structure,
all the strength of the structure is carried in the outside skin. The formers give
the structure its shape, but the thin metal skin riveted to them carries all the
flight loads.
A monocoque fuselage is in its strength similar to a tube, its cross section is of
high bending and torsion strength. There is no need for cross−struts, which
would demand to much space from the cabin and cargo compartments.
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to
keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque
construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within
allowable limits.
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL Generel concept
Longeron (tubular steel)

Diagonal web members
(tubular steel)
Trusstype Construction Vertical

web
members
Skin
Stringer
Frame
Figure 53 Trusstype and Monocoque Construction

M11.02 06 B1 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES ANS SYSTEMS . . . . . . 1
M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS1
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS . 2
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
WINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
NACELLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
VERTICAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
AIRBUS IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
STRUCTURAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS
90
REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH . . 90
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
STRESSES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . 96
DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . 98
SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION . . . . . 102
AIRCRAFT BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS
106
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Page i
M11.02 06 B1 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ii
M11.02 06 B1 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Specific Zones and Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Doors and Panel Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 2 Reference Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 Main Structural Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 3 Different Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Airframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 4 Body Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 5 Body Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 6 Buttock Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 7 Body Waterline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 8 Fixed Waterline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 9 Reference Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 10 Buttock Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 Requirements for Structural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 11 Wing Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 46 Primary and Secondary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 12 Nacelle Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 47 Design Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 13 Nacelle Station – Boeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 48 Whöler Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 14 Nacelle Buttock Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 49 Drains and Ventilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 15 Nacelle Waterline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 50 Control Cable Grommet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 16 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stabilizer Chord Plane . 33 Figure 51 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 17 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Buttock Lines . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 52 Aircraft Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 18 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 53 Trusstype and Monocoque Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 19 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations . 39
Figure 20 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Elevator Stations . . . . . . 41
Figure 21 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 22 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Fin Waterline . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 23 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations . . . . 47
Figure 24 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Rudder Stations . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 25 Body Coordinates Airbus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 26 Body Coordinates Airbus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 27 Body Coordinates Airbus III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 28 Body Coordinates Airbus IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 29 Body Coordinates Airbus V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 30 Body Coordinates Airbus VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 31 Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 32 Major Zones 100, 200, 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 33 Major Zones 400, 500, 600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 34 Major Zones 700, 800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 35 Sub-Major Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Page i
Fundamentals
M11
TURBINE/PISTON_AEROPLANE_AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES and SYSTEMS Rev.-ID: 1
Author: LaS
For Training Purposes Only
ELTT Release: Jul. 24, 2013
M11.3_
Airframe Structures-Aeroplane ATA 52..57
EASA Part-66
CAT B1
M11.03_52..57_B1 E
Training Manual
For training purposes and internal use only.

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training software.
Any use outside the training measures, especially
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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS EASA PART-66 M11A
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - AEROPLANES
M11.3
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

M11.3 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - AEROPLANES
HAM US/O LaS May 29, 2013 ATA DOC Page 1

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.1 FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION
The fuselage is the main unit of the aircraft structure and provides space for
passengers, cargo and other equipment.
The fuselage consists of several sections. The sections are numbered or
described for example section eleven or nose forward fuselage.
Aircraft have mainly 2 types of fuselage construction named monocoque and
semi−monocoque construction.
A monocoque construction uses frame assemblies and bulkheads to give
shape to the fuselage and the aircraft skin is riveted directly onto the frame.
This type of construction permits the skin to contain cabin pressure and also
permits it to be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem with the monocoque construction is trying to maintain
enough strength in the skin and also keeping the weight within permitted limits.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Monoc. Const.|L1|A/B1 Page 2

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 1 Types of Fuselage Construction

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Monoc. Const.|L1|A/B1 Page 3
AEROPLANES M11.3
SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION

In a semi−monocoque construction, the skin shares the load with the stringers,
the frames and with an additional clip.
Compared with the monocoque construction, the skin is riveted to the clip and
the clip is riveted to the frame. This type of construction makes the fuselage
more flexible and has a good strength-to-rigidity-ratio.
Therefore, a semi−monocoque fuselage construction can withstand a high
amount of damage and can still be strong enough to remain intact.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|S.−monoc. Const.|L1|A/B1 Page 4

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 2 Types of Fuselage Construction

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|S.−monoc. Const.|L1|A/B1 Page 5
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Construction and pressurisation sealing
AEROPLANES M11.3
MAINFRAME COMPONENTS
The fuselage mainframe consists of components, for example:
S frames,
S bulkheads,
S stringers,
S floor beams,
S floor−to−skin shear ties and
S a keel beam.
Frames help to maintain the shape of the fuselage and reduce the column
length of the stringer, which prevents general aircraft instability. They also help
to carry and distribute different loads which are caused by structural stress, for
example, shear and tension.
When frames are used in constructing the fuselage they are normally spaced
20 inches apart.
Bulkheads carry and distribute different loads of the fuselage. They are located
in areas such as the nose and tail of the fuselage, the wheel well and the
wings.
Several pressure bulkheads form part of the pressurised cabin of a fuselage,
for example, the forward pressure bulkhead and the aft pressure bulkhead.
Pressure bulkheads are installed to withstand cabin pressure.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 03|Mainf. Comp.|L1|A/B1 Page 6

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 3 Mainframe Components

AEROPLANES M11.3
Mainframe Components cont.

Stringers give shape to the fuselage shell and they are located on the inner
side of the aircraft skin panel. They are designed to carry loads because of the
fuselage bending, shear, torsion and cabin pressure.
Stringers are connected to each other by stringer splices on production breaks
and are interrupted only for structural openings such as windows and doors.
Stringers pass through cut−outs in the frame of a monocoque construction and
are attached to the skin by rivets. On semi-monocoque constructions you can
also find them attached to the frames by angle−shaped or T−shaped clips.
Clips are usually found on the inner surface of the skin and are attached to the
frame and also to the stringer. The main purpose of these clips is to transfer
the pressure load from the skin panel to the frame and assist the frame in
carrying compression stress.
Floor beams lay horizontally and are adjacent to the skin panel. As you can
see, they are attached to the frames and help to carry the pressure loads
across the fuselage. Floor beams are also able to support cabin pressurisation
and can absorb the normal loads of the seat tracks and floor panels.

AEROPLANES M11.3

AEROPLANES M11.3

Floor−to−skin shear ties extend along the 2 sides of the fuselage and are level
with the floor beams. They are attached to floor beams, frames and skin
stringer and provide an additional path for distributing cabin pressure loads.
The skin forms the external surface of the fuselage. The skin and its
reinforcements are the largest item of the fuselage structure and therefore form
the most important part of the structure. As the stringers and frames are
spaced at regular intervals, it is the skin that carries the majority of the primary
loads. Thus, the skin helps to prevent buckling and maintains the fuselage
cross−section.
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AEROPLANES M11.3

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 05|Mainf. Comp.|L2|B1 Page 11
AEROPLANES M11.3

The keel beam is located through the center wing section of the fuselage. It
supports the wheel well area where a maximum amount of bending can occur
and can transfer wing loads. The keel beam is made up of compression chords
and a shear web structure containing stiffeners.
The wheel well area does not need a skin/stringer system because of the keel
beam. This allows the retraction of the landing gears into the wheel well area.
The keel beam and the skin/stringer panels of the lower half of the forward and
aft fuselage carry the loads.

AEROPLANES M11.3

AEROPLANES M11.3
Center section
The fuselage center section provides part of the cabin with a structure for
joining the center wing box and main landing gears together. The area
underneath the cabin floor of the aircraft is unpressurized. A pressure boundary
is made by the upper skin panel of the center wing box and a pressure
diaphragm extends from the wing box above the main landing gears.
The forward and aft pressure boundary is created by the pressure bulkheads
which are located in front of the center wing box and at the end of the main
landing gear bay.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 7 Center Section

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 07|Ctr. Section|L1|A/B1 Page 15
AEROPLANES M11.3
Tail section
The tail section is designed to carry different loads from the empennage. It is
constructed and formed of frames, stringers and skin panels which are riveted
together.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 8 Tail Section

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 08|Tail Section|L1|A/B1 Page 17
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Doors and emergency exits
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOORS
Introduction
CATEGORIES OF DOORS
Modern aircraft have different types of doors. The doors are classified by their
function as follows:
S main entry doors,
S service doors,
S cargo doors,
S and emergency exit doors.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Cat. of Doors|L1|A/B1 Page 18

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 9 Categories of Doors

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Cat. of Doors|L1|A/B1 Page 19
AEROPLANES M11.3
PASSENGER DOORS
The main entry doors allow the loading and unloading of passengers and
equipment quickly, safely and efficiently.
The doors on the left side of the aircraft are mainly used as passenger doors,
whereas the doors on the right side are mainly used as service doors for galley
servicing.
The main entry doors are numbered down the left side from nose to tail as 1
left, 2 left and so on and down the right side as 1 right, 2 right and so on.
For a quick passenger and crew evacuation in case of emergency all these
main entry doors can also be used as emergency exit doors.
For the evacuation of the upper deck in this aircraft type 2 additional doors are
installed as emergency exits only, and for the cockpit crew an additional
emergency overhead hatch is installed in the cockpit ceiling.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Pax Doors|L1|A/B1 Page 20

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 10 Passenger and Emergency Exit Doors

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Pax Doors|L1|A/B1 Page 21
AEROPLANES M11.3
CARGO AND SERVICE DOORS

The service doors provide access to various compartments such as the
stabilizer, the hydraulics or the electronics compartments, for maintenance
purposes.
Cargo doors allow freight and equipment to be loaded and unloaded in a fast,
safe and efficient manner.
Different types of cargo doors are fitted to modern aircraft. In the lower part of
the aircraft generally a forward, an aft and a bulk cargo door are installed.
On some aircraft, in addition, a nose and/or a side cargo door allows cargo
loading for the main deck.
The bulk cargo door gives access to the bulk cargo compartment and is usually
located on the aft lower right side of the fuselage.
The other cargo doors are the forward and aft cargo doors which give you
access to the forward and aft cargo compartments. They are located always on
the lower right side of the fuselage.
The side cargo door gives access to the passenger and cargo compartments
on the main deck and is here located on the aft left side of the fuselage.
The side cargo door is needed when the aircraft is operated in a mixed
passenger − cargo version or as a full freighter.
A nose cargo door allows quick loading and unloading of large freight pieces.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 03|Cargo+Svc Drs.|L1|A/B1 Page 22

AEROPLANES M11.3
Nose Cargo Door

Figure 11 Cargo and Service Doors

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 03|Cargo+Svc Drs.|L1|A/B1 Page 23
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOORS ON SMALL AIRCRAFT

Now we take a look at the doors on a smaller aircraft, for example the Airbus
320.
As you can see this aircraft type has 4 main entry doors. This is typical for a
small aircraft.
In addition to the main entry doors small emergency hatches are installed.
You can find 1 or 2 overwing emergency hatches on each side of the aircraft,
dependent on the aircraft size. They are used only in case of emergency to
allow a quick evacuation of the aircraft.
The cargo doors on this aircraft type are again called the bulk cargo door,
located on the lower aft right fuselage and the forward and aft cargo doors
again located on the lower right fuselage.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 04|Drs. on small A/C|L1|A/B1 Page 24

AEROPLANES M11.3
Main Entry Door
Forward
Cargo Door
Main Entry Door
Aft Cargo Door
Bulk Cargo Door
Emergency Hatches
Main Entry Door

Main Entry Door
Figure 12 Doors on small Aircraft (A320)

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 04|Drs. on small A/C|L1|A/B1 Page 25
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Doors construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
Passenger Doors
INTRODUCTION
The basic construction of the doors consists of door structure, linings and
different mechanisms.
The basic construction ensures effective door operation in normal and
emergency situations.
Each main passenger entry door has an upper lining, a center lining and a
lower lining.
The upper, center and lower linings provide a decorative and protective cover
for the door structure, the latch mechanism and the escape slide.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Intro|L1|A/B1 Page 26

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 13 Door Lining

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Intro|L1|A/B1 Page 27
AEROPLANES M11.3
LOWER LINING
The lower lining covers the escape slide and survival kit and it houses the
pressure gage viewing window.
The lower lining is connected to the center section by a hinge and can be
opened by pulling on the bottom of the lining.
Behind the lower lining you will find the emergency escape pack.
The escape pack can be a slide or a slide/raft configuration. The escape pack
is held on the door behind the lower lining in a pack board assembly.
A sea survival kit is housed in the lower lining for slide/raft configurations.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 14 Lower Door Lining

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Lwr Lining|L1|B1 Page 29
AEROPLANES M11.3
CENTER LINING
The center lining covers the door structure and latch mechanism.
It also incorporates the window, the assist handle, the access cover and the
interior door handle.
There is a rectangular window in each main entry door for passengers and
crew.
All windows can withstand cabin pressurization loads and are designed with
fail−safe features.
The access door cover has a viewing window, which allows you to see the
position of the mode selector lever − in the park or flight position.
You can see here how the cover is opened and the selector lever is moved to
the park position. In this position you can open the door without deploying the
escape slide.
You use the interior door handle to open and close the main entry door.
While moving the main entry door handle to the open position you have to use
the door assist handle on the aft edge of each door. It can be used as a hand
hold for manually opening and closing the door.
You have now opened the main entry door in 3 steps − you’ve moved the mode
selector lever to park, you’ve opened the door handle and you’ve used the door
assist handle to open the door fully.
You should notice that Boeing and Airbus use different terms for the selector
lever modes. Boeing’s ’park’ and ’flight’ mean the same as ’manual’ and
’automatic’ on Airbus.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 15 Centre Door Lining

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 03|Ctr. Lining|L2|B1 Page 31
AEROPLANES M11.3
UPPER LINING
The door upper lining covers the door structure and latch mechanism. It also
houses the escape slide lamp.
On the 747 the door opens by rotating on its axis. When the door is completely
open, the lamp faces the exterior and can illuminate the inflated slide.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 04|Upr Lining|L2|B1 Page 32

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 16 Upper Door Lining

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 04|Upr Lining|L2|B1 Page 33
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR STRUCTURE
The door structure is a riveted assembly of the outer skin, inner skin and inner
framework.
The door structure provides the housing for the opening, locking and
emergency mechanisms.
It also provides the housing for the door suspension, the door seal and the
upper and lower gates.
The outer skin of the door covers the structure and ensures aerodynamic
quality.
The inner skin, which has been removed in this graphic, covers the door
structure and provides additional strength.
The door structure consists of the door frame, beams, formers and intercostals.
The door frame surrounds the structure. Note that the upper and lower gates
are not part of the frame.
The beams are the main structures inside the frame.
The formers are connecting parts or attach brackets.
The intercostals provide additional rigidity.
In summary the door structure consists of a frame, which is strengthened by
beams, formers and intercostals.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
UPPER GATE
BEAMS
FRAME FORMERS
INTERCOSTALS
LOWER GATE
Figure 17 Door Structure

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 05|Door Struc.|L1|A/B1 Page 35
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR FRAME
The door frame houses the pressure stop fittings, the pack board brackets and
a seal.
The pressure stop fitting is on the door frame and holds the door closed when
the cabin is pressurized.
It achieves this by means of a pressure stop pin. The pressure stop fitting also
adjusts the door to its correct position by means of the pin.
The pressure stop fitting with pin mounted around the door transmits pressure
loads to the fittings surrounding the fuselage structure.
The stop pin is adjustable to bring the door into its correct position and holds
the door flush with the fuselage when it is closed.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Boeing Airbus
Figure 18 Door Frame & Seal

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 06|Door Fr.&Seal|L1|A/B1 Page 37
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR SEAL
The main entry doors are fitted with seals. The seals prevent loss of
pressurized cabin air and the rain from leaking into the cabin.
Two types of seal are fitted to the main entry doors: flap−type mechanical seals
and diaphragm seals.
The flap−type mechanical seal is attached around the door. When the door is
closed and latched, the seal contacts the fuselage frame and forms a pressure
and weather seal.
The diaphragm seals are attached on the inside of the upper and lower gate
hinges. The seals flex when the gates are opened or closed.
They form pressure and weather seals between the gates and the door
structure.
On the A320 the door seal is a rubber tube with spaced pressurization holes.
It is installed on the inner side of the outer skin on the edge of the door.
When the door is closed, the seal presses against the fuselage door frame and
is inflated by cabin air pressure to form a pressure−tight seal.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 06a|Door Fr.&Seal|L1|A/B1 Page 38

AEROPLANES M11.3
Boeing Airbus
Figure 19 Door Frame & Seal

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 06a|Door Fr.&Seal|L1|A/B1 Page 39
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Door mechanisms
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR SUPPORT SYSTEM

Let us now have a look at the door suspension mechanism, which is used to
open and close the door. Aircraft have different suspension mechanisms, and
we will look at the Airbus door support system and the Boeing hinge
mechanism.
The door support system on the Airbus consists of a support arm, a lower link
which is also called the lifting lever, an upper link and guide arms.
The door is attached to the support arm by means of upper and lower links.
The lower link is the lifting lever. The upper link connects the door to the
support arm and allows the door to be moved up and down by the lifting lever.
The lifting lever enables the door to be lifted. The door moves upwards until it
clears the stop fittings. After lifting to the opening level, the door moves
outwards parallel to the fuselage.
The door is supported by the support arm and maintained parallel to the
fuselage by the guide arms.
The support arm houses the damper, the emergency operation cylinder and the
door stay mechanism.
The door stay mechanism locks the door once it is in the fully open position.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 20 Door Support System

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 07|D. Supp. Sys|L1|A/B1 Page 41
AEROPLANES M11.3
HINGE MECHANISM & DOOR TORQUE TUBE

The Boeing aircraft uses a hinge mechanism which has a door torque tube, a
body torque tube and hinge arms.
The main function of the door torque tube is to rotate the door to the cocked
position by transmitting handle torque to the upper and lower hinges.
When the door handle is rotated, the door rotates around the door torque tube.
The door torque tube is connected to the body torque tube by hinge arms.
The body torque tube can be accessed from outside the aircraft by way of the
door maintenance access panel.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 08|D. Mech. & Tor. Tube Page 42
Sys|L1|A/B1
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 21 Door and Body Torque Tube

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 08|D. Mech. & Tor. Tube Page 43
Sys|L1|A/B1
AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM

Now we will look at the main components of the door locking mechanisms on 2
types of aircraft door.
The first type, used on many Boeing aircraft, consists of door handles
connected to the handle mechanism via a control cam. The control cam
controls the latching crank, which opens the door by means of control rods and
torque tubes.
The second type used on Airbus aircraft, the door locking mechanism consists
of a gearbox activated by control handles.
The gearbox controls the locking hook by means of a locking shaft and
connecting rods.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 09|D. Lock. Mech|L2|B1 Page 44

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 22 Door Locking Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM TYPE 1

Door Handles
Each cabin door has a locking mechanism which is controlled from either
outside or inside by door handles.
The interior door handle allows the door to be opened and closed from inside
the aircraft without operating the exterior door handle.
The outside door handle is located in a recess flush with the outer skin.
In order to open the door from the outside, you push the latch button. This
releases the exterior handle from the stowed position.
You then grasp each end of the exterior handle, pull outward to clear the
handle recess panel and turn. You can then open the door.
Note that on this aircraft type the emergency system is automatically
de−activated when the exterior handle is pulled outward.
On the aircraft types like the Boeing 737 you must deactivate the slides from
inside before you open the door from outside.
Door Locking Mechanism
On the next page you can see a more detailed graphic of the door locking
mechanism from inside the door.
When the door handle is turned the latching crank rotates.
The rotation of the latching crank is transmitted to the upper and lower torque
tubes by the upper and lower latching control rods.
The rotation of the torque tubes is transmitted to the upper and lower gates by
the upper and lower gate control rods.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 23 Door Handle and Locking Mechanism Type 1

AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM TYPE 2

On an Airbus aircraft you will find the following door locking mechanism.
The inner and outer door control handles operate the door locking mechanism.
The handles are coupled via a gearbox in such a way that the outer handle
does not move when the door is lifted by the operation of the inner handle.
The gearbox is linked by connecting rods to the locking shaft and to the lifting
lever.
The locking shaft operates a locking hook by means of a rod.
The locking hook locks or unlocks the door by means of a latch cam.
An arm on the locking shaft gives a visual indication which shows if the door is
locked or unlocked.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 24 Door Locking Mechanism Type2

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Emergency Exits
AEROPLANES M11.3
Emergency Doors
TYPES OF EMERGENCY DOORS
The emergency doors which we will discuss in this lesson are:
S the main entry doors,
S the upper deck doors,
S the emergency hatches and
S the overhead hatch.
The main entry doors and the emergency hatches allow the passengers to
evacuate the aircraft safely and quickly at ground and sea level.
The upper deck doors allow passengers to evacuate the upper deck in a safe
and speedy manner.
The overhead hatch provides an emergency exit for the flight crew from the
cockpit.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 25 Types of Emergency Doors

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Emer. Drs Types|L1|A/B1 Page 51
AEROPLANES M11.3
Boeing passenger doors

The main entry doors have a power assist system that can operate in an
emergency.
The power assist system operates an actuator which forces the door to open
automatically in the same time the slide needs to fully inflate.
During emergency opening, the escape pack and escape slide operate.
When the mode selector lever is placed in the automatic − flight − position, the
emergency system is armed for operation.
When the mode selector lever is in manual – park – position, the emergency
system is not armed and the slide does not deploy and inflate.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Boeing Pax Drs|L1|A/B1 Page 52

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 26 Mode Selector Lever

AEROPLANES M11.3
Lockout Mechanism
An overcenter spring detents the mode selector lever in the manual or
automatic position, to prevent an intermediate position of the lever.
The mode selector lever also operates the lock−out mechanism by means of
the lock−out cam.
The lock−out mechanism prevents the door of changing the mode from manual
or automatic when the door has been opened.
This prevents damage to the emergency actuation mechanism and inadvertent
operation of the door in automatic mode.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 27 Lockout Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
Escape Slide
The emergency slide itself is connected by means of a girt and girt bar.
The girt connects the slide to the girt bar and 1 end is wrapped around the girt
bar.
The slide and girt bar are normally inside the door lower lining.
The girt bar mechanism is controlled by the mode selector lever. In turn it
engages the girt bar in automatic mode or disengages it in manual mode.
Moving the mode selector lever operates the stop crank via a pushrod.
The pushrod between the crank stop and girt bar makes the girt bar torque
shaft rotate.
The rotation of the girt bar torque shaft operates the girt bar mechanism.
The girt bar mechanism controls the girt bar lifter via a crank and pushrods to
engage the girt bar in automatic mode or to disengage it in manual mode.
The girt bar is installed in the free end of the slide pack girt and retains the girt
at the entry door opening threshold when the slide is deployed.
Bar locks are installed at each end of the girt bar and lock the girt bar into the
floor brackets at each end of the entry door threshold in automatic mode.
The bar locks engage the girt bar to the floor brackets and disengage the girt
bar lifter.
The lifter itself retains the girt bar in manual mode and the door can be opened
without deploying the slide.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 28 Escape Slide

AEROPLANES M11.3
Trigger Mechanism
While opening the door, the trigger mechanism on the door hinge arm engages
the emergency power lever assembly on the body torque tube and arms the
escape slide inflation system in the automatic mode.
The trigger mechanism consists of a spring cartridge, a trigger and an
emergency power roller.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 29 Trigger Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
Airbus passenger Doors

On Airbus doors, a striker lever operates the emergency power system.
The striker lever is controlled by the emergency control handle via a linkage
and bell crank.
The striker lever moves inward under the force of the percussion mechanism
which triggers the emergency operation of the door.
The percussion mechanism houses a release lever and a punching striker.
The striker lever causes the release lever to operate the punching striker when
the door moves upwards, if the emergency system is armed.
The punching striker releases the contents of the emergency power reservoir.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 30 Striker Lever

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 06|Airbus Pax Drs|L2|B1 Page 61
AEROPLANES M11.3
Emergency Power Reservoir

Introduction
On this Boeing aircraft the emergency power reservoirs and their components
are located in the fuselage sidewall forward of the door.
On Airbus aircraft, the power reservoir is located on the door damper of the
door suspension.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 31 Emergency Power Reservoir

AEROPLANES M11.3
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
You must remove the emergency power reservoir from the aircraft after it has
been used or if the pressure is low.
To check the pressure, you must look at the pressure gage.
The pressure gage is on the emergency release mechanism. You must
compare the pressure reading on the gage with the permitted pressures from
the pressure−temperature chart.
The green band on the pressure gage is not an indication of sufficient pressure.
You must also check permitted pressures on the pressure−temperature chart.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 32 Reservoir Pressure Check

AEROPLANES M11.3
SAFETY DEVICE
When working around or with the reservoir or any mechanism connected to it,
you must install the safety pins.
The safety pin is a set of 2 pins connected by a lanyard with a streamer
attached.
You must be careful when you are handling charged or partially pressurized
reservoirs to prevent movement of toggle lever to the actuated position.
The accidental discharge of the reservoir could injure people or damage
equipment.
Also make sure that you install a safety pin into the mode selector lever in park
mode to prevent moving the lever into flight mode.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 33 Safety Device

AEROPLANES M11.3
Escape slides
The escape slide and raft are released when the door emergency system is
activated as the door is opened beyond the cocked position.
The escape slide/raft girt bar is installed in the free end of the slide pack girt to
hold the girt at the entry door opening threshold when the slide is deployed.
The packboard release mechanism is connected by girt straps to the girt which
applies a tension load.
When the door reaches an open position of approximately 60_, this load pulls
the packboard. The slide/raft can now fall away from the packboard and out of
the door lining cavity. The slide/raft assembly deploys immediately.
A stored gas bottle inflates the slide/raft assembly. The bottle is part of the
escape pack assembly.
A lanyard attached to the girt actuates the stored gas bottle assembly to
discharge the gas.
There is an inflation handle on the girt assembly which allows you to inflate the
slide manually if the slide is not inflated automatically.
You can check the pressure in the bottle through a viewing port in the door
lining. If the pointer is in or above the green band, the pressure in the gas
bottle is sufficient. If the pointer is below the green band, the pressure is not
sufficient and the slide must be removed and unpacked to change the stored
gas bottle.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 34 Door Slide Pack

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 10|Escape Slides|L1|A/B1 Page 69
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES -
AEROPLANES M11.3
Upper Deck door

Let’s now have a look at the upper deck door on the 747. It has a latch
mechanism which enables selection of door operating mode, operates the door
latches, the lift mechanism and the lift system for opening and closing the door.
The door has a flight lock mechanism which prevents door operation in flight.
The flight lock actuator is connected to a shaft which has an interference lever.
When the actuator is energized by the air/ground sensing system, the actuator
shaft rotates and the interference lever engages the stop on the internal handle
shaft, preventing operation of the handle.
A spring assists the flight lock actuator in the de−energized position.
A flight lock switch provides lock position indication to an indicating light on the
door annunciator panel.
When you raise the internal handle this causes the latch torque tube to rotate a
set of cranks. These cranks carry the latch rollers which latch and unlatch the
door.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 11|Upper Deck Door Page 70

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES -
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 35 Upper Deck Door Latch Mechanism

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 11|Upper Deck Door Page 71
AEROPLANES M11.3
Overwing emergency hatches

On the Airbus 320 like other smaller aircraft types, you will find emergency
hatches instead of a door. A hatch is not hinged like the doors we saw on the
Boeing 747, but it has got a locking mechanism to hold it into place.
Therefore the most important components of the locking mechanism on the
emergency exit hatches are the locking shaft units and the hatch pull lever
located in the upper section of the emergency exit hatch.
The locking shaft unit includes the 2 locking hooks and the locking shaft.
When the emergency exit hatch is correctly locked, the locking hooks engage
in the upper roller fitting on the fuselage.
When you pull the hatch pull lever down, a connection rod transmits the
movement of the lever to the locking shaft unit and the locking hooks
disengage from the roller fitting.
The pull lever is normally retained in the up position by 2 tension springs.
Once the lever has been pulled down, it is blocked in the lower position by a
spring−loaded linkage.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 12|Emer. Hatch|L1|A/B1 Page 72

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 36 Emergency Hatch Locking Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
OVERWING EMERGENCY HATCHES CONT.

The third main element of the emergency exit hatch is the slide release
mechanism which is operated manually by the hatch control handle.
To get access to the hatch control handle, you pull down the cover flap from
the recess.
When you do this a slide armed visual warning in the cabin is activated.
If you pull the lever of the hatch control handle down you will have the
emergency hatch in your hand right after.
Because of the shape of the emergency exit hatch, it falls into the cabin if you
do not hold it.
When the emergency exit hatch moves inboard, the slide release mechanism is
operated and inflates the emergency escape slide.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 37 Slide Release Mechanism

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Doors operation
AEROPLANES M11.3
Passenger Door Operation

MODE SELECTOR LEVER
The mode selector lever arms the emergency mechanism when the lever is
placed in flight mode and disarms the emergency mechanism when the lever is
placed in park mode.
Park mode means operation of the door in normal circumstances on the ground
by an authorized person.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Mode Selec Lvr.|L1|A/B1 Page 76

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 38 Mode Selector Lever

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Mode Selec Lvr.|L1|A/B1 Page 77
AEROPLANES M11.3
OPENING FROM INSIDE

To open the door from inside follow these instructions:
S open the access cover
S place mode selector lever to manual
S install mode selector lock−out pin
S check lever position in the viewing window
S rotate the handle to the cocked position
S push the door fully open using the assist handle
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 39 Door Opening from Inside

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Op from Ins|L1|A/B1 Page 79
AEROPLANES M11.3
OPENING FROM OUTSIDE

Although the emergency system is disarmed when you open the door from the
outside, you also need to make sure that the door is in manual. You have to
read the instructions first.
Afterwards you can start to open the door from outside.
You have to butterfly the handle before you can rotate it through 90°.
You have to rotate the handle through 90°. The next step is to check that the
girt bar locks are free of the floor brackets.
If they are not free you must close the door and ask for assistance, otherwise
the door operates in the emergency mode and can injure you.
The next step is to return the handle to the stowed and latched position flush
with the door. If the handle is not stowed and latched, the extended handle can
damage the fuselage skin when the door is fully opened.
Once the door is fully open with the hold open device engaged, you must verify
that the mode selector lever is in manual.
With the door fully open and the access cover open, you can insert the
lock−out pin.
The door is now held securely in the open position and the mode selector lever
is fixed in the manual position so you can enter the aircraft.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 40 Door Opening from Outside

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 03|Op from Out|L2|B1 Page 81
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Doors
AEROPLANES M11.3
Cargo Doors
CARGO DOOR TYPES
The forward, aft and bulk cargo doors allow the loading and unloading of
freight, equipment and baggage from the lower compartments.
The side and nose cargo door allows the loading and unloading of freight,
baggage and equipment from the main deck cargo compartment.
The forward, aft and side cargo doors open outwards and are operated
electrically or hydraulically.
The bulk cargo door is different from the other cargo doors; it opens inwards
and is operated manually.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 41 Cargo Doors

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 01|Cgo Dr Types|L1|A/B1 Page 83
AEROPLANES M11.3
BASIC CONSTRUCTION
Each door is an aluminium covered structure consisting of an outer skin,
internal frames, webs and stiffeners.
The structure of the aft, forward and side cargo door provides the door
suspension, the master latch lock mechanism, the latch mechanism and the
hook mechanism.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 02|Basic Con|L1|A/B1 Page 84

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 42 Cargo Door Structure

AEROPLANES M11.3
CENTERING ROLLER
A centering roller at the bottom of the side, forward and aft cargo doors enters
a fitting on the door sill to ensure alignment of the latches.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 43 Centering Roller

AEROPLANES M11.3
CARGO DOOR SUSPENSION

The cargo door suspension consists of hinge segments attached externally to
the top of the door and the fuselage.
Note that on Airbus aircraft, a piano hinge connects the top of the cargo door to
the fuselage.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 44 Cargo Door Suspension

AEROPLANES M11.3
BULK CARGO DOOR SUSPENSION

The suspension system of the bulk cargo door is different from that of the other
cargo doors. This cargo door is attached at its upper edge to the fuselage by 2
hinge arms.
The bulk cargo door suspension system consists of hinge arms attached to the
fuselage and door. A snubber connects the hinge arm and door to the ceiling of
the cargo compartment.
HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 05|Basic Con|L2|B1 Page 90

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 45 Bulck Cargo Door Suspension

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 05|Basic Con|L2|B1 Page 91
AEROPLANES M11.3
MASTER LATCH LOCK MECHANISM

Cargo door operation is significantly different from the operation of the main
entry doors.
The cargo door latching mechanism is designed to be fail−safe and
incorporates additional safety mechanisms and they are operated manually and
electrically while the main entry door system is manual only.
The master latch lock mechanism is a safety mechanism that locks the master
latch in position.
It operates 8 door lock sectors for the rotary latches. Note that there are 10
door lock sectors on the side cargo door.
The system also operates 2 pressure relief doors.
The master latch lock handles on the forward and aft cargo doors operate the
master latch lock mechanism.
The master latch lock system of the side cargo door can be operated by either
of 2 manual handles located in the same housing.
One handle is operated from outside. The other handle is operated from inside.
An interior handle retainer secures the inside handle. This prevents the door
from being unlocked and manually opened from outside the aircraft when the
upper cargo area is configured for passengers.
A word of warning: Do not operate the exterior handle unless the retainer
covering the interior handle is open. This is because the retainer prevents
movement of the interior handle so that the shear pin at the exterior handle
could be sheared.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 46 Handle Operation

AEROPLANES M11.3
Master Latch Lock Mechanism cont.

The master latch lock mechanism is actuated by the cargo door handle.
When the handle is rotated, the movement is transmitted to the master latch
lock torque tube and the relief door torque tube by the pushrods and cranks.
Rotation of the master latch lock torque tube operates the 8 lock sectors.
In addition the pressure relief doors open inward and provide pressure relief
between the outside and the fuselage interior.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 47 Master Latch Lock Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
DOOR OPERATION
The cargo door is electrically operated from outside by a control panel and also
from inside by a control panel.
To open the cargo door, you must check that the power on light is illuminated.
To open the door, you use the interior or exterior control switch.When you push
the control switch up the latches closed light goes out and the door is fully
opened. The door open light illuminates.
On an Airbus you can open the forward or aft cargo door only when the door is
unlocked. To open the door, you have to turn and hold the selector in the open
position.
An electric pump drives the door hydraulic system and opens the door by
means of actuators.
The door up light comes on in green when the door is fully open.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Boeing
Airbus
Figure 48 Cargo Door Control Panels

AEROPLANES M11.3
LOCKING HANDLE
The locking handle on the Airbus releases the cargo door safety mechanism for
cargo door open and closed operation.
It operates the safety vent door and drift pin and locking mechanisms.
The safety mechanism houses a safety shaft and 6 safety cams.
When you pull the locking handle away from the cargo door you can open it by
pulling.
When you pull the handle the safety shaft turns and the safety cams move
away from the locking hooks.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 49 Locking Handle Airbus

AEROPLANES M11.3
SAFETY SHAFT
The safety shaft also moves the vent door mechanism.
The vent door provides pressure relief by opening inward when the differential
pressure between inside and outside of the fuselage is greater than 1 psi.
A linkage transmits the movement of the safety shaft to the vent door and
opens and closes the door.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 50 Safety Shaft / Vent Door

AEROPLANES M11.3
HOOK MECHANISM
On Boeing aircraft the cargo door operation uses a hook and lifting
mechanisms.
The cargo door hook mechanism moves the door from fully closed to the open
position before the lift mechanism can lift the door to fully open.
The hooks are connected to the hook torque tube.
During closing, the hooks guide the cargo door into position before the latches
engage.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 51 Hook Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
LIFT MECHANISM
The lift mechanism on the side cargo door principally consists of:
S a lift power unit,
S gearbox and brake assemblies,
S rotary actuators and
S rotary actuator links.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 52 Lift Mechanism

AEROPLANES M11.3
OPENING AND LIFTING MECHANISM

On Airbus aircraft, the cargo door opening and lifting mechanism is
hydraulically operated.
The system includes:
S the duplex door actuators,
S 2 manual selector valves, 1 for each cargo door and
S 1 electro−manual selector.
The spring−loaded selector on the cargo door control panel controls the manual
selector valve.
When you hold the selector in the open position, the manual selector valve is in
extension mode.
It energizes the electric pump and supplies the door hydraulic system with fluid
from the yellow hydraulic system.
The fluid flows through the electro−manual selector valve on the yellow ground
service panel and through the manual selector valve to the door actuators
which extend and open the cargo door.
The electro−manual selector valve controls normal and manual operation of the
cargo door hydraulic system.
In normal mode the lever is in the ’E−Pump’ position. In this mode the electric
pump pressurizes the system.
In manual mode the lever is moved to the ’Hand Pump’ position. In this mode
you can pressurize the door hydraulic system with the hand pump.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 53 Cargo Door Opening & Lifting Mechanism

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Windows
AEROPLANES M11.3
WINDOWS
Introduction
The aircraft windows are:
S the cockpit windows,
S the cabin windows and
S the observer windows.
All windows allow maximum visibility for the passengers and the flight crew and
they also have to hold cabin pressure.
The cockpit windows give additional protection against bird impact and ice
build−up.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 54 Windows
AEROPLANES M11.3
Cockpit windows
Cockpit windows are found at the forward section of the aircraft. There are
normally 6 cockpit windows on most modern aircraft which are evenly spaced
around the flight deck compartment. The cockpit windows are mostly
symmetrically numbered as window 1 left and 1 right and window 2 left and 2
right and window 3 left and 3 right.
Generally, the 2 forward cockpit windows are known as flight deck windshields.
The side windows number 2 are located on either side of the cockpit
compartment. On most aircraft types they are able to slide open. These
windows can be used as flight crew emergency exits and also give the crew a
direct vision on ground.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 55 Cockpit Windows

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Windows construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
Cockpit Windows cont.

All of the cockpit windows are made up of several layers of different materials
to form a laminated construction.
Thermally strengthened glass is very hard glass and is found on the outer side
of the cockpit windshields.
The 2 inner layers of the windshields are made of a chemically strengthened
glass which is a type of special acrylic glass which is hard and elastic.
All the layers of glass are bonded together by a special plastic, called
polyurethane.
A heating film on all cockpit windows located on the inner surface of the outer
glass provides an anti−ice and defogging system. The heating film is an
invisible conductor coating which heats up the window panels as electricity
flows through it.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 56 Layers of Windshields

AEROPLANES M11.3

The fixed windows number 3 and sliding windows number 2 are built up of 2
layers of stretched acrylic glass. The sliding windows are installed from inside
of the cockpit compartment. They move on rails.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 57 Layers of Windows

AEROPLANES M11.3

The fixed windows and the windshields are installed externally and placed
directly on to the frame of the aircraft structure.
The cockpit windshields are attached to the frame on the fuselage structure.
A second frame, called a retainer, is clamped to the panes and to the first
frame with bolts.
The acrylic panes of the fixed windows number 3 are mounted on a removable
frame which is bolted to the window frame of the fuselage structure.
One last point about the construction of the cockpit windows is that a silicon
seal is placed between the windows and the frame to bond them together.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 58 Window Mounting

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Cabin windows
Cabin windows are located on either side of the passenger compartment of the
aircraft. They are designed to allow the passengers to see through them and
also to hold in cabin pressure. They also help to protect the passenger from
bad weather such as rain and hail. These windows are attached to frames
which are part of the fuselage. The window frame is riveted to the inner surface
of the fuselage skin.
The frame holds 2 panes of glass in place and carries the loads from the
aircraft structure.
Cabin windows are installed with a seal from the inner side of the fuselage into
the window frame by a retainer ring with nuts and bolts. The cabin windows
have 2 panes, an inner pane and an outer pane. The 2 panes of glass are
made of special acrylic glass and are designed to hold differential pressure.
The inner pane has a small vent hole in the center near the bottom. This hole
makes sure that during normal operation, the pressure between the panes is
the same as the cabin pressure. In case the outer pane fails, the inner pane
can carry the full differential pressure if the outer pane brakes.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 59 Cabin Windows

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.2 WINGS (ATA 57)

introduction
The main function of the wing is to create lift which keeps the aircraft in flight.
The wings also store fuel for flight and house the fuel system components.
They also give support for the engines and flight controls and other systems.
The wing structure usually has 3 main areas. These are:
S the left,
S the center and
S right wing boxes.
They are permanently joined together to form the mainframe of the wing and
the function of this mainframe is to transmit various loads to the fuselage
structure.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 60 Wing Structure

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction and fuel storage
AEROPLANES M11.3
Outer wing boxes

The main components of the left and right wing boxes are the rear spar and
front spar which form the walls of the fuel tank designed to contain the fuel,
ribs, upper and lower stringers and upper and lower skin panels.
The areas within the wing boxes are constructed as fluid-tight compartments as
they will be used for storing fuel.
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction and fuel storage
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 61 Outer Wing Box

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
Skin panels
The skin panels form the exterior surface of the wing and they are reinforced
by stringers on the inner surface of the skin. The thickness of the wing skin
panel is tapered and decrease in the outboard direction. The upper skin panel
carries mainly compression loads and is made of aluminium-zinc alloy. The
lower skin panel carries mainly tension loads to the fuselage structure and is
made of a aluminium-copper alloy.
Usually, lower wing skin panels have access doors and openings located
between the wing ribs.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 62 Skin Panels

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Spars
The wing front and rear spars are designed to carry loads. They are connected
to the lower and upper skin panels by rivets and bolts.
The distance between the spars tapering outward, toward the wing tips.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 63 Wing Spar

AEROPLANES M11.3
Spars cont.
The front spar is a beam with vertical stiffeners, upper and lower chord angles
and a spar web.
Vertical stiffeners are attached to the 2 sides of the spar web and supply a way
of attaching the leading and trailing edge ribs. They also give more rigidity.
Chord angles are attached to the spar web, vertical stiffeners and ribs with
bolts.
The spar web is a plate that is located beside the upper and lower wing skin
panels and forms the forward end of the wing box.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 64 Wing Front Spar

HAM US/F-5 KhA 01.04.2008 05|Spars|L2|B1 Page 129
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction and landing gear attachments
AEROPLANES M11.3
Spars cont.
The rear spar is constructed in a similar way to the front spar. In addition, you
find the landing gear support arm sometimes is called the „false rear spar“.
The landing gear support arm distributes the aft main landing gear loads to the
wing rear spar and the fuselage structure.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction and landing gear attachments
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 65 Wing Rear Spar

AEROPLANES M11.3
Ribs
Ribs lie diagonally and adjacent in the wing box depending on the aircraft type.
Ribs are able to carry torsion, compression and shear loads and also give
shape to the wing and provide walls for the fuel tanks.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 66 Ribs
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wings construction and high lift attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Leading edge
The leading edge structure is at the forward end of the wing profile and
supports the flaps and slats structure, depending on the aircraft type.
The leading edge structure has stiffeners, ribs and an upper and lower skin
panel. In general, the skin panel is made of a composite material in order to
save weight.
The nose cap of the leading edge structure is made of an aluminium alloy.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 67 Wing Leading Edge

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Trailing edge
The trailing edge is the aft end of the wing profile. The trailing edge structure
supports the flight controls and their operation and other aircraft system
equipment, tubing cables and wiring. The trailing edge structure is made of
ribs, stiffeners, beams and skin panels.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 68 Wing Trailing Edge

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Trailing Edge cont...

Here you can see a winglet on a Boeing aircraft and a wing tip fence of an
Airbus. Both are aerodynamics devices to improve the performance of the wing
in terms of increasing the lift and reducing the drag.
They are attached to the end of the wing by special fittings that are part of the
end rib of the wing. They are made of spars and ribs enclosed by skin which is
the standard method used to construct wing forces and winglets.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 69 Wing Trailing Edge Examples

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Center wing box

The center wing box distributes different loads to the fuselage and can also
house a fuel tank. It also supports the fuselage and the left and right wing
boxes.
The center wing box is made of a front spar and rear spar and upper and lower
skin panels.
The outboard sides of the center wing box are constructed with wing−to−body
ribs. This position forms the inboard end of the left and right wing boxes.
The skin panels are reinforced by stringers which are joined to the left and right
wing skin panel stringers.
The center wing box is reinforced by beams with stiffened webs which are
attached to the upper and lower skin panels.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 70 Center Wing Box

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Stabilisers construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.3 STABILIZER (ATA 55)

Introduction
The empennage is an unpressurised area and consists of:
S a vertical stabilizer,
S dorsal fin and rudders,
S horizontal stabilizers and elevators and
S a tail section with a tail cone.
The tail section has attachment fittings for the vertical stabilizer, the tail cone
and the horizontal stabilizer.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 71 Tail Section

AEROPLANES M11.3
Introduction cont.
The tail cone forms the aft end of the fuselage and as you can see is made of
frames, stringers and skin panels riveted together.
The tail cone is a removable single unit, which has an APU compartment,
access doors for dismantling and inspection of the APU and provides APU air
intake and exhaust.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 72 Tail Cone

AEROPLANES M11.3
Horizontal stabilizer
Horizontal stabilizers allow pitch trim control and on some aircraft can be used
as a fuel tank. The horizontal stabilizer can be constructed as a single piece
structure or as a 3 piece structure.
Here you see a single piece horizontal stabilizer, this type of structure has
structure boxes that are joined to a center joint rib and extend outboard from
this rib.
There is also a removable leading edge, a hinged elevator and a tip bolted onto
the end of the structure box.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 73 Horizontal Stabilizer (Single Piece Structure)

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Control surface attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3

The 3 piece structure of the horizontal stabilizer has a left and a right outboard
section, which are attached to a stabilizer center section.
The outboard section has a forward and aft torque box, removable leading
edge and fixed trailing edge. The leading edge is on the forward end of the
stabilizer profile and carries loads through the stabilizer center section to the
fuselage.
Usually, the forward torque box structure has a front spar, ribs and an auxiliary
spar which is constructed like the front spar.
The aft torque box structure is similar to the forward torque box construction.
The fixed trailing edge forms the aft end of the stabilizer profile. It supports the
hinged elevator with a hinge fitting and carries loads through the stabilizer
center section to the fuselage
Here you can see that the inboard elevator and outboard elevator move
separately to give pitch control. On other aircraft you may find only 1 elevator
on each side. These elevators are attached by hinge fittings to the fixed trailing
edge and the structure is constructed like the stabilizer.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 74 Horizontal Stabilizer (3 Piece Structure)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Vertical stabilizer
The vertical stabilizer is located on the top of the tail section. You frequently
find that the vertical stabilizer, which is also known as the fin, has a forward
and aft torque box, a fin leading edge and a fin tip assembly.
The movable rudders are attached to the trailing edge of the fixed vertical
stabilizer. The rudders provide the aircraft with directional control.
You may already have realised that the rudder structure is similar to the
elevator structure.
You can see here that the vertical stabilizer also has a rib structure.
The fin tip is located at the upper end of the vertical stabilizer.
The dorsal fin is used to join the vertical stabilizer smoothly to the fuselage and
is constructed of machined aluminium skin, small ribs and on some aircraft of
composite material.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 75 Vertical Stabilizer

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Construction and attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES (ATA 55/57)

Surface Hinges
Hinges connect the flight control surfaces to the adjacent structure.
Each of the hinges has a hinge support on the adjacent structure. In this
example there are 5 hinge supports on the wing structure, each connected to
the aileron by a hinge.
1 of the hinges is a primary or master hinge, and the other 1 is a normal hinge.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 76 Control Surfaces (Hinges)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Surface hinges cont.

The components of all surface hinges include:
S the ball bearings, which compensate for misalignment,
S a fail safe bolt consisting of an outer bolt and an inner bolt, each capable of
holding the full load of the surface if the other 1 is damaged or broken,
S and sleeves, which prevent an overstress of the left and right hinge forks if
the failsafe bolt is tightened.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 77 Components of Surface Hinges

AEROPLANES M11.3
Surface hinges cont.

The primary hinge has a fixed position in relation to the right hinge fork.
Unlike the normal hinge, the primary hinge only has 1 sleeve. This sleeve
prevents the left hinge fork from overstress when the failsafe bolt is tightened.
A spacer is used to hold the right hinge fork, and therefore the control surface,
in position.
The normal hinge has 2 sleeves. The sleeves prevent a fixed position in
relation to the hinge forks and allow the normal hinge to compensate for
surface expansion and contraction due to temperature changes.
Note, the sleeves are different and you must take care to install the correct
sleeve in the correct place.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 78 Position of Sleeves

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Balacing-mass and aerodynamic
AEROPLANES M11.3
Surface flutter
Control surfaces have a tendency to flutter during flight. Surface flutter results
from the competition between
S the down−going tendency of a surface with a center of gravity such as this,
and
S the up−going effects of the airloads.
Surface flutter is prevented if the control surface is hydraulically powered or by
static balancing if the control surface is mechanically operated.
With static balancing, balance weights are fitted in front of the hinge line to
offset the mass of the surface behind the hinge line. The surface is balanced
when the center of gravity coincides with the hinge line.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 79 Surface Flutter

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Static Balancing
Repairs to the flight control surface usually increase the weight behind the
hinge line and require the static balancing to be adjusted.
The surface is removed from the aircraft and set in a horizontal position.
It is supported on its bearings by a special frame and at the trailing edge by a
weighing scale.
Adjustable balance weights are added to the surface until the scale reads zero.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Surface Bearing
Surface Repair
Figure 80 Static Balancing

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AEROPLANES M11.3
Deflection Angles
In this part of the lesson you will learn how the deflection angles of a control
surface are measured.
The deflection angle of this aileron is
S the angle between the wing reference plane, or airfoil chord, and
S the surface reference plane, or surface chord.
The deflection angle of all control surfaces is measured in relation to the zero
position. In the zero position the wing reference plane is aligned with the
surface reference plane.
Surfaces such as this aileron are in the zero position when the surface is flush
with the adjacent airfoil.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 81 Deflection Angle

AEROPLANES M11.3
Deflection angles cont.

Other surfaces, such as the elevators and rudder, require an index plate to
establish the zero position.
The zero position for this elevator occurs when the trailing edge is aligned with
the zero mark on the index plate.
Note that before the elevator can be in the zero position the movable stabilizer
must also be in the zero position.
When the zero position is established, the deflection angle can be measured by
using an inclinometer, or by measuring the distance between the zero position
and the surface trailing edge with a linear rule.
When the deflection angles are measured, they can be checked against the
required surface deflection angles as stated in the aircraft maintenance
manual.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 82 Establishing Zero Position

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Flight control surfaces
AEROPLANES M11.3
Safety precautions
Safety precautions must be taken when working with flight control surfaces.
Surfaces move rapidly when they are actuated and this can be very dangerous.
It is important to ensure that the travel range of the surfaces being worked on
is free of personnel and equipment. This reduces the risk of injury and also the
risk of damaging the surface.
Safety devices, such as this one on the spoiler actuator, should be installed to
prevent inadvertent retraction of an extended surface
Warning notices should be displayed on the cockpit controls when work is in
progress on the associated actuators or surfaces.
It is also important to ensure that adequate interphone contact is maintained
between the personnel operating the controls in the cockpit and the personnel
working on the surfaces.
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Flight control surfaces
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 83 Safety Precautions

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Nacelles/Pylons construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.5 NACELLES / PYLONS (ATA 54)

Introduction
The pylon is located under each wing of the aircraft and has different functions.
It supports the engines which are on each wing, supports and routes systems
between the engine and the wing, but the main function is to carry all the loads
from the engine to the torque box.
The pylon which is also known as the strut is usually constructed with a frame
and skin structure. These are riveted and bonded together to form a nacelle
strut assembly. Furthermore, the strut assembly is divided into a primary and a
secondary structure. The nacelle strut assembly has a torque box, firewall and
fireseal, fairings, strut drains, fan cowl support beam and engine attach fittings.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 84 Pylon and Nacelle

AEROPLANES M11.3
Construction
The torque box belongs to the primary structure and consists mainly of spars,
ribs, stiffeners and skin panels like other main structure components. The
torque box has a bearing and engine attach fittings.
The torque box is attached to 3 areas on the wing which are the 2 forward
pylon attach fittings and 1 aft pylon attach fitting.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 85 Torque Box

AEROPLANES M11.3
Construction cont.
The forward pylon−attach fittings are bolted to 2 sets of twin links. The twin
links are bolted to fittings that are attached to the wing front spar. The aft pylon
attach fitting is made by 2 shackles.The shackles are connected with bolts to
beams fixed on to the wing.
The forward pylon attach fittings transmit weight and lateral loads, while the aft
pylon attach fitting transmits weight and longitudinal loads.
The bearing is found in the upper spar of the torque box behind the forward
attach fitting. The bearing transmits lateral and longitudinal loads between the
pylon and the wing and engages a spigot which is fixed to the lower wing
surface.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 86 Torque Box

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Engine mounting
AEROPLANES M11.3
Engine mounting
The fan cowl support beam extends forward of the torque box and is bolted by
a link and attach fittings to the forward end of the torque box. It supports the
fan cowl by hinge fittings and also distributes different loads through the beam
to the torque box.
The wing−to−nacelle fairings are attached to the pylon to provide a low−drag
aerodynamic profile between the engine nacelle and the wing.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Engine mounting
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 87 Fan Cowl Support Box

AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.1 FUSELAGE (ATA 52/53/56)

Fuselage Construction
General
Most fuselage of transport aircraft are semi−monocoque structures. It is
shaped by a number of frames and stringers that keep each other at the co-
rect distance.
The skin panel is attached to these stringers by means of rivets or adhesive.
Sheets of different thicknesses are used. The big advantage of these fuselage
constructions is that an area is created that is not blocked anywhere by extra
means of strengthening. Extra means of strengthening are only necessary at
those places where large forces are transmitted.
This is the case at places where wings, tail surfaces, engines and landing
gears are attached to the fuselage. In addition, this occurs at those places
where weak spots are created in the construction as a result of missing frames
and stringers, as at doors, windows and hatches. Special strengthening is used
at those places in the fuselage where the area is used for stowing the retracted
landing gears.
The fuselage is made of separate assemblies which are riveted together. The
cabin floor structure divides the fuselage into two areas, the main deck and the
lower deck. The main deck includes the cockpit and the cabin. The lower deck
normally includes the avionics compartments, the landing gear bays and the
fwd., aft and bulk cargo compartments. Support struts and crossbeams support
the cabin floor structure.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 88 Fuselage Construction (A320)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Differential Construction
The Differential Construction method involves many small parts assembled
with numerous mechanical fasteners. It is used in the conventional metal
construction of airframes.
It is a heavy construction method but it has very good crackstopping properties
due to the natural boundaries of each assembled part. In addition it is also a
silent construction because the sound and the vibrations generated by the
engine will be absorbed more efficient compared to the Integral Construction
Method.
Integral Construction
The Integral Construction method combines several single parts in only one
part. This can be achieved by milling of frames, ribs, fittings, etc. out of one
solid block of material.
All crackstopping elements as well as stiffening elements are incorporated in
on single part.
It is a very lightweight construction method but it is not easy to repair. Very
often a replacement is necessary because these complex parts are not
repairable or a repair is too expensive.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Differential Construction Integral Construction
Figure 89 Differential and Integral Construction

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Pressurisation sealing
AEROPLANES M11.3
Pressurization Sealing
To make it possible to use pressurized cabins, the front and rear of the
fuselage construction and the landing gear areas are closed off by a pressure
bulkhead. The cockpit, the cabin, the avionics compartment and the cargo
compartments are normally pressurized. The radome, the wing center box, the
landing gear bays, the belly fairing and the cone/rear fuselage are normally not
pressurized.
It would be impractical to build the pressure vessel of an aircraft that is airtight,
as pressurisation is accomplished by flowing more air into the cabin than is
needed and allowing the excess air to leak out.
There are two types of leakage in an aircraft pressure vessel; controlled and
uncontrolled.
S The uncontrolled leakage
− A leakage in which air escapes around door and window seals, control
cables and other openings in the sealed portion of the structure.
S The controlled leakage
− A leakage through the outflow valve and the safety valve. This controlled
leakage is far more than the uncontrolled and it determines the amount
of pressure in the cabin. Pressurisation control systems can be of the
pneumatic or electronic type, with the electronic type incorporating
electrically controlled outflow valves.
Butt Joint Sealing

The construction of this type of joint is such that a forward skin panel and aft
skin panel are joined together by an internal butt strap.
When this joint is assembled, there is a gap between the forward skin panel
and aft skin panel this gap is filled with what is commonly referred to as a fillet
seal. This type of joint allows for the expansion and contraction of the fuselage
and at the same time providing adequate pressurisation sealing.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Butt Joint Section 15/21 Aft Pressure Dome Sect. 19
Butt Joint (Section view)
Figure 90 Pressurization Sealing I

AEROPLANES M11.3
Lap Joint Sealing

The construction of this type of joint is such that the upper skin panel overlaps
the lower skin panel. During the assembly of the joint the upper skin and lower
skin area of contact has a faying surface seal applied to it.
The joint is then made while the sealant is still wet. This kind of connection is
used to join the skin panels together at the longitudinal edge.
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AEROPLANES M11.3
Lap Joint (Section view)

Lap Joint Section 15
Figure 91 Pressurization Sealing II

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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wing attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Fuselage to Wing Attachments

Integral Wing Attachment
Most big aeroplanes are designed with this kind of wing attachment.
The wing center box structure extends across the width of the fuselage and is a
continuation of the wing cantilever box. The wing box is usually attached to two
primary frames of the fuselage (on Airbus Section 15/21), they are also part of
the wing center−box structure.
This frames are normally made of aluminium alloy and of integral kind
(machined milled). The attachment of the Wings itself is reached by means of
bolting with Taper-Lok Fatener.
The wing box distributes the wing loads in the fuselage and can form an
optional integral fuel tank.
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AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Wing attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Integral Frame
Wing Center Box
Wing Attachment Splices Cruciform Fitting

Section 15/21
Rib No.1
Figure 92 Fuselage Wing Attachment (Airbus typical)

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Stabiliser attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Fuselage to Stabilizer Attachments

Horizontal Stabilizer
Modern high−speed transport category aeroplanes have adopted the use of an
adjustable stabilizer. The aft portion of the stabilizer incorporates hinge
assembles that are attached to the fuselage structure. The forward section of
the stabilizer has a drive mechanism, which changes the pitch of the stabilizer.
Vertical Stabilizer
One method of construction is to attach the vertical stabilizer fore and aft spars
to the fuselage by use of fittings. These fittings may be permanent or allow for
the vertical stabilizer to be removed.
Another method used is to make the vertical stabiliser an integral part of the aft
fuselage. The vertical stabilizer spars enter the fuselage and become part of
the aft fuselage frames. The skin panels of the vertical stabiliser tie directly
onto the skin panels of the fuselage.

AEROPLANES M11.3
A320 Tail Section

Figure 93 Fuselage Stabilizer Attachment (Airbus typical)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Fitting Installation Rear Bearing
THS Center Joint

Fitting Installation Center Joint
Figure 94 THS Attachment Fittings (A320)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Vertical Stabilizer Spar Box

Vertical Stabilizer Attachment Fitting
A320 Tail Cone
Figure 95 Vertical Stabilizer Attachment Fittings (A320)

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Undercarriage attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Landing Gear Attachments

General
The landing gear loads are the largest loads on the aircraft. For this reason, the
transfer of these loads to the fuselage shell requires extensive local
reinforcement.
The wing spars along with additional structural members, support and attach
the main landing gear to the wings on larger transport aircraft. The retractable
landing gear system is required to move, the upper shock strut is supported by
trunnion fittings. These are shafts that fit to the shock strut and pass through
fittings, which are bolted to the fuselage.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Undercarriage attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
MLG Pintle Fitting
MLG Side Stay Fitting

Side Stay Fitting Pintle Fitting
Figure 96 Fuselage Main Landing Gear Attachment

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Seat installation
AEROPLANES M11.3
Seat Installation
General
Seats in the main passenger cabin consist mainly of multiple assemblies,
however at some locations single passenger seats are installed.
Passenger seating in the passenger compartment has various configurations.
These configurations may contain economy seats, first class sleepers,
business class single swivel passenger seats, first class sleeper seats,
track−mounted single attendant seats and wall−mounted double crew seats.
Passenger Seats
The various passenger seats consist of an aluminum riveted and welded frame
with supporting legs and braces, individual movable seatbacks and bottoms
each with a recline control mechanism, underseat baggage retainers,
adjustable headrests and an integral table located in the rear of each seatback.
Seatbacks are individually adjustable from the fully upright to fully recline
position or any intermediate position. Movement of the seatback is controlled
by a mechanical lock which is actuated by a control located at the front inside
of the right−hand and left−hand armrest.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 97 Seat Arrangment and Layout

AEROPLANES M11.3
Passenger Seat Installation

All passenger seats are secured by attachment to the seat tracks in the floor.
The tracks are continuous extrusions with circular cutouts which receive the
seat attachment fittings and allow the seats to be positioned in various seat
spacing arrangements in 1−inch increments.
The seat is securely locked to the floor tracks by a plunger handle. This handle,
when set into the matching cutouts on the floor tracks, properly aligns the
fittings to provide positive indexing to the lips of the floor track and assures
restraint of the seat.
Installation Sequence
S Put the seat assembly in position on the seat tracks.
S Make sure that the track fittings and the front studs are correctly engaged in
the seat tracks.
S Move the seat assembly forward or rearward to align it with the marks on
the seat tracks.
S Move the seat assembly forward or rearward to align it with the marks on
the seat tracks.
S Torque the screws.
WARNING: MAKE SURE THAT THERE IS NO PLAY BETWEEN THE
SEATLOCKS AND THE SEAT TRACKS. IF THE SEAT
BECOMES LOOSE, IT CAN CAUSE INJURY TO
PASSENGERS OR DAMAGE TO THE SEAT.
S Torque the screws and the anti−rattle nuts to between 35 and 55 lbf.in
(0.39 and 0.62 m.daN)
S Put a mark on the screws and the track fittings with paint.
S Install the seat track covers into the seat track.
HAM US/O LaS Apr 12, 2013 09|M11.3.1|L2|B1 Page 194

AEROPLANES M11.3
Economy-Class Seats- Example 1
Economy-Class Seats
Economy-Class Seats- Example 2
Figure 98 Seat Installation

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Cargo loading system
AEROPLANES M11.3
Cargo loading systems

General
The containerized cargo compartments of an Aircraft are normally equipped
with a powered cargo handling system for loading and unloading containerized
and palletized cargo. The system provides for movement and control of cargo
in both lateral (in and out of airplane) and longitudinal (fore and aft) directions.
Linings
The FWD and AFT cargo compartment have floor panels and linings. The
linings keep smoke in the compartments and prevent damage to the lines and
electrical wires.
Cargo Loading System
A semi−automatic cargo loading system to transport pallets and containers
(unit load devices) is installed in the FWD and AFT cargo compartments.
It is also possible to load loose baggage and bulk cargo (occasional/bulk
loading) together with the unit load devices (ULD) in the FWD and/or AFT
cargo compartment.
The semi−automatic cargo loading system have normally the same
components and operate in an equivalent manner.
Each semi−automatic cargo loading system is controlled from a control panel
installed on the FWD and AFT cargo compartment doors. One man is sufficient
to operate the semi−automatic cargo loading system.
The FWD and AFT cargo compartments have electrically controlled power
drive units which move the ULD to and from their loading bays. The ULD are
moved one at a time. The FWD and AFT cargo compartments have manually
operated latches which hold the ULD in place.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 99 Cargo Compartments A320

AEROPLANES M11.3
Cargo Handling System Components

General
Cargo movement and control is accomplished through the interaction of the
following subsystems which constitutes the cargo handling system.
Power Drive Units

S Power drive units (PDU) are installed in the FWD and AFT cargo
compartments.The motor is a three−phase squirrel−cage motor with a
thermal overlaod protection. The motor operates with 115/200 V AC, 400
Hz. All drive units are identical and interchangeable, the drive unit motor
may be replaced as a separate item.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 100 Power Drive Units (PDU)

AEROPLANES M11.3
Roller Tracks
S Where only longitudinal movement is required, parallel rows of roller tracks
are installed. Each tray contains transport roller assemblies at intervals of
approximately 10 inches.
Transport Roller
S A transport roller assembly is a section of aluminum tube which has ball
races and a spindle. A retaining plate is on one end of the spindle. The
retaining plate prevents that the spindle turns together with the roller. A
washer and a cotter pin attach the spindle on the opposite side of the roller
track.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 101 Roller Track

AEROPLANES M11.3
Ball Transfer Panels

S Ball transfer panels make a low friction surface in the cargo door bays of
both cargo compartments and permit both lateral and longitudinal cargo
movement. The panels consist of metal supporting structure mounting rows
of rollers. Each ball is spring−loaded, rides on ball bearings, and is secured
in a cup−shaped housing by a retainer plate. The assembly of spring, ball,
casing and retainer form a self−contained unit which snaps into holes in the
panels.
Doorsill Rollers
S Doorsill rollers, 2−1/2 inches in diameter, are located in the doorway of each
container compartment. These rollers provide a rolling surface at the sill for
containers moving into and out of the compartments. The rollers also
provide an assist in those cases where ground handling equipment does not
align correctly with the airplane doorsill.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 102 Doorsill Roller

AEROPLANES M11.3
Door Sill Latches

The functions of the door sill latches are to prevent the accidental roll−out of a
ULD, to lock a ULD in its position and to hold the ULD vertical with the guide−in
roller.
Manually operated YZ−Latch

The manually operated YZ−latch locks the ULD in the door area in position.
When the YZ−latch is lifted, a spring pushes on a pawl which locks the
YZ−latch in position. When you push the release lever on the side of the door
sill latch down, the pawl disengages and permits a spring to lower the YZ−latch
manually until the pawl locks it in position. When the YZ−latch moves, it
operates a limit switch.
Overridable Y−Latch
A ULD can move over the Y−latch, but only in the load direction.
The ULD pushes the Y−latch down. A spring lifts the Y−latch again when the
ULD is moved away. Thus the latch prevents the accidental roll−out of a ULD.
To unload a ULD you must lower the Y−latch. To lower the Y−latch electrically,
you operate the SILL LATCH switch on the control panel. When you operate
the SILL LATCH switch, the electric motor of the actuator starts to turn and
lowers the Y−latch through an actuating mechanism.
If an electrical malfunction occurs, you can lower the Y−latch manually. To
lower the Y−latch manually, operate the manual door−sill latch lever which is
installed between the door sill latches.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Overridable Y-Latches
Door Sill Latch
Figure 103 Door Sill Latches

AEROPLANES M11.3
Fixed YZ-Latches
The fixed YZ−latches are on each frame at the sidewalls of the FWD and AFT
cargo compartments. On some of the YZ−latches, a transport roller is installed
which functions as a roller track.
The latches hold the ULD in the Y and Z directions. A vertical roller in the latch
is a guide in the X direction. On the top of each fixed YZ−latch there is a
tie−down point which has a load capacity of 2000 lb (907.1840 Kg) in any
direction.
Fixed YZ−latches without a transport roller are on the frames opposite the
cargo compartment doors in the ball mat areas. They are equivalent to the
YZ−latches with the transport roller.
Continuous Side Guides

YZ−guide rails are installed between the fixed YZ−latches on the left and right
sides of the FWD and AFT cargo compartments. The YZ−guide rails between
the fixed YZ−latches give a continuous side guide.
The continuous side guide permits an easier movement of ULD without a
baseplate deformation. It also prevents damage to the floor panels which are
not level.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 104 Fixed and Single Latches

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Windscreen construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
Windows
General Side Windows
Aeroplane windows are divided into two groups: The side windows consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics just as the
S Flight deck windows windshields. In the case that side windows can be heated (against fogging
over), the heating element is between the inside window and the synthetic
S Cabin windows.
layer.
Flight deck windows consist of several layers of glass and plastics. Cabin
windows are made completely of plastic. They are double windows for those Sliding Windows
aeroplane types with a pressurized cabin. The cockpit of most transport category aeroplanes includes two sliding
windows (left and right) installed at both sides.
Flightdeck Windows
The flight crew can use these sliding windows as an emergency exit.
The flight deck windows are divided into two kinds:
− die Scheibe gegen beschlagen schützt.
S Windshield (front windows)
Ungleichmäßige Erwärmung, Ausdehnung und Schrumpfung, nachlässige
S Side windows.
Montage, UV−Strahlen, Druckunterschiede und einsickern von Wasser durch
The requirements that flight deck windows must meet are significantly more Luftfeuchtigkeit über Lecks in den Fensterdichtungen können alle zu
severe than the requirements for cabin windows. This is understandable Delamination (Schichtenablösung), Ablätterung, Reißen oder Brechen führen.
because the safety of the flight crew must be guaranteed under all
circumstances. Windshields consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics.
There is a heating element between the outside window and the plastic layer.
The heating element is made of gold, tin oxide or indium oxide. The outside
window has a stiff, hard, scratch resistant layer. The synthetic middle layer
keeps splinters from being spread in the flight deck if the inside window breaks.
Heating the windshields is necessary because:
− it increases the flexibility of the windshields;
− it keeps the windows free of ice;
− it keeps the windows from fogging over.
Uneven heating, expansion and shrinkage, careless installation, ultraviolet

rays, pressure differences and seeping in of humidity via leaks in the window
seals can all lead to delamination (the layers come loose), pealing, tearing or
breaking.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Windscreen construction
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 105 Flightdeck Windows Construction

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Landing gear attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.2 WINGS (ATA57)

WING TO LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT
Landing Gear Attachments

The wing support structure for the landing gear has to be strengthened in order
to accommodate the landing gear loads. The front trunnion of the landing gear
can be attached to the rear spar of the wing.
If the landing gear is attached in this manner, a support structure for the
landing gear rear trunnion will be necessary, this may be a gear wing beam or
may be an extra wing spar. This spar is called a false spar.
Pintle Fitting
The forward attachment point for the MLG is the pintle fitting. The pintle fitting
is made from titanium alloy and is attached to the aft face of the rear spar.
Side−Stay Fitting
The side−stay fitting is made from aluminum alloy.It is attached to the aft face
of the rear spar.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Landing gear attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 106 Wing Landing Gear Attachments

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Pylon attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
WING TO PYLON ATTACHMENT
Wing to Pylon Attachment by Upper Support Arm

The Pylon attachment on modern transport aircraft is done by an Upper
support arm construction design.
It is the most efficient structure to react the moment loads due to the
overhanged engine; the moment arm A−D is obviously greater than A−B and,
therefore, a lighter structure is achieved. The most efficient configuration
transfers the engine moment loads into the wing box structure and therefore
further weight saving is obtained. This benefits the design of engine position
closer to the wing lower surface for the purpose of engine−to−ground
clearance. It inherently has the structural fail−safe feature due to the redundant
design. The engine position can be located further forward without severe
structural weight penalty.
Wing to Pylon Attachment by Box Beam Design

The pylon box beam design, which is to extend the box structure beyond the
wing front spar fitting and ends at the aft pylon fitting, which is attached
between the wing front and rear spars. This design puts more weight on the
pylon, but save weight on the wing box and minimise some potential fatigue
problems at the wing lower surface.
The pylon is attached to the wing, through a fitting on the wing front spar for
vertical and side loads, to a fitting beneath the front spar on the wing lower
surface for thrust loads, and to a fitting attached to wing box structure on the
wing lower surface at the end of the pylon for vertical and side bending loads.

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - Pylon attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 107 Wing to Pylon Attachment

AEROPLANES M11.3
WING TO AILERON ATTACHMENT
General (Airbus)
Two inboard and outboard ailerons are provided on each wing. Tehy are
connected with two electrohydraulic servocontrols actuate each aileron.
In manual roll control mode, the aileron control is performed from the side
sticks which send electrical signals to the Flight Control Primary Computers
and Flight Control Secondary Computer. The computers generate command
orders to the servo controls, depending on the different control laws.
At high speed, the outboard ailerons are not used, only the turbulence damping
function is available.
On ground, with hydraulic systems not pressurized, the ailerons may or may
not droop down to the servocontrol stop depending on the scatter of bearing
and seal friction.
Each aileron is actuated by one servo control in the active mode while the other
is in the damping mode. In normal configuration,the outer servo control of each
aileron is in the active mode. The active mode permits the actuation of the
aileron depending on electrical orders. The damping mode prevents the
appearance of flutter in the event of multiple failures (mainly dual electrical
failure,dual hydraulic failure).
The ailerons are manufactured of composite material and are connected to the
fixed structure of the rear spar by means of bearings.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Aileron
Figure 108 Aileron Attachment (Airbus typical)

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - High lift/drag attachment
AEROPLANES M11.3
WING TO SPOILER ATTACHMENT
General (Airbus)
Spoilers are installed on the rear upper surface of each wing. They are used in
different configurations for:
S Roll control
S Speed brake and ground spoiler function
S Manoeuvre load alleviation
The spoilers are operated by a servocontrols. The servocontrols are
electrohydraulic units. They are operated hydraulically and controlled
electrically. The servocontrols are all the same size but have different lengths
of travel.
Spoilers are manufactured mainly of Composite sandwich material. The
attachment to the Spoiler actuators is done by means of a fitting and a bearing
made of Aluminium and Steel.
All loads will be transferred by the fitting and smoothly directed into the
composite structure.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Attachment Fitting Spoiler /

Rear Spar and Actuator
Spoiler Actuator Spoiler
Figure 109 Spoiler Attachment (Airbus typical)

AEROPLANES M11.3
WING TO FLAP ATTACHMENT
Flaps
The aircraft has flaps and slats for high−lift control. Two single−element flaps
are installed on tracks on the trailing edge of each wing. They are referred to
as the inboard and the outboard flap. The operation of the flaps is
hydro−mechanical.
A hydraulic Power Control Unit supplies the power necessary to operate the
flaps on each wing. A mechanical transmission system transmits the power to
the rotary actuators, which move the flaps on the tracks.
Carriages,which are installed on tracks, hold the flaps. The tracks are attached
to beams which are installed below the wing torque box. Each inboard flap is
supported on two tracks, each outboard flap is supported on three tracks.
Slats
Seven single−element slats are installed on each wing. Together with the flaps
they are used for lift augmentation.The slats are installed on tracks which are
attached to the leading edge of each wing.
The operation of the slats is hydro−mechanical.A hydraulic Power Control Unit
moves the mechanical transmission system which operates the slats on each
wing.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 110 Flap Attachment (Airbus typical)

AEROPLANES M11.3
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK


AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 111 Slat Attachment (Airbus typical)

AEROPLANES M11.3
M11.3.3 STABILIZERS (ATA 55)

STABILIZER TO RUDDER ATTACHMENT
General
The rudder is one of the primary controls of the aircraft. Hinge arms attach it to
the rear of the vertical stabilizer. The rudder is a one piece unit which you can
remove.
Three rudder servo control fittings are installed at the rear spar.
They attach the rudder servo controls to the vertical stabilizer. Each hinge arm
has a self−aligning bearing. The hinge arms are made of alluminum alloy and
Rivets attach them to the rear spar.

AEROPLANES M11.3
Figure 112 Stabilizer to Rudder Attachment

M11.03 52..57 B1 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, LEADING EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS . . . . . . 1 TRAILING EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
CENTER WING BOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
M11.3 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - AEROPLANES 1 M11.3.3 STABILIZER (ATA 55) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
M11.3.1 FUSELAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
VERTICAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
M11.3.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES (ATA 55/57) . . . . . . . . 152
MAINFRAME COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 SURFACE HINGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
CENTER SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 SURFACE FLUTTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
TAIL SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 STATIC BALANCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 DEFLECTION ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
PASSENGER DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 M11.3.5 NACELLES / PYLONS (ATA 54) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
EMERGENCY DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
BOEING PASSENGER DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
AIRBUS PASSENGER DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 ENGINE MOUNTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
EMERGENCY POWER RESERVOIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
M11.3.1 FUSELAGE (ATA 52/53/56) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
ESCAPE SLIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
UPPER DECK DOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
FUSELAGE TO WING ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
OVERWING EMERGENCY HATCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
FUSELAGE TO STABILIZER ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . 186
PASSENGER DOOR OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
CARGO DOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
SEAT INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 CARGO LOADING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . 198
COCKPIT WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
CABIN WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
M11.3.2 WINGS (ATA57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
M11.3.2 WINGS (ATA 57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
WING TO LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . 210
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
OUTER WING BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
PINTLE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
SKIN PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
SIDE−STAY FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
SPARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
RIBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 WING TO PYLON ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
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M11.03 52..57 B1 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WING TO PYLON ATTACHMENT BY UPPER SUPPORT ARM . .
212
WING TO PYLON ATTACHMENT BY BOX BEAM DESIGN . . . . .
212
WING TO AILERON ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
GENERAL (AIRBUS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
WING TO SPOILER ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
GENERAL (AIRBUS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
WING TO FLAP ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
FLAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
SLATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
M11.3.3 STABILIZERS (ATA 55) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
STABILIZER TO RUDDER ATTACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 222
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Page ii
M11.03 52..57 B1 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Types of Fuselage Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Emergency Hatch Locking Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 2 Types of Fuselage Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 Slide Release Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 3 Mainframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Mode Selector Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 4 Mainframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Door Opening from Inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 5 Mainframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 Door Opening from Outside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 6 Mainframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 Cargo Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 7 Center Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Cargo Door Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 8 Tail Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Centering Roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 9 Categories of Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Cargo Door Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 10 Passenger and Emergency Exit Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 Bulck Cargo Door Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 11 Cargo and Service Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 46 Handle Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 12 Doors on small Aircraft (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 47 Master Latch Lock Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 13 Door Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 48 Cargo Door Control Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 14 Lower Door Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 49 Locking Handle Airbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 15 Centre Door Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 50 Safety Shaft / Vent Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 16 Upper Door Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 51 Hook Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 17 Door Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 52 Lift Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 18 Door Frame & Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 53 Cargo Door Opening & Lifting Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 19 Door Frame & Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 54 Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 20 Door Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 55 Cockpit Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 21 Door and Body Torque Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 56 Layers of Windshields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 22 Door Locking Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 57 Layers of Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 23 Door Handle and Locking Mechanism Type 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 58 Window Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 24 Door Locking Mechanism Type2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 59 Cabin Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 25 Types of Emergency Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 60 Wing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 26 Mode Selector Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 61 Outer Wing Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 27 Lockout Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 62 Skin Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 28 Escape Slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 63 Wing Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 29 Trigger Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 64 Wing Front Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 30 Striker Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 65 Wing Rear Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 31 Emergency Power Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 66 Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 32 Reservoir Pressure Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 67 Wing Leading Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 33 Safety Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 68 Wing Trailing Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 34 Door Slide Pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 69 Wing Trailing Edge Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 35 Upper Deck Door Latch Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 70 Center Wing Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Page i
M11.03 52..57 B1 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 71 Tail Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Figure 106 Wing Landing Gear Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 72 Tail Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Figure 107 Wing to Pylon Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 73 Horizontal Stabilizer (Single Piece Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Figure 108 Aileron Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 74 Horizontal Stabilizer (3 Piece Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Figure 109 Spoiler Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 75 Vertical Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 110 Flap Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 76 Control Surfaces (Hinges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 111 Slat Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 77 Components of Surface Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Figure 112 Stabilizer to Rudder Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 78 Position of Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 79 Surface Flutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 80 Static Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 81 Deflection Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 82 Establishing Zero Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 83 Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 84 Pylon and Nacelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 85 Torque Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Figure 86 Torque Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Figure 87 Fan Cowl Support Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 88 Fuselage Construction (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Figure 89 Differential and Integral Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 90 Pressurization Sealing I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 91 Pressurization Sealing II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 92 Fuselage Wing Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 93 Fuselage Stabilizer Attachment (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 94 THS Attachment Fittings (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Figure 95 Vertical Stabilizer Attachment Fittings (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Figure 96 Fuselage Main Landing Gear Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure 97 Seat Arrangment and Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Figure 98 Seat Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Figure 99 Cargo Compartments A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 100 Power Drive Units (PDU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 101 Roller Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 102 Doorsill Roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 103 Door Sill Latches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 104 Fixed and Single Latches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Figure 105 Flightdeck Windows Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Page ii

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Fundamentals

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M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES ANS SYSTEMS

HAM US/O-5 LaS May 29, 2013 ATA DOC Page 1

ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 01|Intro|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 2

Figure 1 Specific Zones and Areas

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 02|Intro|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 4

Figure 2 Reference Planes

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 03|Intro|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 6

Figure 3 Different Units of Measurement

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 04|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 8

Figure 4 Body Coordinates

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 05|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 10

Figure 5 Body Station

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 06|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 12

Figure 6 Buttock Line

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 07|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 14

Figure 7 Body Waterline

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 08|Boeing Identific Sys: Page 16

Figure 8 Fixed Waterline

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 09|Wings|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 18

Figure 9 Reference Plane

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 10|Wings|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 20

Figure 10 Buttock Line

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 11|Wings|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 22

Figure 11 Wing Station

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 12|Nacelles|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 24

Figure 12 Nacelle Coordinates

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 13|Nacelles|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 26

Figure 13 Nacelle Station – Boeing

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 14|Nacelles|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 28

Figure 14 Nacelle Buttock Line

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 15|Nacelles|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 30

Figure 15 Nacelle Waterline

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 16|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 32

Figure 16 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stabilizer Chord Plane

Horizontal Stabilizer cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 17|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 34

Figure 17 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Buttock Lines

Horizontal Stabilizer cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 18|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 36

Figure 18 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Stations

Horizontal Stabilizer cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 19|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 38

Figure 19 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations

Horizontal Stabilizer cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 20|Horizontal Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 40

Figure 20 Horizontal Stabilizer Coordinates – Elevator Stations

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 21|Vertical Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 42

Figure 21 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Station

Vertical Stabilzier cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 22|Vertical Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 44

Figure 22 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Fin Waterline

Vertical Stabilzier cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 23|Vertical Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 46

Figure 23 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Leading Edge Stations

Vertical Stabilzier cont.

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 24|Vertical Stab|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 48

Figure 24 Vertical Stabilizer Coordinates – Rudder Stations

Airbus Identification System

HAM US/F SwD 01.05.2008 25|Airbus Identific Sys|L2|A/B1/B2 Page 50