B1-11f Aircraft Systems Instruments and Avionics - LTT - Topic 1151

Fundamentals
M11
TURBINE/PISTON_AEROPLANE_AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES and SYSTEMS Rev.-ID: 1OCT2016
Author: WaH
For Training Purposes Only
ELTT Release: May. 04, 2017
M11.5.1_
Instruments ATA 31
EASA Part-66
CAT B1
M11.05.01_31_B1 E
Training Manual
For training purposes and internal use only.

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS EASA PART-66 M11A|M12|M13
INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31)
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

M11.5 INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
M11.5.1 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31)
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!
FRA US/O-5 WeR Aug 1, 2014 ATA DOC Page 1

INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Classification
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
CLASSIFICATION
Introduction
General Glass Cockpit
Despite the large number of cockpit instruments, each instrument in the In the modern glass cockpit an EIS (Electronic Indicating System) is installed.
classical cockpit can be can be assigned to one of two subgroups. They are The above-mentioned groupings are categorized as follows.
categorized as belonging to either:
Flight monitoring instruments are assigned to the
S flight monitoring S EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System).
S aircraft monitoring. Aircraft monitoring instruments have different names, depending on aircraft
type. For example:
Flight Monitoring
S EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System) or
Flight monitoring instruments include:
S artificial horizon indicator S ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring)
S heading situation indicator Additionally, the CMS (Central Maintenance System) is used for aircraft
monitoring because it delivers information to the maintenance personnel.
S altimeter
S airspeed indicator There are also standby devices:
S machmeter S altimeter
S variometer S airspeed indicator
S turn and slip indicator S horizon
S magnetic compass S compass.
Aircraft Monitoring Parameters

Aircraft monitoring includes To name only a few, changes to the following values cause flight monitoring
and aircraft monitoring devices to operate:
S airframe monitoring devices, such as:
S air pressure
− position indicators
S pressure of fluids
− pressure indicators and
S temperature
S engine monitoring devices, such as:
S acceleration
− RPM indicators
S gyro stability
− exhaust gas temperature indicators
S inertia
− fuel indicators.
S earth’s magnetism
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Boeing B747−230
Figure 1 Classic Instrumentation
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Captain’s EFIS Engine Indications First Officer’s EFIS
Figure 2 Boeing B737−330

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Central Warning
&
Engine Indications
Captain’s EFIS First Officer’s EFIS
Figure 3 Airbus A320

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Flight Monitoring Instruments

General
Each pilot is provided with his own flight attitude and flight monitoring
instruments.
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Me 262
Figure 4 Flight Monitoring (about 1944)

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Figure 5 Flight Monitoring: A310−300

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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 6 Flight Monitoring: A380

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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Basic T
General Basic T Configuration
Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight monitoring instruments, Aircraft built after about 1950 have four flight instruments in a standardized
which inform the pilot about aircraft attitude, airspeed and altitude. It is called configuration, which is called Basic T. The attitude indicator is in the middle at
Basic T. the top and the altimeter to its right. The airspeed indicator is to the left of the
attitude indicator and the compass is below it. The other two indicators, for turn
Basic Six (Six Pack) coordination and vertical speed, are as a rule located under the altitude and
In 1937 the RAF (Royal Air Force) decided on a set of six essential instruments airspeed indicators respectively. The magnetic standby compass is often found
for flying according to (Instrument Meterological Conditions (IMC). between the windscreens.
It included the following: In more recent aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout is on the PFD
S airspeed indicator (kn) (Primary Flight Display) and corresponds to Basic T configuration.
S artificial horizon (aircraft attitude)
S variometer (rate of climb/dive)
S altimeter
S directional gyro (compass)
S turn and bank indicator
This panel configuration was adopted for all RAF aircraft, from the light Tiger
Moth to the heavy Avro Lancaster, which minimized the problems of retraining
for flying blind from one type to another. A pilot trained on a Tiger Moth could
quickly get used to flying another aircraft blind as the instruments were
identical.
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Figure 7 Basic Six

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Basic T Glass Cockpit
The Basic Six also found its way into commercial aviation. After the Second In aircraft with modern displays, each pilot has a display named ”Primary Flight
World War its configuration was changed to that of the Basic T: Display” (PFD).
S airspeed, artificial horizon, altimeter (upper row) The PFD shows many of the basic T parameters:
S radio compass, directional indicator, vertical speed (lower row). S airspeed
S artificial horizon
ADI
S altitude
ADI means ”Attitude Director Indicator”.
S vertical speed
It displays the artificial horizon and the indication from the flight director
system. S compass.
HSI
HSI means ”Horizontal Situation Indicator”.
It displays the compass and indications from radio navigation systems.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AIR A V
ADI ALTITUDE E
SPEED I
R R
ATTITUDE
S T
P and
E GUIDANCE D
E E
D V
HSI
LAT DEV
Horizon
Horizon
Altitude
Airspeed
Altitude
Airspeed
Vertical Vertical
Speed Speed
Compass
Instruments and Indicators Glass Cockpit

Compass
Figure 8 Basic T
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Trend
In recent years instrumentation has been greatly simplified and centralised.
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TREND => CONTROL ELEMENTS INTEGRATION TREND => DISPLAY INTEGRATION
ATTITUDE
INDIVIDUAL PFD
OPERATING
DEVICES
HUD
SWITCHES KEY TOUCH VIEWING DIRECTION NAVIGATION
STICKS KEYBOARDS INPUT CONTROL
ND
PEDALS
INTEGRATED CENTRAL VOICE COMMAND
KEYS
CONTROL UNITS VOICE CONTROL
KNOBS
ENGINE
E/WD
MFD
SYSTEMS
SD
Figure 9 Development in Recent Years

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Atmosphere
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ATMOSPHERE
Air Data
Composition of the Atmosphere
The gases surrounding the earth are known as the atmosphere. This is a
mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, inert gases and by-products.
Directly above the surface of the earth dry, clean air consists of 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen and 1% noble gases (helium, argon, neon, krypton and xenon).
The whole of the atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers according
to their various properties.
Troposphere
The lowest layer, surrounding the surface of the earth, is the troposphere. The
numerous weather activities take place here.
It is about 8.5 km high at the poles and about 16.8 km thick at the equator. The
temperature decreases by 0.65_C every 100 metres.
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km
Exosphere Aurora
Satellite
800
600 Ionosphere
400
Space Lab
Thermosphere 200
Rocket
Mesopause 100
80 increases
Mesosphere 60
Stratopause Meteor
40
Ozonlayer
Stratosphere Radioprobe Ozonosphere
Stratosphere (bis ca. 50 km) 20
Fighter
S Stratopause
Tropopause 10
8 Airplane
6 Mt. Everest
Troposphere (0 − ca. 11 km)
S Tropopause 4
Troposphere 2
Sea level 0
− 100 − 60 − 20 0 20 60 Temperatur °
Figure 10 Thermal Layering of Atmosphere

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Atmosphere and Altitude
Pitot tube is connected to ASI bellow
The higher the altitude, the lower are the following values:
Static tube is connected outside bellow inside ASI
S Static Pressure Ps compartment
S Temperature
S Density.
Air Data Instruments
Mechanical Air Data Instruments use the static pressure to indicate the altitude
of the aircraft.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Altitude [km]
Stratosphere
Tropopause
Mount Everest
Troposphere
ISA
International
Standard
Atmosphere
Ps
Standard Sea Level
Temp Decreasing
Density Values
Figure 11 Atmosphere and Altitude

INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Terminology
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TERMINOLOGY
Air Data Measurements

General
The air data measurements required for flight monitoring are:
S static pressure (atmospheric pressure) and
S dynamic pressure (ram pressure).
Use of Air Data in the Cockpit

Using these two forms of pressure the following flight monitoring data can be
calculated:
S barometric altitude
S vertical speed
S airspeed
S mach number.
By applying temperature as a corrective value, it is also possible to indicate:
S true airspeed (TAS)
S static air temperature (SAT).
Technology
The way air data instruments function (as already touched on) can differ to
quite an extent.
Depending on the manufacturer and the state of technological development the
conversion from pressure via mechanical means to indication can take place in
the instrument itself or separately, i.e. mechanical conversion from pressure to
electricity in separate air data calculators and indicators using electrical

transmission lines and converters.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AIRSPEED INDICATOR ALTIMETER
VARIOMETER
B747−230
Figure 12 Presentation of Air Data

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PFD
Modern indicating systems have all the air data information on a screen which
is called PFD (Primary Flight Display).
HUD
In some aircraft the PFD data is displayed in a way that the pilot can see it
when he looks through the wind shield.
This system is called Head Up Display or HUD in short.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Altitude
PFD
Airspeed Vertical Speed
PFD
HUD
Figure 13 Modern Presentation of Air Data on PFD and HUD

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Defining Airspeed
IAS CAS
IAS means indicated airspeed. In aircraft equipped with air data computers and electrical instruments or glass
An airspeed indicator with belows is an instrument that shows the indicated cockpits the airspeed indication shows the calibrated airspeed or CAS in short.
airspeed, or IAS in short, which directly depends on the dynamic pressure as The CAS is corrected by any error which comes from the indicator and the
the difference between total and static pressure. source of the static pressure.
An instrument only shows the real speed of the aircraft at mean sea level with In our example the CAS is 7 knots lower than the IAS.
standard conditions.
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IAS CAS
Ptot
ADC
Pstat
Correction of
Instrument Error
and
Static Source
Indicated Airspeed Error Calibrated Airspeed
(IAS)=300 kts (CAS)=293 kts
ò
q + V2
2
Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions: IAS and CAS

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Compressibility Error EAS

The speed formula is only valid when the medium used is incompressible. The corrected airspeed which is in our example 278 knots is called the
Unfortunately air compresses at higher speeds and generates a total pressure equivalent airspeed or EAS in short. This value is not indicated in commercial
increase called the compressibility error. airplanes, and is only important for design data and further calculations.
The graph shows you that the higher the airspeed and altitude the larger the
TAS
error.
For navigation purposes you need the real speed of the aircraft. This is called
For example when you fly at 30,000 ft with a calibrated airspeed of 293 knots
the true airspeed , or TAS in short and it is measured against the surrounding
the error will become 15 knots.
air.
In our example the TAS is 470 knots when we fly with an EAS of 278 knots at
30,000 ft.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
IAS CAS TAS
Ptot
ADC EAS
Pstat
Correction of
Compressibility
Error
Correction of
Instrument Error
EAS=278 kts
and
Static Source
Indicated Airspeed Error Calibrated Airspeed True Airspeed
(IAS)=300 kts (CAS)=293 kts (TAS)=470 kts
Δ CAS (KNOTS)
40000 ft 30000 ft
20000 ft
M=0.9
ò
q + V2 M=0.8
2
CAS (KNOTS)
Compressibility Error
Figure 15 Airspeed Definitions: EAS and TAS

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Pitot Static Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS
Pitot-Static Instruments
Altimeter Simple System
An altimeter is an instrument that indicates the altitude of an aircraft. In small aircraft, there is a simple system with one pitot system and one static
It uses static pressure. system.
The following instruments will be supplied:
Vertical Speed Indicator
S Altimeter
A vertical speed indicator is an instrument that indicates the vertical speed of
S Vertical Speed Indicator
an aircraft.
S Airspeed Indicator.
It uses static pressure.
Pitot pressure is sensed by a pitot probe and guided via a tube to relevant
Airspeed Indicator instruments.
An airspeed indicator is an instrument that indicates the speed in the For each static pressure system there is a pressure measuring location on the
surrounding air. left and right hand side of the fuselage. Both locations are connected to each
It uses pitot pressure and static pressure. other in order to compensate for any unbalance in pressure measurement. The
static pressure is guided via a tube to relevant instruments.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Airflow
Airspeed Altimeter
Indicator Area with Higher
than Normal Air
Pressure
Vertical Static Line
Speed
Indicator
Area with Lower

than Normal Air
Pressure
Pitot
Probe
Pitot Line
Static Static
Port Static Line Port
Figure 16 Simple Pitot/Static System

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Multiple Systems
For safety reasons modern commercial aircraft have two or three separate
pitot-static pressure systems.
Depending on how they are allocated they are termed:
S Captain’s System
S F/O’s System
S Auxiliary System.
Source Selector
A safety improvement is the installation of an Alternate Static source selector
valve. It allows the Captain to use the copilot‘s static pressure system.
If there is a fault in the Captain’s or First Officer’s static system, the indicators
or systems on only a few aircraft types can be switched to the auxiliary system
by means of the static air source selector valve.
You also find this selector valve in small single pilot aircraft which are certified
for instrument flight rules, IFR in short.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ASI = Airspeed Indicator

ALT = Altimeter
V/S = Vertical Speed Indicator
Instrument
Panel
Static Source Selector Valve
Normal Static
Pressure
To Instruments
Handle
Alternate
Static
Pressure
Plug
Figure 17 Two Separated Pitot Static Systems

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Connections
Important Facts about the Pitot-Static System
Between the rigid pipe system and the various connectors there are flexible
tubes with screw connections or quick-disconnects. The quick-disconnects are
self-sealing when separated. All connections are designated with a colour:
S pitot : red
S static: yellow.
CAUTION: AFTER CHANGING AN INSTRUMENT OR A DEVICE AN
APPROVED LEAK-PROOF TEST MUST BE CARRIED OUT!
Exception: in the case of quick-disconnect.
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Static
Pitot
Figure 18 Airspeed Indicator Quick Disconnect

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Static Ports
Static Pressure Always made by manufacturers Helicopter Static Ports
Static pressure is the actual atmospheric pressure surrounding the aircraft. Air Most helicopters have special cover plates at the static ports. This is used to
pressure p depends on compensate the effects caused by the strong downwash of the rotor.
S air density r
S temperature T .
In order to have a uniform reference value for aviation, the international
aviation authority ICAO introduced the international standard atmosphere
(ISA).
At mean sea level (MSL) it is defined as follows:
air density r0 = 1,225 kg/m3
Temperature t0 = 15°C
air pressure p0 = 1013 mbar.
All pneumatic devices are calibrated according to these values.
Static Port
The static pressure originates in the static ports which are flush with the skin on
the sides of the aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers ensure that they are positioned
in areas with low turbulence and ram air distortion.
The current air pressure reaches the individual air data measuring systems via
hoses and pipes.
Some aircraft types have electrically heated static ports.
WARNING: THE STATIC PORT ZONES MUST BE ABSOLUTELY CLEAN
AND HAVE A SMOOTH SURFACE SO THAT NO PRESSURE
DISTORTING TURBULENCES CAN OCCUR.
Static port connected to

ASI Figure 19 Helicopter Static Port
ALT
VS
Pitot tube connected to
ASI only
AH and HSI CONTAINS GYROS
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
IDENTIFICATION PLATE
Standby System
TO PRESSURE PIPE
F/O’s System
SECTION
HEATING
Captain’s System ELEMENT

HEATING
ELEMENT
(+28VDC)
AEROPLANE STATIC PORTS
Figure 20 Static Ports

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Inspection
General
The static port zones must have a smooth surface so no turbulences can
occur. The static port mouth itself must be within the limits. Normally, these
limits can be found in ATA chapter 34.
In the AMM there are the limits for damages of the aircraft skin at the static
ports. These limits can be found in the ATA chapter for the aircraft structure or
SRM. The assessment is performed with the help of a scale and a feeler-gage.
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SQUARE EDGE ROUNDED EDGE
FLARED AND RAISED

EDGE
DAMAGED
CORRECT
PORT DAMAGE
DAMAGED
SCALE
SKIN DAMAGE
SKIN
FEELER−GAG
SCALE
FEELER−GAGE SCALE
FEELER−GAGE SKIN
SKIN
DIP IN SKIN BULGE IN SKIN

(Example) (Examples)
Figure 21 Assessment of Static Ports
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Pitot Probe
Pitot Pressure Dynamic Pressure
Pitot pressure is the build-up of air pressure in a tube with its opening facing To measure the speed of the aircraft in relation to the ambient air only the
the airstream. dynamic pressure is required, ram pressure q.
Pitot pressure is calculated as: As the static pressure ps is known from the static pressure measured at the
S Ptot = q + ps static ports, ram pressure can be calculated by measuring differential pressure:
Ptot = total pressure ram pressure q = Ptot − Ps
ps = static pressure
q = ram pressure.
Mercurial Barometer
The pitot pressure can be sensed by using a mercurial barometer.
An example is shown in the figure bellow. The pitot pressure Ptot depends on
the velocity v.
Mercurial barometers are not used in aviation. Instead, bellows are used.
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Ptot
v
Vacuum
PS
h h = f (Ptot)
fluid height h is a function
of total pressure
Liquid
Mercurial Barometer
(Mercury) Ptot
q
to instrument Difference
Bellows
Ptot
Dynamic Pressure Measurement

(Instrument)
Pitot Probe

Figure 22 Pitot Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Location Heating
The pitot tube is usually located near the nose of the aircraft, on the nose itself Electrical heating prevents the pitot tube from freezing up.
or below the cockpit. It is aligned in such a way that it faces the predetermined
WARNING: RISK OF BURNS!
airstream.
NOTE: The tube inlet must not display any signs of deformation
Construction whatsoever!
The pitot tube consists of a cylindrical pipe, in which total pressure Ptot is
present during the entire flight. The pressure is transferred via piping to the Drain Hole
interior of the aircraft and is supplied to the instruments and systems A small drain hole and a baffle (which do not affect the total pressure) ensure
connected to it. that water entering the tube is drained away.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Pitot Probe BAE 146−300
Pitot
Heating Connection
Connection
Pitot Probes
Dust and Rain Baffle

Particles
Pitot Pressure Tube
Pitot Inlet
Drain Hole Pitot Probe Details Drain Hole Pitot Probe Connections
Figure 23 Pitot Probe

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Prandtl Tube
General
The Prandtl tube is a pitot-static-tube.
In the case of some aircraft types ram pressure q needed for speed indication
is not obtained from two separate measuring points (i.e. pitot tube and static
port) but from one single ram air tube, the Prandtl tube.
The tube combines a pitot tube with with a sensor to measure static pressure.
In the instrument or in a computer, the required differential pressure is
obtained:
q = Ptot − Ps
The Prandtl tube (pitot-static probe) is located in the same way as the pitot
tube at the front of the aircraft. The Ptot pressure enters through the cylindrical
inlet.
Holes drilled in the sides supply information for one or two connected static
lines.
Flapper plate and drain hole prevent water from entering the pitot line.
Heating
Like a simple pitot tube, the Prandtl tube is electrically heated to prevent icing.
WARNING: RISK OF BURNS!
NOTE: The tube inlet must not display any signs of deformation!
The surface of the tube must not display any roughness, as this
will lead to static pressure errors!
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Note: the connections for static are not visible here Static Ports
PS Ptot
Baffle Tube (Pitot Pressure)
Tube (Static Pressure)

Heating Element
Pitot Inlet
Static Port
Figure 24 Prandtl Tube

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Instruments in Modern Planes

General
In many aircraft with a modern electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) there
are two pneumatic instruments as a back up.
These are:
S Standby altimeter
S Standby airspeed indicator.
In some aircraft types, both functions are integrated in one instrument.
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Plane|L2|B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
STANDBY INDICATOR A320
STANDBY AIRSPEED INDICATOR STANDBY ALTITUDE INDICATOR

Figure 25 Standby Instruments
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Plane|L2|B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Blocked Static System

General
Lets now look at what happens when the static pressure ports of one system
are blocked by ice or other foreign matter.
As long as the aircraft flies at a constant altitude with a constant airspeed, for
example during cruise, you will not get any changes in the indication.
Climb
A blocked static pressure system during climb has the following effects:
S The Airspeed indicator gets a decreasing total pressure from the pitot tube
but the static pressure inside the blocked tube will be constant. The result
will be a decreasing airspeed indication.
S The Altimeter will continue to display the same altitude during the climb and
the Vertical Speed Indication will stay at 0.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
CLIMB
Static
Vertical Speed
Ice Blocks
Static Line
VSI Zero
Airspeed Altitude
Altitude Static
Vertical
Speed
ALT Unchanged
Static
Pitot
Airspeed
Ice Blocking
Static Port
ASI Decreasing
Figure 26 Blocked Static Ports: Climb

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Descent
A blocked static pressure system during descent has the following results:
S The Airspeed indicator gets an increasing total pressure from the pitot tube
but the static pressure inside the blocked tube will remain constant. The
result will be an increasing airspeed indication.
S The Altimeter continues to display the same altitude during the descent and
the Vertical Speed Indication will stay at zero.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
DECENT Vertical Speed

Static
Ice Blocks
Static Line
VSI Zero
Airspeed Altitude
Altitude Static
Vertical
Speed
ALT Unchanged
Static
Pitot
Airspeed
Ice Blocking
Static Port
ASI Increasing
Figure 27 Blocked Static Ports: Descent

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Blocked Pitot System

General
Lets now see what happens when the pitot tube is completely blocked, for
example because of an inactive anti−ice system.
Completely blocked means that the inlet and the drain hole are blocked.
The altimeter and vertical speed indications are not affected by this failure.
Climb
When the aircraft climbs with constant speed, the static pressure decreases.
The total pressure inside the pitot system can not change when the tube is
totally blocked.
The result is an increasing indication on the Airspeed indicator which can even
go up into the overspeed region.
You can also say that the airspeed indicator reacts like an altimeter.
Cruise
If the pitot tube becomes totally blocked in cruise and the aircraft continues to
fly at the same altitude the Airspeed indicator will show no changes in indicated
speed even if the engine thrust is changed to accelerate or decelerate the
aircraft.
Descent
If the aircraft descends, the static pressure will increase. The total pressure
inside the pitot system can not change when the tube is totally blocked.
So the Airspeed indicator decreases the indication to a lower indicated
airspeed.
Again it reacts like an altimeter.
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Static
Vertical Speed
VSI Normal Function
Airspeed Altitude
Altitude Static
Vertical
Speed
ALT Normal Function

Static
Pitot
Ice Blocking
Airspeed
Pitot Tube &
Drain Hole
close
ASI Increasing
Figure 28 Blocked Pitot Tube & Drain Hole Blocked

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Drain Hole Open
You will get a different reaction if the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but
the water drain hole is still open.
In this situation the pitot pressure decreases to the value of the static pressure.
When the input port of the pitot tube is blocked but the water drain hole is still
open the airspeed indication decreases to zero.
The altimeter and vertical speed indicators are not affected, because they only
get static pressure.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Vertical Speed
Static
Ice Blocks
Pitot Tube &
Drain Hole VSI Normal Function
Open
Airspeed Altitude Altitude

Static
Vertical
Speed
Ice Blocks
Tube Drain Hole ALT Normal Function
Open
Airspeed
Static
Pitot
Ice Blocks
Pitot Tube &
Drain Hole
Open
ASI Indicates Zero
Figure 29 Blocked Pitot Tube & Drain Hole Open

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Effects on Tubes
Temperature Fluctuation Test and Draining Port Procedures
If the static ports are capped for protection or for testing, a change in In order to test the aircraft with respect to air data, each line is equipped with
temperature causes a change in pressure in the static system. test fittings. Altitude and speed can be simulated using these ports and an air
For example, a cold aeroplane in a warm hangar causes an increase in data tester.
pressure (see note: air data test). Should the pipe connecting the measuring points (pitot pipe, static port) show a
drop in pressure or too low a level, the drain trap found at the lowest point can
Water in the Pipes be used. The drain trap and test fitting can also be used for testing.
Pressure pipes are not drained on a regular basis. Indicator fluctuations show
the presence of water in them.
Pitot Pipe Icing

The effect depends on the degree of icing.
A. If the inlet is iced over but the drain is free, there is insufficient heating.
Pitot pressure falls and is reduced to static pressure.
S q = ptot − ps = 0 then: ptot = ps
B. If both the inlet and the drain are iced over, the heating is defective or
deactivated. Pitot pressure remains constant. Ram pressure q is dependent
on altitude:
S q = const. − ps
Example
The figure shows a large aircraft. As you can see, the tubes are long and can
be affected by various disturbances.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Airspeed Altitude Airspeed Altitude
Drain Valve
Vertical Vertical
Speed Speed
Drain Valves
&
Test Port
Drain Valve
Figure 30 Water in the Pitot Static System

HAM US/O-5 WaH Aug 6, 2014 18|Effects on Tubes|L2|B12 Page 55
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Maintenance
General Pitot Probe Cover
The static system and the pitot system are affected by the following During long parking times, the pitot Probes must be covered so no insects can
maintenance practises: enter an cause blockages.
S Flushing of the static system WARNING: RISK OF BURNS!
S Water draining out of the static system
S Accuracy check for air data instruments
S Long term parking
S Aircraft washing
S Leak check.
Sealing of Static Ports

For some of the maintenance practises, the static ports must be sealed.
The sealer must be a special tool which can be removed without leaving any
traces which can cause turbulences.
During long parking times, the static ports must be covered so no insects can
enter an cause blockages.
It is very important that the sealers are removed before flight.
WARNING: DURING MAINTENANCE WORK THE OPENINGS MUST BE
SEALED WITH SPECIAL EYE-CATCHING RED STICKERS.
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Static Port Seals
Pitot Probe Cover
Figure 31 Pitot Static System Maintenance

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Test
Air Data Test
It is essential to observe the following during an air data test: Below is an extract from the A 320 AMM 34−21−00.
S Static pressure may never be greater than pitot pressure. CAUTION: OBEY THESE PRECAUTIONS WHEN YOU DO THE TEST TO
S The maximum permissible pressure (Ptot) or negative pressure (ps) may not PREVENT DAMAGE TO INSTRUMENTS.
be exceeded. − THE PRESSURES SET MUST NOT BE MORE THAN 1050
S The maximum permissible pressure rate may not be exceeded. HPA (31 IN HG) OR LESS THAN 115 HPA (3.39 IN HG).
S Depending on aircraft type associated systems must be restored to their − CHANGES IN STATIC PRESSURE MUST NOT BE MORE
operational state (e.g. air data sensor, analogue flight recorder). THAN 6000 FEET/MINUTE.
− DO NOT SUDDENLY OPEN LINES TO AMBIENT AIR WHILE
THE PRESSURE GENERATOR IS CONNECTED.
CAUTION: THE TOTAL PRESSURE IN THE PITOT SYSTEM MUST
NEVER BE LESS THAN THE STATIC PRESSURE. THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PITOT AND THE STATIC
PRESSURE CIRCUITS MUST NEVER BE MORE THAN 368
HPA (10.86 IN HG).
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Damage caused by Air Data Test of Standby ASI
Figure 32 Standby ASI Damage

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Example
General
The example shows the pitot static system in an Airbus A300−600.
Various instruments and some computers are connected to it.
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Figure 33 Pitot Static System A 300 - 600

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Pressure Measuring Devices
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
Barometer
Liquid-Based Barometers
Liquid-based barometers consist of a vertical tube filled with a fluid, which is
hermatically sealed at the top.
The lower end is submerged in a container, which is also filled with the same
fluid. Due to its own weight the fluid flows out of the tube, thus creating
negative pressure at the top. Ambient air pressure (static pressure) counteracts
this process, so that the column of liquid ceases to move at a certain height.
Mercury Barometers
Mercury is usually used as the fluid, in which case we speak of the mercury
barometer.
Under normal conditions mercury reaches a height of 760 mm, so that to obtain
exact results the reading must be adjusted to standard conditions. At the same
time the fact that both the mercury and the glass tube expand with increasing
temperature must be taken into account.
Aneroid Barometers
In the case of aneroid barometers (from the Greek: a neros = not fluid) a small
capsule made of thin metal expands or contracts as a result of air pressure.
The residual pressure inside the capsule is at about 5 mbar (5 hPa = 500 Pa),
which compensates for changes in the elasticity of the metal caused by
temperature fluctuations. This type of barometer was invented by Lucien Vidie
(1805−1866).
Improved barometers or barographs use a stack of up to eight such capsules
to increase the reliability of measurements. The contraction of the capsule

caused by increasing air pressure and its expansion due to falling pressure is
transferred mechanically to an indicating needle.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TEMPERATURE
COMPENSATION
NEGATIVE PRESSURE
1000 0
MERCURY
AMBIENT AMBIENT
PRESSURE PRESSURE
NEGATIVE STATIC
NEGATIVE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE
ANEORID ALTIMETER
(Aircraft)
MERCURY BAROMETER
STATIC
PRESSURE
ANEORID BAROMETER
Figure 34 Barometer Principle

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Bourdon Tube
General
A Bourdon tube converts pressure into a proportional electrical signal.
To do the conversion you need:
S the curved tube, which has an oval crossectional area and
S a position sensor that converts the position of the tube tip into an electrical
signal.
This sensor is usually a synchro transmitter.
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Cross Sectional Area
X
Position
Sensor
Figure 35 Bourdon Tube

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Operation
When you apply a pressure in the tube it is distributed equally throughout the
whole tube.
The pressure now tries to change the oval cross section of the tube to a
circular cross section.
This movement leads to a straighting of the tube what moves the tube tip to the
right.
The amount of movement is proportional to the pressure and can therefore be
converted very easily into an electrical signal.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Cross Sectional Area Cross Sectional Area
P
P
X
X
X
X
P P
Position Position
Sensor Sensor
Figure 36 Bourdon Tube Operation

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Pressure Sensor Instruments

General
The requirements for precision and reliability are very high in the case of flight
monitoring instruments.
Flight instruments must keep their full functionality even in the face of the most
adverse conditions.
Basically the following requirements apply:
S operability
S sufficient precision
S temperature range from −70°C to +50°C
S insensitivity to acceleration
S insensitivity to changing ambient pressure
S low weight, small dimensions
S easy assembly and replaceability
S low energy consumption.
As most of the above mentioned points are defined and required by law, there
is little leeway for manufacturers of pressure sensor instruments. The highest
demands are made on material and fine mechanical precision. In the case of
an altimeter the needle must make 51 revolutions between -1,000 feet and
+50,000, feet.
However, today only back-up instruments use pressure sensors.
Figure 37 Bellows
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AIRSPEED INDICATOR ALTIMETER
MACHMETER
VARIOMETER
METRIC
ALTIMETER
B 727
Figure 38 Instrument Panel

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Pressure Transducers
Function
Pressure transducers (Xducers) are used to convert various measured
pressures into electrical signals.
They are used in air data computers, for example.
The electrical signals are sent to the computer, where they are transformed into
the required output signals.
Pressure Conversion
There are many ways of converting pressure as here too technical progress is
advancing at a fast rate.
While the first transducers had metal pressure capsules (similar to aneroid
instruments) and worked electromotively according to the follow-up principle,
the pressure chambers of the latest generation are made of semiconductive
material with integrated memory for error characteristics. The output signal is
digital. The reference value is a vacuum or 1013 mbar.
p
VACUUM LINKAGE
DIAPHRAGM
(METAL)
Pressure Cell Type
Figure 39 Pressure Transducer
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PRESSURE RECEIVING ELECTRICAL CONVERSION OUTPUT DESCRIPTION
- SENSITIVE TO PRESSURE CHANGES

PRESSURE
CELL - INSTRUMENT ERRORS MUST BE
ANALOG COMPENSATED
- DIFFERENT PRESSURE CELLS FOR STATIC

AND PITOT
RESOLVER - MECHANICALLY COMPLEX
TORSION BAR - INSENSITIVE TO PRESSURE CHANGES

FORCE COMPENSATED - SMALL INSTRUMENT ERRORS
PRESSURE CELL
ANALOG - DIFFERENT PRESSURE CELLS FOR STATIC
AND PITOT
E - PICKUP - MECHANICALLY COMPLEX
- INSENSITIVE TO PRESSURE CHANGES

VIBRATION PRESSURE - INSTRUMENT ERRORS ARE
TRANSDUCER COMPENSATED ELECTRICALLY
OSZ.
- NO DIFFERENT PRESSURE CELLS FOR
DIGITAL STATIC AND PITOT
RESONATOR - ELECTRONICALLY COMPLEX
PIEZORESISTIVE
PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
SEE
DIGITAL
RESISTIVE BRIDGE
Figure 40 Pressure Transducer Types

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Vibration Pressure Transducer

General
Electronic pressure sensors can work in different ways.
Shown here is the most commonly used type which is known as the vibrating
transducer.
This transducer generates an output frequency which depends on the input
pressure.
Construction
The sensor has
S a base plate,
S a center body and
S an outer case.
The outer case forms the outer wall of the reference pressure chamber. There
is usually a vacuum inside the chamber.
A vibrating cylinder forms the inner wall of the reference chamber.
Inside the vibrating cylinder is a pressure chamber which holds the pressure
that is being measured.
Function
When the drive coil has a magnetic field then the cylinder starts to vibrate with
its natural frequency.
The natural vibrating frequency of a body like this cylinder depends on the body
itself and the environmental conditions.
Exactly the same forces that determine the natural vibrating frequency of violin
strings or tuning forks.

The vibrating frequency of the cylinder is measured by the pickup coil. This
signal is than amplified and used as the output frequency.
The signal from the pickup coil is also fed back to the drive coil to keep the
cylinder vibrating with its natural frequency.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Outer
Case
Center
Body Vibrating
Cylinder
Pickup
Coil
Reference
Chamber
Vibrating
Cylinder
Base
Plate
Figure 41 Vibration Pressure Transducer

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Piezoresistive Pressure Transducer

General
The micromechanical pressure transducer is an aneroid-type chamber made of
silicon.
The structure is only a few millimetres in size.
Pressure dents the silicon lid, thus deforming the resistance in its surface. This
causes a change in electrical resistance, which is a measurement of the
pressure and which is evaluated by the computer.
1 silicon
2 reference pressure
3 glass (Pyrex)
p pressure
UIN supply voltage
UOUT measuring voltage
S strain gauge resistances
R1 stretched
R2 compressed in bridge circuit
Output Voltage
In this type of pressure transducer the change in electrical resistance will result
in an an output voltage which is in proportion to the input pressure.
This voltage can be digitized and be used by a computer then.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
p Glass
p p p
p p p
Chamber for Chamber for
R1 R1 Input Reference
R2 Pressure Pressure
U OUT
Diaphragm
R2 R1 U OUT
U OUT U IN
R1 R2
p
Wheatstone Bridge
Table
Figure 42 Piezoresistive Pressure Transducer

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Operation
The diaphragm is the base plate for normally 4 resistors called the strain
gages. They are connected in a wheatstone bridge configuration.
Two resistors can be found on the left or front side of the base plate.
Two resistors can be found on the right or back side of the base plate.
When there is no input pressure then the base plate is straight. All the resistors
have the same resistance and the bridge is balanced.
This means that the input voltage divides into two equal values, 5 volts
between the front and back resistors.
5 volts on both sides gives an output voltage of 0 volts.
The base plate bends when pressure is applied to it. In this situation, the
resistance at the front of the plate decreases and the resistance at the back of
the plate increases.
As you can imagine, this causes an imbalance in the wheatstone bridge and
this, in turn, causes an imbalance in the output.
You get an output voltage, because the Voltage U1 increases due to the
imbalance of the R1 and R2 resistors to for example 8 Volts.
At the same time, voltage U2 decreases, because of the imbalance of the R3
and R4 resistors to for example 2 Volts.
Therefore in the example shown here, the voltage difference between U1 and
U2 is 6 volts.
The resistance R of a resistor depends on the type of material, expressed by
the greek letter r, which does not change during bending and the dimension of
the wire.
The resistance increases with the length of the wire l and decreases with its
cross−sectional area A.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 43 Piezoresistive Pressure Transducer Operation

INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Altimeters
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ALTIMETERS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM)
General
Altitude Barometric Correction
Methods of determining altitude. Altimeters are usually calibrated for standard pressure: at p0 = 1013 mbar
S Barometer: altitude is shown as 0 m/ft.
air pressure is measured. Altitude is determined by using the decrease in If the pressure is not standard (there is pressure deviation due to an area of
pressure with increasing altitude. high or low pressure), an exterior barometer setting knob (Baro Set) can be
used to correct the indication. The pressure set is visible on a scale.
S Radio Altimeter:
radio wave delay is measured. NOTE: Barometric correction is a correction of the indication and not of
the aneroid capsule itself!
S GPS:
Gravitation model WGS84 reference is not ground (earth is not a globe). Tolerances
Altimeters in the instrument part of the training deal with barometer types only. The maximum error deviation for a barometric altimeter with a range of 50,000
feet is + /− ( 80 + 10 ft pro 1000 ft indicated).
Principle Construction
The barometric altimeter is an aneroid barometer which measures static
pressure ps and is calibrated linearly (feet or metres).
The actual measuring component is an aneroid capsule, the bellows. The
interior of the casing is connected to the outside air via the static system. As
altitude increases, pressure decreases, the bellows expand and the indicator
pointer rises on the scale.
In order to obtain a more exact indication, 2 or 3 bellows are mounted in series.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MECHANISM
STATIC
PRESSURE
BELLOWS
ALTIMETER POINTER
AND SCALE
SEALED
CASE
Figure 44 Altimeter Principle

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Types
General
The choice of altimeter depends on:
S aircraft type (field of operation)
S place of operation
S tolerance values required by law.
Indication
Type of indication differentiates between:
S double pointer altimeter
S triple pointer altimeter
S drum-type altimeter
S altitude indication on PFD.
Technology
Basically, there are two technologies for altimeters:
S instruments with static pressure input
S indicators with electrical input from an air data computer.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Instrument
Indicator
1000 ft
Baro Set Knob
Indication Drum
100 ft
Pointer
Baro Scale
PFD Baro Set Knob
DRUM ALTIMETER
Figure 45 Altimeter Types
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Encoding Altimeter
In some small aircraft you can also find altimeters which have additional
bellows and electrical connectors.
These altimeters are called Encoding−Altimeter.
The Encoding−Altimeter provides the ALT−Signal for the ATC transponder
system. By this, ground control can be informed about the altitude of the
aircraft.
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Figure 46 Encoding Altimeter

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Baro Correction
Altitude and Pressure Hamburg - Lulea
In low altitudes, the ISA pressure−graph is nearly linear and the altitude This weather map shows you that the real pressure at sea level changes
increases by 30 ft for each pressure decrease of 1 hPa. continuously and is only 1013 hPa at certain locations for a certain time, here
When an aircraft flies at an altitude of 1000 ft, the outside static pressure is for example in Hamburg.
about 980 hPa. Other areas have low pressure or high pressure.
The altimeter converts this static pressure to an indication of 1000 ft. When you fly from Hamburg to Lulea in northern Sweden on this day, the
The indicated altitude is therefore equal to the true altitude. As you can altimeter readings are correct because the pressure corresponds to standard
imagine, this scenario is only correct if the pressure at sea level is really 1013 conditions.
hPa.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Lulea
Hamburg
Warsaw
London
Baro Correction ALTIMETER
Figure 47 Altitude and Pressure

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Hamburg - London Cruise Flight
Due to the actual weather conditions the pressure in London is 1000 hPa It is not possible to adjust the altimeters to the specific pressure on each point
related to sea level today. of the route.
If the altimeter is calibrated to the standard atmosphere with 1013 hPa at sea So all aircraft select the same pressure soon after takeoff (Transition Altitude).
level, it will show a too high altitude in London. By this, all aircraft have the same altitude separation in low pressure areas and
high pressure areas.
Baro Set Knob
This selected pressure is 1013 hPa, the pressure of the standard atmosphere.
To solve this problem with different pressures at sea level each altimeter has a
The altitude with this altimeter calibration is called QNE.
baro set knob.
With the baro set knob on the instrument you give the altimeter a new Landing
reference pressure. Before landing (Transition Level), the pilots adjust the altimeters to the actual
In pneumatic indicators the knob directly turns the whole altimeter mechanism pressure at the destination airport.
to set a new reference value. At sea level, the indication would be 0 ft then. Because most airports are above
Electrical indicators do the correction electrically inside the indicator or via an sea level, the indication shows the altitude of the airport related to mean sea
air data computer. level (nautical height) at touch down.
Like for takeoff, the altitude with this altimeter calibration is called QNH.
Start
In our example, the pilots adjust 1000 hPa for London. After touch down, the
At each airport, weather conditions and barometric pressure change from day
altimeter will show an altitude of 80 ft.
to day.
Before takeoff, the pilots adjust the altimeters to the actual pressure related to
sea level.
At sea level, the indication would be 0 ft then. Because most airports are above
sea level, the indication shows the altitude of the airport related to mean sea
level (nautical height). In Hamburg the so called elevation is 53 ft.
The altitude with this altimeter calibration is called QNH.
The information about the actual pressure related to sea level is received by
radio communication or by data link.
In our example, the pilots adjust 1013 hPa in Hamburg.

In Warsaw (Poland), pilots adjust 1025 hPa on that day.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Lulea
Hamburg
London Warsaw
Baro Correction
Figure 48 Altimeter Settings

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Example for Baro Settings

General QNH
The figure shows the situation at an instant. When the pilots or maintenance personell selects 1027 hPa for the baro
Different barometric settings will result in different indications. correction, the altimeter will read 160 m on ground.
This is an example which uses metres. The metric altitude is used in some QNH is used by pilots to have the elevation of the airport displayed during
countries. takeoff and after touchdown.
If an aircraft climbed to the altitude of the bird, the altimeter would read the
Situation height above mean sea level when it has the baro correction for QNH.
In this instant, the pressure at sea level is 1027 hPa. The information about the actual pressure related on mean sea level (QNH) is
The ground with the house on it is higher, it is 160 metres above sea level. received by radio communication or by data link.
The bird flies 1000 metres above the ground.
QNE
QFE QNE uses the standard atmosphere with 1013 hPa as a reference.
When the ambient pressure at sea level is 1027 hPa, the ambient pressure in a This value is normally not used on ground, but in flight.
height of 160 metres is 1007 hPa. QNE is used by pilots and air traffic control to have the altitude referred to
When the pilots or maintenance personell selects 1007 hPa for the baro mean sea level.
correction, the altimeter will read 0 m on ground. The advantage is that all aircraft in cruise flight use the same reference
QFE may be used by pilots to have an altitude indication of 0 ft at touchdown. pressure.
Pilots in medium and large aircraft normally do not use it because they can use This pressure is called standard.
a radio altimeter system.
If an aircraft climbed to the altitude of the bird, the altimeter would read the
height above the ground when it has the baro correction for QFE.
The information about the actual pressure related on ground level (QFE) is
received by radio communication or by data link.
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QFE QNH QNE

Standard
1000 m 1160 m 1048 m

1007 1027 1013
1000 METRES
R R R
E QFE E QNH E QNE
Standard
F F F
E E E
R R R
E E E
N
C 0 m
N
C
160 m N
C
48 m
AMBIENT
PRESSURE E E E
1007 1027 1013
1007 HPA
GND =
160 METRES
112 METRES
AMBIENT
AMBIENT PRESSURE
PRESSURE
1013 HPA
1027 HPA
MSL =
0 METRES ambient is a situational value
Figure 49 Example for Altimeter Barometric Settings

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Airspeed Indicators
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AIRSPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM)

General
POINTER
STATIC AND SCALE
Principles
The airspeed indicator is a differential pressure meter, the scale of which is
calibrated in knots.1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour / 1 nautical mile = 1.852
km. PITOT
The instrument has a differential pressure capsule, the interior of which is
pressurised with total pressure Ptot from the pitot system. The inside of the
casing and thus the ambient atmosphere of the capsule is pressurised with
static pressure ps from the static system. The resulting difference is dynamic
pressure q.
q = Ptot − Ps
IAS
The simple speedometer, the IAS indicator (indicated airspeed) obtains its
reading from dynamic pressure q. The IAS is thus a dynamic pressure
indicator.
Among others the IAS is thus used as a value for lift, rudder pressure
simulation and maximum load on the flaps and the airframe.
Types
There are various airspeed indicators, depending on aircraft type: IAS
S simple speed indicator with speed limit marking
S speed indicator combined with indication of the maximum permitted speed
(V MO) and reference setting (speed bug)
S the speed band on the PFD. q
STATIC PITOT
Figure 50 Airspeed Indicator Principle
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PFD
Figure 51 Airspeed Indicator Types

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Limits for Aeroplanes

General Jet Aircraft
It is necessary for pilots to know the airspeed limits for different flight situations. In airspeed indicators of jet aeroplanes you can find a pointer to show the
In small aircraft the speed limits are marked with coloured ranges and lines on maximum allowed airspeed. This is necessary because the speed limit is not a
the airspeed indicator scale. fixed value like the VNE in piston engine aircraft.
S At low altitudes the limit depends on the dynamic pressure which acts on
VSO
the aircraft structure. This limit is called maximum operating velocity or
The VSO is the stall speed in landing configuration, this means with flaps and VMO in short. It is either constant or it increases slightly with increasing
gear down. altitude. This is when the compressibility error of the IAS is taken into
account.
VS1
S At higher altitudes the limit depends on the maximum allowed Mach number
The VS1 is the stall speed in clean configuration with maximum weight.
or MMO in short. This value decreases with increasing altitude because the
VFE speed of sound decreases.
The VFE is the maximum allowable speed with flaps extended. Airspeed Indicators of jet aircraft don’t show the low speed limit because they
depend on many factors such as weight and flap position.
VNO Only on aircraft with a glass cockpit can you find a minimum speed indication
VNO is the maximum airspeed for cruise flight. on the speed tape of the PFD.
VNE The maximum speed is also shown on the speed tape.
VNE stands for never exceed, so this value shows the maximum allowed
airspeed.
Green Band
The green band shows the Normal Operating Range.
White Band
The white band is the Full Flap Operating Range.
Yellow Band
The yellow band is the caution range. This speed must only be used in smooth
air without hard manoeuvres.
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VSO
Actual Airspeed
VNE High Speed

Limit
VS1 (Pointer)
CAS
Caution Flap Operating KNOTS
Range Range
Actual Airspeed
VNO VFE
Normal Operating JET AEROPLANE INDICATOR

Range
SLOW AEROPLANE INDICATOR
High Speed
Limit
Actual Airspeed
Low Speed
Limit
GLASS COCKPIT
PFD
Figure 52 Airspeed Indicators (Aeroplanes)

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True Airspeed
General
The speed with which the aircraft moves through the surrounding air is called
True Airspeed (TAS).
The speed which is shown on the indicator is called Indicated Airspeed (IAS).
IAS Deviations
IAS and TAS coincide only:
S at standard conditions at sea level
S with negligible static source error.
With increasing altitude (decreasing air density) the difference between IAS
and TAS increases.
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10000
9000
= 500 km/h
8000
7000
IAS
Altitude in metres
Airspeed Indication V
6000
V IAS = 200 km/h
V IAS = 300 km/h
V IAS = 400 km/h

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

TAS in km/h
Figure 53 Effect of Air Density on Airspeed Indication

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Machmeters
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MACHMETERS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM)

General
At such speeds flying characteristics are changed considerably. The shock
formation caused by compression of the air prevents a laminar airflow around
the airframe and the airfoils, increases drag and decreases lift.
The purpose of the mach meter is therefore to enable flight:
S at the maximum operating mach number (MMO)
S under consideration of economic efficiency.
The latter is gaining in importance due to rising fuel costs.
Term Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic

ALTITUDE
Mach <1.0 0.8−1.2 1.0 1.0−5.0 5.0−10.0 PS ANEROID
BELLOWS
Principles
Speed of sound is a function of temperature (T). Temperature, in turn, can be
seen as a function of altitude under standard conditions. Thus the speed of
sound (a) can be represented as a function of altitude (h): a = f(h)
PTOT
A mach meter contains:
S differential pressure bellows (v)
DIFFERENCE
S aneroid bellows (h,a).
BELLOWS
Types
Mach meters as stand-alone indicators can display a fixpoint for the maximum AIRSPEED MACH
permissible mach number (MMO) for the aircraft type in question.
The MMO marking can be fixed with adhesive or come as an adjustable
version (workshop task).
Figure 54 Machmeter Principle
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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Machmeters
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 55 Machmeter Types

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Overspeed Warning
General
In airspeed indicators of jet aircraft you can find a pointer or a speed tape to
show the maximum allowed airspeed.
This is necessary because the speed limit is not a fixed value like the VNE in
piston engine aircraft.
VMO
At low altitudes the limit depends on the dynamic pressure which acts on the
aircraft structure. This limit is called maximum operating velocity or VMO in
short.
It is either constant or it increases slightly with increasing altitude. This is when
the compressibility error of the IAS is taken into account.
MMO
At higher altitudes the limit depends on the maximum allowed Mach number or
MMO in short.
This value decreases with increasing altitude because the speed of sound
decreases.
Warning
As soon as the IAS is as big as VMO or MMO, a warning is triggered.
The warning a red warning light or a red message which is accompanied by an
aural warning sound.
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High Speed
Limit
(Pointer)
JET AEROPLANE INDICATOR
High Speed
Limit
GLASS COCKPIT
PFD
Figure 56 Overspeed Indication

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Vertical Speed Indicators
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM)
Variometer BELLOWS
General
The variometer displays the vertical speed. To do this it measures air pressure
changes.
Common types are:
S aneroid variometer ( τ = 10 ... 6 s)
S diaphragm variometer ( τ = 6 ... 2 s)
S electrical variometer (pressure sensor + differentiator, τ = 0.5 ... 0 s)
S acceleration meter in the IRU.
The variometer (vertical speed indicator) is a pointer instrument, with which
vertical speed, climb or descent is measured. The scale is calibrated in ft/min
or m/sec. The range is from 0 to + 2000 ft/min (for light planes) and + 6000
ft/min (for commercial planes).
Mechanical Variometer (Principle of the Aneroid Variometer)

VSI, Vertical Speed Indicator (delayed indication)
Differential pressure bellows are contained in an airtight casing. The inside of
the bellows is pressurised directly with static pressure, the outside being
delayed via a capillary.
As long as static pressure remains constant, the same pressure acts on both
the inside and outside of the bellows. The indicator shows zero.
A change in altitude is immediately perceptible inside the bellows, but is
delayed on the outside due to capillary action and the larger volume.
A constant vertical movement is detected and displayed by the instrument. The

transition from one vertical speed to another is however subject to a time delay,
STATIC
so the pointer movement is delayed.
PRESSURE
CAPILLARY
INPUT
TUBE
Figure 57 Mech. Variometer Principle (delayed)
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CAPILLARY
CLIMB CLIMB CLIMB
PS PS PS
DESCENT DESCENT DESCENT
DESCEND CLIMB HORIZONTAL FLIGHT
CAPILLARY TUBE
STATIC
PRESSURE
ANEROID BELLOWS
VS INDICATOR
Figure 58 Variometer Principle (delayed)
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IVSI
General
IVSI means ”Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator” (Undelayed Indication).
To eliminate delay when the speed of descent is changing, an acceleration
piston is installed in the system.
The illustration shows with an arrow the effect of the piston working together
with the second capillary at the start of a descent, resulting in undelayed
indication.
Function
The IVSI indicator uses a small pump with a spring loaded piston.
If the aircraft starts a descent we get a negative gravity force. This moves the
piston up and increases the pressure inside the bellows before the static
pressure outside the aircraft changes.
During climb the effect is inversed.
Note that any vertical acceleration has this effect, so for example during a turn
with a high bank angle you get a wrong indication.
ATTENTION: Entry and exit from a turn leads to inaccurate indication.
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BELLOWS CLIMB
SCALE
STATIC
CAPILLARY
PRESSURE
TUBE 2
INPUT
PISTON
CYLINDER
VERTICAL SPEED
CAPILLARY
POINTER
TUBE 1 DESCENT
SCALE
Figure 59 Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

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Diaphragm Variometer
General
Because of the difference between static pressure and accumulator pressure a CAPILLARY GAP
force acts on the diaphragm and moves it together with the pointer.
Pressure is balanced out via the air gap between the diaphragm and the
casing. This air gap is sealed with badger hair.
The central position is set with a coiled spring.
Diaphragm variometers are exact and therefore popular as precision various. 0
Spring
DESCEND CLIMB
P static O
P static
Figure 60 Pilot Disk Variometer Principle
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MOBILE TONGUE
STATIC COMPENSATING BOTTLE
Figure 61 Pilot Disc Variometer Principle (mobile tongue type)

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Temperature Indicating Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEMS
General
Essentials OAT
For safety reasons the law stipulates that the ambient air temperature must be OAT means ”Outside Air Temperature”.
displayed in a commercial aircraft (Minimum Equipment). The OAT can be indicated on an analog scale attached to an external
Temperature display is used for: thermometer or on electronic display for which an external OAT sensor is
S detecting possible ice formation required.
S determining TAS This simple temperature indicating system is accurate up to an airspeed of 250
kts. Therefore it is used in small propeller driven aeroplanes and helicopters
S calculating engine performance (together with other engine data),
only.
S determining engine limits.
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Indicator
OAT Sensor
60
50 70
40
80
30
20 Indications
90
10
0 100
Thermometer with analogue scale

Figure 62 OAT Indication
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Temperature Measurement
Terms Measurement and Display
The following terms are used when measuring temperatures: Common temperature measuring probes
S SAT (Static Air Temperature), S are flush with the aircraft skin and supply temperature in the RAT form, or
is the actual temperature of the ambient air. S are held by a spacing foot (similar to the pitot tube) away from the skin in
In fast aeroplanes it must be calculated by an air data computer. the airstream to determine the TAT (Total Air Temperature).
S TAT (Total Air Temperature) [measured in total pressure] The basis for temperature measurement is always a resistor bridge.
is the sum of the ambient temperature and temperature generated by air In the case of analogue indicators with conventional construction the switching
compression. During flight the TAT is always higher than the SAT, as ram is directly in the instrument (with the exception of the measuring resistor).
air is present at the measuring probe, resulting in an increase in Modern instruments perform digital display and calculation (in the computer)
temperature: separately. The outside air temperature SAT (static air temperature) cannot be
TAT = SAT(1+0,2Mach2) in Kelvin determined directly. Calculation (analogue or digital) is done with the help of
S RAT (Ram Air Temperature) [probe in free airstream] additional data in the ADC (Air Data Computer).
It differentiates from TAT through the built-in error which arises from the fact Application
that the air flows freely over the temperature probe but is deflected by The outside air temperature is used:
flowing around the aircraft fuselage. Thus the RAT is somewhat lower than S for the display instrument
the TAT but higher than the SAT.
S to calculate not directly measurable values in the ADC or the FMC (Flight
Management Computer)
S for the flight recorder.
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Figure 63 TAT SAT Indication

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TAT Probe
TEMPERATURE - Fahrenheit
General
TEMPERATURE - Celsius
The TAT measuring probe has 2 or 3 temperature dependent PTC resistors. Air
flows around the heads of these resistors and then exits at the neck of the
probe. Thus the air velocity is slowed down to such an extent that a ram effect
occurs.
Heating
Heating elements prevent ice build-up. During flight the heating has no effect
on measurements. On the ground the heating is often switched off
automatically.
ATTENTION: Risk of burns!
RESISTANCE - OHMS
Aspirated TAT Probes
Some aeroplanes have TAT probes which are supplied with bleed air.
Aspirated TAT probes have the advantage that influences on the ground from SENSING ELEMENT 1
S sun rays and SENSING ELEMENT 2
S aircraft skin temperature
can be ignored. The outside air is carried along by compressed air blown
backwards (e.g. bleed air).
Errors/Effects
S Heating defects: HEATING
Danger of icing exists. ELEMENT
Indication: ice temperature
S Break in measuring wire:
Resistance is infinitely high.

Indication: +50°C upper stop
S Measuring wire short circuit:
Resistance is 0 ohm
Indication: −70°C lower stop
WIRING DIAGRAM
Figure 64 Resistance Characteristics of TAT
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Guide
TAT Probe
Air Flow out Air Flow
Air Flow Air Flow out
2 Sensing Elements
Sensed Air Flow out Bleed Air out

Heating Element
Sensed Air Flow out
TAT Probe Aspirated TAT Probe Bleed Air

Figure 65 TAT Probe
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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Air Data Computer
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AIR DATA COMPUTER
General
Requirements Pitot Static System
Hand in hand with developments in aviation, in other words the complexity of Aircraft with two air data computers have a separated pitot and static system
aircraft, demands on for each of them.
S air data diversity and In the figure below you can see the pitot and the static connections to the air
S air data precision data computers.
have grown considerably. Additionally, there is a pitot and static system for the standby air data
instruments.
Realisation
While retaining conventional air data conversion for every system requiring air
data, this has meant installing a large number of aneroid and differential
pressure instruments in the aircraft, taking tolerances required by law into
consideration.
Aircraft manufacturers sorted out this muddle of individual pressure
instruments by introducing the CADC (Central Air Data Computer).
Sometimes it is called ADC in short.
ADC Types
Basically, there are two types of air data computers:
S analogue Air Data Computer
S Digital Air Data Computer (DADC).
Main Task
The main uses of the CADC are:
S to measure and convert flight environment data, such as pitot pressure,

static pressure and temperature
S to correct static source errors and instrument errors (aneroid
characteristics)
S to determine values which are not directly measureable
S to provide air data values and transmit these to indicators and systems
connected to it.
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ASI ALT ASI ALT
MACH V/S V/S
TAS TAT
ADC 1 ADC 2
TO OTHER
SYSTEMS
Central Air Data Computers
Analogue Type
Figure 66 Pitot Static System with ADCs

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Analogue ADC
Modules Pin Programming
The Analogue Air Data Computer has three modules: An ADC can be used in different aircraft types and therefore it requires aircraft
S an altitude module characteristic data.
S an airspeed module This data comes either from an adapter which is attached to the computer or is
selected by pin programming. Here the ADC gets a ground signal via a specific
S a Mach module
rack connector pin depending on the aircraft type.
They calculate the necessary output signals for the electrical indicators and
other users.
The modules use pitot pressure and static pressure together with the
temperature to calculate these analog output signals.
Altitude Module
The Altitude module converts the static pressure to analog altitude and vertical
speed signals.
Airspeed Module
The Airspeed module calculates the dynamic pressure from the static and total
pressure to give the calibrated airspeed value.
Mach Module
The Mach module uses information from the other two modules to calculate the
Mach number.
If temperature is also supplied TAS (true airspeed) and SAT (static air
temperature) can be calculated.
SSEC
The air data computer also does corrections for the static source error or
SSEC in short.
The SSE depends primarily on the Mach number which comes from the Mach
module.
The SSE also depends on the location of the static ports and the fuselage
shape.
Some computers also use the angle of attack as well as the flap and gear
position to make the correction more accurate.
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ALTITUDE ALT
P
Static Module
V/S
P AIRSPEED
Tot Module CAS
Temp MACH TAS

Module MACH
Analog SAT
SSEC
ADC
ALTITUDE
MACH Module Aircraft Type
AIRSPEED Module
Module Angle of Attack
Flap - Position
Gear - Position
Pitot
Connection
Static
Connection
SSEC
Aircraft A
Aircraft B
Aircraft SSE Depends on

Adaptor Angle of Attack
Figure 67 Analogue ADC

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Input/Output
Input Data Systems Connected
Apart from conventional input data The following systems can be connected to the air data computer:
S static pressure S air data instruments (altitude, rate of altitude change, speed, mach number,
S pitot pressure temperature)
S total air temperature S autopilot / flight director
the following input data and conditions determine the operation of the air data S FMC (Flight Management Computer)
computer: S CPC (Cabin Pressure Control)
S selection of SSEC (Static Source Error Correction) S rudder pressure simulation
S barometric correction (in DADC) S navigation systems (INS, IRS)
S hold commands for the autopilot - maintain altitude, speed or mach number S altitude warning system
S altitude transmission commands from ATC (Air Traffic Control) S GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System)
S ground test commands S ATC transponder
S size of AOA (Angle Of Attack) S flight recorder
S the conditions: S TCC (Thrust Control Computer)
− gear permanently extended S EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System).
− heating of pitot tubes, static ports and sensors
Output data and Transmission Methods

The conventional output data are
S altitude (Alt)
S airspeed (A/S)
S mach number (M)
S TAS / SAT.
Further values are obtained from this conventional output data.

The means of transmission depends on the type of output data.
It ranges from synchro value to switching status to ARINC 545, 565.
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CADC
Figure 68 Analogue Air Data System

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Airspeed Indicator with Analogue Input

General
The illustration shows an electrical airspeed indicator. The airspeed value is
transmitted by the ADC in synchronised form.
By this, the device is an indicator.
Airspeed Instruments with bellows and airspeed indicators look the same.
An indicator which shows the airspeed but not the Mach number is used in
helicopters and slow aeroplanes only.
Function
The transmission of the speed value from the air data computer to the indicator
is technically the same as for an altimeter.
If there is an error, the OFF flag appears on the display.
IAS
An airspeed indicator shows the indicated airspeed, or IAS in short, which
directly depends on the dynamic pressure as the difference between total and
static pressure.
This IAS is proportional to all aerodynamic effects acting on the aircraft, like lift
and drag. The effectiveness of the flight controls also depend directly on the
dynamic pressure. The IAS is therefore a very important parameter for a safe
flight.
On the other hand the IAS only shows the real speed of the aircraft at mean
sea level with standard conditions.
This is because the airspeed indicator is calibrated to the standard air density,
and the real density of the air is not taken into account.
CAS
In aircraft equipped with air data computers and electrical instruments or glass
cockpits the airspeed indication shows the calibrated airspeed or CAS in short.
The CAS is corrected by any error which comes from the indicator and the
source of the static pressure. The correction is done by an air data computer,
so often you also find that CAS stands for computed airspeed.
In our example the CAS is 7 knots lower than the IAS.
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Ptot
ADC
Pstat
Correction of
Instrument Error
and
Static Source
Indicated Airspeed Error Calibrated Airspeed
IAS CAS
(Instrument) (Indicator)
Res bar in the speed indicator means Never exceed

CAS Indicator
Figure 69 Airspeed Indicator with Analogue Input

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MASI
General
MASI means Mach / airspeed indicator.
CAS
The transmission of the speed value from the air data computer to the indicator
is technically the same as for an airspeed indicator.
Mach
The transmission of the Mach number value from the air data computer to the
indicator is technically the same as for the CAS.
Flags
For each value, an air data computer transmits an additional valid discrete.
If the ADC detects an internal fault or does not work at all, the valid discrete is
not transmitted. As a result, the indicator will show a red flag for that value.
If the indicator detects an internal fault, it will also show the flag for the related
parameter.
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Ptot
ADC
Pstat
Correction of
Instrument Error
and
Static Source
Indicated Airspeed Calibrated Airspeed
Error
IAS MACH NUMBER + CAS
(Instrument) (Indicator)
M + TAS
a
Flags visible
High Speed Limit CAS Pointer CAS Indicator
Figure 70 Mach Airspeed Indicator with Analogue Input

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TAS Indicator
General
For navigation purposes you need the real speed of the aircraft. This is called
the true airspeed , or TAS in short and it is measured against the surrounding
air.
The transmission of the TAS value from the air data computer to the indicator
is technically the same as for an airspeed indicator.
Most jet aeroplanes with an air data computer have an TAS indicator.
Calculation
The speed formula for the speed is only valid when the medium used is
incompressible. Unfortunately air compresses at higher speeds and generates
a total pressure increase called the compressibility error.
When this compressibility error is compensated by the air data computer, the
result is called EAS (equivalent airspeed).
The true airspeed is calculated from the EAS by replacing the standard density
used before with the real density. This means the TAS increases with
increasing altitude and is only identical to the EAS at mean sea level.
In our example the TAS is 470 knots when we fly with an EAS of 278 knots at
30,000 ft.
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EAS
(calculating value)
Ptot
ADC
Pstat
Correction of
Compressibility
Error
Correction of
Instrument Error
EAS=278 kts
and
Static Source
Indicated Airspeed Calibrated Airspeed True Airspeed
Error
(IAS)=300 kts (CAS)=293 kts (TAS)=470 kts
IAS MACH NUMBER + CAS TAS

(Instrument) (Indicator) (Indicator)
ò
q + V2
2
Figure 71 TAS Indicator with Analogue Input

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VS Indicator
General
An air data computer provides the vertical speed indication, too.
The transmission of the vertical speed value from the air data computer to the
indicator is technically the same as for the other indicators.
The OFF flag monitors the indicator and the ADC signal.
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VS
ADC Flag
Figure 72 Vertical Speed Indicator with Analogue Input

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Digital ADC
General
Digital Air Data Computers or DADC in short, are used in modern aircraft. They
also receive pitot and static pressure from the respective pressure ports and
temperature from the temperature probe.
Pressure Transducers
Pressure transducers are used to convert the input pressures into electrical
signals.
S One type is the resistive bridge transducer.
S A second type of pressure transducer used in digital air data computers is
the vibrating cylinder.
The output of the pressure transducers is digitized and sent to the digital
computer. The digital computer calculates all output signals one after the other
and refreshes the data in a predetermined cycle, for example once a second.
Corrections
It also does the necessary data corrections such as for the static source error.
To do this, the DADC usually gets information about the aircraft type from a pin
programming and from the angle of attack and flap and gear position.
Output
The computed values are then transmitted to the instruments and other users
via several digital data busses.
Format
The format is usually ARINC 429.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Angle of Attack
Flap - Position
Gear - Position
Aircraft Type
P Pressure
Static Xducer
Data
Databus 1
Correction
P Pressure e.g. SSE
Tot Xducer
Databus 2
Input Digital
Temp Computer
Converter
Digital ADC
Figure 73 Digital ADC

HAM US/F-4 SaR Jul 1, 2007 11|Digital ADC|L2|B12 Page 127
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8

In modern aircraft you can find digital Vertical Speed Indicators.
This indicator normally uses an inertial vertical speed signal, called IVS from
the inertial reference unit, or IRU in short. The IRU combines the very quick
signal from its accelerometer with the slow signal from the ADC. By this, the
result is a smooth indication.
Example 1
If the IVS signal from the IRU is not available the vertical speed from the air
data computer is used automatically. A vertical speed signal from an air data
computer has the disadvantage that it shows the vertical speed with a delay.
A yellow IVS flag comes into view, if the IRU is not able to calculate VS.
Some vertical speed indicators have a second back up: the offside air data
computer. It depends on the type of the aircraft.
Example 2
The VS indicator receives the IVS speed from the onside IRU.
Using the source select switch it is possible to change to the offside IRU.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Example 1
IVS from IRU 1 (normal)

IRU 1
VS from DADC 1 (alternate)

DADC 1
IVSI 1
Example 2
IVS from IRU 1 (normal)

IRU 1
IVS from IRU 2 (alternate)

DADC 1
IVSI 1
Source Select Discrete
Figure 74 Vertical Speed Indicator with Digital Input

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Source Selection
General
In aircraft with digital air data computers, source select switches can be used to
select alternate sources for some indicators.
For example, air data selectors can be used to switch captain’s airspeed
indicator and altimeter to an other DADC.
The naming of the position depends on the aircraft manufacturer.
Please note that in aircraft with IRUs the vertical speed indicator is supplied by
the related IRU which is not an air data system but an attitude system.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Airbus
Boeing
Figure 75 Source Select Switches

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Primary Flight Display

General
In aircraft with digital air data computers, a glass cockpit can be installed. This
replaces the indicators.
The primary flight display (PFD) is a display which will show most of the air
data.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Altitude
Airspeed Vertical Speed
.525
Mach Number Selected Baro Correction
SPEED AP1
ALT BRT
20 20 33
140 32
10 10
31
120 3000
10 10 29
100 20 20 28
29
BRT
Figure 76 Primary Flight Displays

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Baro Correction
In aircraft with primary flight displays, the baro correction is selected at the
EFIS control panel.
EFIS means Electronic Flight Display System.
On many aircraft, the select knob can be pulled or oushed for immediate
standard baro correction.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Baro Correction
Baro Correction
DH BARD
EXT NAV PFD

SOURCE
CRS POS
EC 135
B747−400
Baro Correction
MD 11
Figure 77 EFIS Control Panels

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Navigation Display
General
In aircraft with a glass cockpit, a Navigation Display (ND) is be installed. This
will replace any TAS indicators and show the TAS (True Air Speed).
This is the only air data indication on this display.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TAS
PFD ND ND PFD
Figure 78 Navigation Display

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Hybrid ADC
General
A Hybrid ADC can be used as a replacement for old analog air data computers.
Externally it appears to be an analog ADC with the same analog inputs and
outputs.
Internally the Hybrid ADC is a modern computer with electronic pressure
transducers and a digital computer like the DADC. All signals are digitally
processed and corrected for errors before being transmitted to the digital to
analog converter.
As in the DADC, the output signals are also available in digital format on a
databus. Both analog & degital
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
P Pressure
Static Xducer ALT
V/S
Digital SAT
Pressure to
P
Tot Xducer Analog TAS
Converter
MACH
CAS
Temp Input
Converter
Digital Databus
Computer
Hybrid ADC
Figure 79 Hybrid ADC

HAM US/F-4 SaR Jul 1, 2007 19|Hybrid ADC|L2|B12 Page 139
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Air Data Initial Reference Unit (ADIRU)

ADM
In this system, air data modules (ADM) convert the pitot and static pressure
instead of ADCs.
The air data modules contain pressure transducers which are the same type as
are used in the DADC.
ADIRU
Now the computer consists of the digital parts only and as a result, requires
little space. This allows the ADC to be integrated with the IRU.
The result is a black box called the air data inertial reference unit or ADIRU in
short.
DMC
In the example shown below, the computers which manage the glass cockpit
are named ”display management computer” (DMC).
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
IRU
PFD ND ALT ND PFD
P Pressure
ASI
Static Xducer
DMC DMC
ADM Databus 1
Pressure
P
Tot Xducer
Other Other
Systems Systems ADM Databus 2
Norm Alternate Norm Digital
Input
Temp Converter Computer
Digital ADC
ADM ADM ADM

ADM
ADIRU 1 ADIRU 3 ADIRU 2
TAT Probe
AOA Sensor
Note: ADMs near Pitot Probes and Static Ports
Figure 80 ADIRU
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ADM
General
ADM means Air Data Module.
ADMs convert the pitot or static pressure and transmit the data to an ADIRU.
The air data modules contain pressure transducers which are the same type as
are used in the DADC.
They are located near the static port or pitot probe and convert the air pressure
directly into a digital data word. In the latest generation, the static port or the
pitot probe are united with the ADM, so there is no tube between them
This saves weight and maintenance costs because the data is sent to the
Computers via a digital data bus, only the standby instruments still need to be
supplied by tubes.
Within an aircraft type, all ADMs have the same part number and are
interchangeable. By pin programming, they now their task (pitot or static and
system number). This information is sent on the same data bus as the
pressure value.
Power Supply
Power supply is from the related ADIRU.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
IRU
P Pressure
ADM Static Xducer
ADM Databus 1
P Pressure
Tot Xducer
ADM Databus 2
Input Digital
Temp Computer
Plug Converter
Digital ADC
ADIRU
Tube
Figure 81 Air Data Module

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Overspeed Warning
General
In airspeed indicators of jet aircraft you can find a pointer or a speed tape to
show the maximum allowed airspeed.
The overspeed limit is calculated in the digital air data computer (DADC). The
digital output of the DADC contains the overspeed limit. These data are
transmitted to the indicator or indicator system.
VMO
At low altitudes the limit depends on the dynamic pressure which acts on the
aircraft structure. This limit is called maximum operating velocity or VMO in
short.
It is either constant or it increases slightly with increasing altitude. This is when
the compressibility error of the IAS is taken into account.
MMO
At higher altitudes the limit depends on the maximum allowed Mach number or
MMO in short.
This value decreases with increasing altitude because the speed of sound
decreases.
Warning
As soon as the IAS is as big as VMO or MMO, the DADC triggers a warning
discrete.
This warning discrete is sent to the warning system of the aircraft.
The warning a red warning light or a red message which is accompanied by an
aural warning sound.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ALT (ft)
50
40 High Speed
MMO
Limit
(Pointer)
30
20
VMO
10
Low Speed
Limit depends
on Weight
0
IAS (kts)
200 250 300 350 400 450 Jet Aeroplane Indicator
Table
(Example)
High Speed
Limit
DADC Indicator
Warning
Overspeed
System
Glass Cockpit
PFD
Figure 82 Overspeed Indication

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Integrated Standby Instrument System (ISIS)

General Front Panel
It replaces three conventional standby instruments: The face of the ISIS indicator has:
S the standby altimeter S two (+ and −) brightness adjustment pushbutton switches
S the standby horizon indicator S a LS pushbutton switch for the engagement/disengagement of the
S the standby airspeed indicator. ILS function
S a light sensor
Description
S a BARO rotary knob/pushbutton switch. The pushbutton switch is used to
The ISIS is composed of: change the barometric pressure (which can be adjusted by the rotary knob)
S a pressure module with its associated pressure sensors, to the standard pressure and back again.
S an inertial module with its associated gyrometers and accelerometers,
Connections
S a computation module for operational parameters calculation (altitude,
The back of the ISIS indicator is equipped with an electrical connector, a total
airspeed, attitude) and graphics generation,
pressure pneumatic connector and a static pressure pneumatic connector.
S a display module (Colour LCD).
Display
ISIS can display:
S airspeed
S Mach number
S pitch and roll angles
S altitude
S reference barometric pressure in hPa.
Optionally, ISIS can also display:
S metric altitude
S barometric correction in in. Hg.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TM A330/340
Figure 83 ISIS Display

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ISIS Interface
The ISIS indicator has various inputs.
Digital Inputs
The ISIS indicator receives digital data inputs from the following components:
S Inertial Reference
− The ISIS indicator is provided with the optional magnetic heading
indication .
In normal configuration, the parameters displayed on the ISIS indicator come
from the ADIRU 1.
S ILS 1 (or MMR 1)
− The ISIS indicator is provide with the LS function.
Discrete inputs
The ISIS indicator receives the following discrete inputs:
S Ground signal from the ATT/HDG selector switch
S pin−program
S Test discrete input.
Pressure Inputs
The ISIS indicator receives pitot pressure and static pressure.
Digital Outputs
Digital outputs are sent to the central maintenance system for maintenance
purposes.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LCD COLOR
SCREEN
ISIS INDICATOR SUBASSEMBLIES PSU

S PSM: PRESSURE SENSOR MODULE
S PSU: POWER SUPPLY UNIT
CPGDM
S FIB: FILTERING BOARD
S IMU: INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT SILICON PRESSURE
IMU
SENSORS
S INB: INTERFACE BOARD
S OPM: OPTICAL MODULE
S CPGDM: CONTROL PROCESSOR AND
GRAPHIC DISPLAY MODULE
INB
OPM
PSM
FIB
INERTIAL MEASUREMENT
UNIT
3X GYROMETERS 2X ACCELEROMETERS
Figure 84 ISIS Internal Components
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK


M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LEGEND:
STATIC PRESSURE PIPE
TOTAL PRESSURE PIPE
BUS IRS 1 BUS IRS 3

OPTIONAL FRONT FACE TILTING
FUNCTIONS ISIS
Pt Ps
TEST DISCRET INPUT

BUS ILS 1
BUS LS
STBY PITOT
PROBE ADM Pt
ADM Ps
L/H STATIC R/H STBY

PROBE
PROBE
Ps Pt
ADIRU 1 CMC1 CMC2 ADIRU 3
ILS 1
(OR MMR 1)
Figure 85 ISIS Interface

INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) AOA Indicating and Stall Warning Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AOA INDICATING AND STALL WARNING SYSTEMS
AOA Sensor
General
The lift acting on the wings is strongly dependent on the angle of attack. The
greater the angle of attack, the greater the lift. However, for every surface
profile there is an individual maximum value which must not be exceeded, as
otherwise the airflow over the surface breaks down.
The angle between the air stream and the wing chord can be calculated in
various ways:
A)
with a lift transducer, which is located below the forward wing surface and
senses changes in direction and intensity of the stagnation point.
B)
with a wind vane forward on the side of the fuselage, which senses the
angle of the air stream and which, articulated (force-free through
counterweights), can assume any position on the ground.
C)
with an airstream tube, which, with two rows of holes or slits, lies crosswise
to the air stream and senses the angle of attack by comparing pressures
(P1 − P2).
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Vane
A)
C)
A P1
B)
Airflow
Wing Chord
P2
Airflow
Figure 86 AOA Sensor

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Angle of Attack Indication

General
Aircraft can only fly if the wing generates sufficient lift, which depends mainly
on the wing geometry, the airspeed and the angle of attack.
To keep a constant lift as the airspeed decreases you must increase the angle
of attack or you must change the wing geometry by extending the slats and
flaps.
At a certain angle of attack, called the alpha max, the airflow cannot follow the
upper surface of the wing and an airflow separation occurs.
In some aeroplanes you can find an angle of attack indication. It shows the
pilot the actual angle of attack measured by the alpha vane.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
12 °
AOA Indicator
C
L
C
L Max
Actual
Angle
other aircraft systems
AOA Sensor
Actual
Angle
Figure 87 Angle of Attack Indication

HAM US/F-4 SaR Jul 1, 2007 02lAOA Indication|L1|B12|M11 Page 155
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Stall Warning System

General WING
An aircraft must move through the air at a sufficiently high speed to maintain CHORD ANGLE OF AIRCRAFT
the necessary lift. If the speed is reduced, the angle of attack must be reduced ATTACK LONGITUDINAL
to maintain altitude. The angle between the air stream and wing chord AXIS
becomes greater. This angle is called the a angle (angle of attack). The
diagram ’Coefficient of Lift/Angle of Attack’ (CL/ a) shows that pulling back the
stick is only practical to a certain a angle. After that the aircraft loses lift if it is
pulled back too far. The loss of lift is due to the loss of airflow over the upper FLIGHT
surface of the wing. DIRECTION
We differentiate between initial buffet, at the beginning of loss of airflow (low
speed buffet), and stall speed, reduced lift from pulling back too far.
Many large aeroplanes do not have an AOA indicator.
Necessity
If the approaching stall speed is not immediately noticeable through initial buffet
(e.g. shaking of the rudder), a stall warning system must be installed on the
aircraft. It has the purpose of alerting the crew to the hazardous situation of a
stall and in an emergency of an uncontrolled flight condition. Warning is given
by the shaking of a motor on the stick.
Brief Description of the System

A stall warning system consists of the following components:
S angle of attack sensor
S flap-slat position transmitter
S stall warning computer/controller
S stick shaker.
Angle of attack (a) and flap position are compared to each other in the
computer.
If during flight the maximum possible a angle is exceeded (dependent on the
flap position), a motor (the stick shaker) shakes the control column. The
system has comprehensive monitoring and test devices.
Figure 88 Stall Warning Curve
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Polar Diagram
C
L
Indicator
Actual
Angle
Stick Shaker
AOA Sensor
C
C
D
Slat/Flap Max
Position Angle
Stall
Stall Warning Computer

Figure 89 Stall Warning System
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Stall Warning System - Digital

Because of the extension of tasks of the digital stall warning system compared
to the analogue system, this is now known as the STALL WARNING
MANAGEMENT COMPUTER SYSTEM (SWMCS).
The SWMCS consists of:
S stall warning management computer
S master monitor card
S stick shaker.
The system becomes active at > 140 kts or at pitch angle > 5°. The system is
switched off at < 40 kts, thus on the ground. Errors in the system are reported
to EICAS and the CMC. The SWMCS can be checked by the CMC both on the
ground and in the air.
Functions
The SWMCS has the following functions:
S activation of the stick shaker
S calculation of pitch limit for EICAS, GPWC
S calculation of the stick shaker speed VBFLO (MIN OP SPEED)
S calculation of the MIN MAN SPEED
S BITE supply to the CMC and EIU (EICAS).
Operations
The maximal angle of attack is a variable value. Exceeding the maximum angle
of attack leads to a response from both stick shaker motors. The SWMC
receives flap position from the FCUs to calculate the maximum angle of attack.
Correction of the maximum angle of attack takes place by means of signals M
and CAS from the ADC.

The IRS corrects the calculated pitch limit signal.
HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 1, 2012 05|Stall Warning Digital|L2|B12|M11 Page 158
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
FLAP POS
LEFT FCU
FLAP POS
RIGHT FCU
V BFLO GPWS
MASTER
LEFT FMC MONITOR
CARDS
V BFLO
RIGHT FMC LEFT
EIU
NOSE GEAR STATUS
AIR/GROUND
PSEU
CENTER
AOA, TAS, CAS, MACH, EIU
VMO/MMO
SEL ADC
PITCH ANGLE
PITCH RATE RIGHT
LONG ACCEL EIU
SELECTED NORM ACCEL
PITCH LIMIT
IRS MAX OP SPEED
FLAP POSITION LEFT STALL MIN OP SPEED
CENTER WARNING MIN MAN SPEED
FCU MANAGEMENT SYST FAULT
CAPT:
SPEEDBRAKE CONTROL COMPUTER
AFCS MODE LEVER POSITION
SHAKER MOTOR
CONTROL
PANEL
STALL WARN :TEST

LEFT CMC
28 VDC BAT BUS
RIGHT CMC 28 VDC BUS 2
RIGHT STALL F/O

WARNING
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER SHAKER MOTOR
MAWEA
Figure 90 Stall Management Computer System

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 1, 2012 05|Stall Warning Digital|L2|B12|M11 Page 159
INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Altitude Reporting / Altitude Alerting Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ALTITUDE REPORTING / ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEMS
Altitude Alert
General Approach Mode
The altitude alert system is usually integrated in the autoflight or central Activated by an altitude difference (D h) of 750 (900) ft :
warning system of the aircraft, but there are systems which have their own S short continuous sound
computer.
S lamp illuminated continuously.
The altitude alert system, or just Altitude Alert is to inform the crew shortly
The altitude alert ends when the preset altitude is D h 250 (300) ft away.
before reaching the desired height with an amber lamp and a short sound.
Another more important purpose is to warn the crew if the desired nominal Deviation Mode
altitude has been left by more than a certain D h. This warning is also given
Activated when the aircraft has deviated more than 250 (300) ft from the preset
visually and acoustically. Thus we distinguish between two warning conditions:
altitude:
S approach warning
S short continuous sound
S deviation warning.
S lamp flashes.
The altitude alert ends when the aircraft regains the original altitude (, 250
(300) ft) or if the aircraft is more than 750 (900) ft from the original altitude.
The altitude alert system is deactivated by the extension of the flaps or landing
gear on landing approach, as the altitude will then of course be constantly
changing.
The system is also INOP when:
S ALT SEL is changed on the control panel
S the aircraft is in GEAR DOWN condition.
HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 01, 2012 01a|Alert General|L1|A/B12|M11 Page 160
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ
NO
NOWARNING
WARNING
+ 750 FT
(+ 900 FT)
APPROACH DEVIATION
WARNING WARNING
ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
+ 250 FT
DELTA ALTITUDE
(+ 300 FT)
NO WARNING
SELECTED
0 FT ALTITUDE
NOWARNING
NO WARNING
- 250 FT
(- 300 FT)
APPROACH DEVIATION
WARNING WARNING
- 750 FT
(- 900 FT)
NO WARNING
NO WARNING
Figure 91 Warning Profile of an Analogue System
HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 01, 2012 01a|Alert General|L1|A/B12|M11 Page 161
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Aircraft in
LDG Config
Altitude
Alert
Selected Altitude Knob Rotation Inhibit
Detected ALTITUDE
+ 900
+ 300
Actual Altitude
Chime
- 300
ADC - 900
Approaching
Mode
Altitude Alert System
Figure 92 Altitude Alert System Overview
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Aircraft in
LDG Config
Altitude
Alert
Inhibit
Selected Altitude Knob Rotation
Detected ALTITUDE
+ 900
+ 300
Actual Altitude
Chime
- 300
ADC - 900
Deviation
Mode
Altitude Alert System
Figure 93 Altitude Alert System Overview

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 01, 2012 01b|Alert General|L1|B12|M11 Page 163
INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Altitude Reporting / Alerting Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ALTITUDE ALERT - DIGITAL

Modes of the Altitude Alert System
The digital altitude alert system has the following modes:
S approach ( > +/– 900 ft from the Sel Alt )
S deviation ( A/C deviates +/– 300 ft from the Sel Alt )
S capture ( Alt not in alert range )
S reset ( Dev. > +/– 900 ft, Appr. < +/– 300 ft )– Inhibit
Computer and Indications
The altitude alert computer is located in the crew alerting card.
The card compares the Baro Corr Alt with the Sel Alt, determines from this the
mode and sends outputs to EFIS, EICAS, the CMC and the aural warning
system.
Inputs for the altitude alert system are signals from:
S ADC (Baro Corr Alt)
S AD source select switch (Sel ADC R)
S AP/FD MCP (Sel Alt, G/S Capture, FCC Comm.)
S parking brake system (parking brake not set)
On the PFD the Sel Alt is shown.
In the approach mode there is a white box around the Sel Alt.
In the deviation mode the Alt readout box changes from white to yellow.
On EICAS the caution message ALTITUDE ALERT appears, Master Caution
illuminates and the owl tone sounds.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
+900’ 1
ALTITUDE APPROACH POINT
LEVEL B AURAL
+300’
ALTITUDE CAPTURE POINT
SELECTED ALTITUDE
LEVEL B AURAL
−300’
ALTITUDE CAPTURE POINT
−900’
ALTITUDE APPROACH POINT
1 1
NO INDICATIONS (CAPTURE, RESET, OR INHIBIT MODE)
ALTITUDE READOUT BOX ON PFD’s CHANGE FROM HALF−INTENSITY TO FULL−INTENSITY WHITE;

WHITE BOX IS DISPLAYED AROUND THE SELECTED ALTITUDE READOUT ON PFD’S (APPROACH MODE)
ALTITUDE READOUT BOX ON PFD’S CHANGE FROM WHITE TO YELLOW;
CAUTION MESSAGE ”>ALTITUDE ALERT” APPEARS ON MAIN EICAS DISPLAY;
MASTER CAUTION LIGHT COMES ON (DEVIATION MODE)
1 ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM RESETS
Figure 94 Warning Profile of the Digital System
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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK


M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
L
C
Y
C
MAWEA
Figure 95 Altitude Alert System Schematic - Digital

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Altitude Reporting
General
The air traffic control (ATC) on ground can find out the direction and the
distance of an aircraft by the use of a radar system.
But for normal civil air surveillance it is not possible to find out the altitude of an
aircraft directly. For this reason, an ATC transponder is installed in the aircraft.
The ground system transmits an interrogation and the ATC transponder
answers with a reply. The reply contains the altitude of the aircraft.
ATC System
The ATC transponder is part of the ATC system. The ATC system is a radio
navigation system.
The ATC transponder receives the altitude information either from an encoding
altimeter or from an air data computer.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ATC Transponder
ATC Antenna
ATC Transponder
REPLY
Encoding Altimeter
INTERROGRATION
ATC Antenna
ATC Transponder
ADC
Tower
Figure 96 Altitude Reporting
HAM US/O-53 WaH Feb 08, 2017 04|Report|L2|B12|M11 Page 169
INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Clock
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
CLOCK
Analogue Display
Example A 320 UTC Selector
An UTC selector allows Date or Time updating.
UTC Centre Display
S MO : to set months and years
The Centre Display (UTC) indicates the current time (hours, minutes).
Periods of 15 seconds are indicated by three horizontal segments. S DY : to set day
On request, the current date (month, day) is displayed when the SET knob is S HR : to set hours
pressed. S MIN : to set minutes
S RUN : to start the UTC counter
Elapsed Time Display and Elapsed Time Selector
The UTC selector must be pressed an turned to set it from RUN to MIN
A Bottom Display, called the ET (Elapsed Time) indicates:
position.
S The elapsed time, provided the ET Selector is set to RUN.
The ET Display is frozen if the ET Selector is set from RUN back to STOP. Set Knob
S Or the year when the UTC Selector is set to MO. A SET knob allows the current date to be displayed if the UTC selector is set to
The counter is reset to zero and the display goes off when the ET Selector is RUN.
set to RST (Reset) position. The SET knob is also used to update time and date according to the UTC
selector position.
Chronometer Display and CHR Pushbutton To increment: turn to either side
An Upper Display, called CHR (Chronometer) indicates the minutes provided To decrement: push lightly.
the chronometer pushbutton has been pressed.
The seconds are indicated by a sweep hand. Test
Pressing the CHR pushbutton again will stop the chronometer function. The clock is tested from the ANN LT selector.
To reset the chronometer to zero, the CHR pushbutton has to be pressed a S All displays must show 8.
third time.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
SET KNOB
MO UTC SELECTOR
DATE DY
HR
CHRONOMETER MIN
SET UT C
DISPLAY RUN
50 CHR 10
HR MIN UTC CENTRE DISPLAY
ELAPSED TIME
DISPLAY
MO UTC DY
ELAPSED TIME 40 HR MIN 20

SELECTOR CHRONOMETER
PUSHBUTTON
ET
RUN T
E
S
T
O CHR
P
RST
Figure 97 Clock A320 Configuration 1

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Example B 747 − 430
The primary function of the clock is to give time reference to other aeroplane
systems and to display universal time coordinated (UTC).
Universal time coordinated was previously known as Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT).
The secondary function of the clock is to give a display of elapsed time or
chronograph time.
Universal time coordinated and elapsed time are displayed by a liquid crystal
numeric type display.
Chronograph minutes are displayed by the liquid crystal display and the
seconds displayed by a continuous sweep second hand.
The clock sends UTC and date to other aeroplane systems on an ARINC 429
bus.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
DATA
MANAGEMENT
UNIT
FLIGHT
START/STOP/ UTC/DATE MANAGEMENT
RESET COMPUTER
SYSTEM
CENTRAL
MAINTENANCE
CLOCK SWITCH
COMPUTER
SYSTEM
CLOCK
Figure 98 Clock B747−430

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Digital Display
Example A 320 (Digital Display) Operation of the ET counter is controlled by a three−position selector switch,
UTC is displayed in digital form in the UTC window : RUN/STP/RST (item 6) ,and is located in the right lower angle of the face of
the clock.
S two digits for the hours (item 1)
S RUN position: counter runs
S the two next digits for the minutes (item 2)
S STP position: counter stops. Display is frozen
S the next smaller digits for the seconds (item 3).
S RST position: the counter is reset to zero (momentary position) and displays
A three−position selector switch identified GPS/INT/SET, located in the go off.
right middle section of the face of the clock, provides the three following
functions (item 5): Chronometer Indication
S GPS position: the time display is controlled by the GPS receiver The CHR time is displayed in digital form on the upper window: minutes and
seconds (the second pair of digits marked SEC).
S INT position: the time display is controlled by the clock internal time base
The chronometer is controlled by a pushbutton switch located in the right upper
S SET position: this position allows to set the clock internal time base.
corner of the clock face, identified CHR and which can select two sequences
Setting of Time and Date when pushed (in):
NOTE: DURING SETTING OF TIME OR DATE, ONLY THE DIGITS WHICH S First push: the chrono time starts counting in seconds followed by the
ARE FLASHING CAN BE SET. THE OTHER DIGITS ARE minutes
UNCHANGED. S Second pressure: the chrono time stops counting. To restart the CHR time
The selector switch (item 5) must be in position „SET“. the pushbutton RST has to be pressed.
Increasing Setting: by rotation of the SET pushbutton switch, located in the left Date Indication
middle section of the face of the clock, clockwise. Display instead of time in the UTC display.
Decreasing Setting: by rotating of the SET pushbutton switch, counter Indication of the days by the right two digits .Indication of the months by the
clockwise. two digits on the left.
The minutes digits are flashing first when the selector switch is in the SET The date is displayed by pressing the DATE pushbutton switch when the time
position, then the hours digits when the SET knob is pressed once, then the of the day is displayed.
years digits, then the months digits and eventually the days digits.
NOTE: THE DATE IS DISPLAYED ONLY IF SPECIFICALLY SELECTED
Elapsed Time (ET) UPON CREW REQUEST OR IF SET FOR UPDATING PURPOSES.
Elapsed time is displayed in digital form:
Loss of Aircraft Battery Power Supply
S two digits for the hours (item 7 marked HR)
The time keeping function is lost, but can be recovered through the GPS
S the two next digits for the minutes (marked MIN). channel after the battery power has been restored (switch to GPS mode).
The elapsed time counter can totalize up to 99 hours 59 minutes.
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Figure 99 Digital Clock

HAM US/O-5 WaH Aug 3, 2012 02|Digital|L1|B12 Page 175
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Interface
Power L FMC Time/ Date Inputs
The clocks get power from the Main Hot, Battery Bus and the APU Battery Primary source of date and time (UTC) is the GPSSU (Global Positioning
Bus. System Sensor Unit) or MMR (Multi Mode Receiver) if installed)) when INS is
With power removed from the aeroplane, the clock uses the 28 volt dc from the in operation.
Main Hot Battery Bus as a keep alive voltage to power the clocks time base Secondary source is captain’s clock.
circuits. When this occurs, there will be no time display or digital output to other Back-Up source is F/O clock (via right FMC)
aeroplane systems. When power is applied to the aeroplane, the clocks
monitor power from the APU Battery Bus. If the clock senses voltage on the R FMC Time/ Date Inputs
APU Battery Bus input, power from the Main Hot Battery Bus will power the Primary source of date and time is the GPSSU (or Multi Mode Receiver if
time base, display and the digital outputs. installed) when INS is in operation.
Control Secondary source is captains clock (via left FMC).
The front of the clock contains controls for: Back-Up source is F/O clock
S Elapsed time EIU Time/ Date Inputs
S Chronograph Primary source of date and time is L FMC.
S Date/Time display Secondary source of date and time is R FMC.
S Date/Time set
DMU Time/ Date Inputs
The chronograph (CHR) function can be controlled by a remote clock switch.
Primary source of date and time is captains clock.
Output Secondary source is F/O‘s clock.
The clocks send universal time coordinated and date from the clocks on an
ARINC 429 bus to the: DFDAC Time/ Date Inputs
S FMC‘s (Flight Management Computers), Primary source of date and time are EIUs.
S DMU (Data Management Unit) and Secondary source of date and time are EIUs.
S CMCs (Central Maintenance Computers).
CMC Time/ Date Clock Inputs

The left and right CMC get time and date from the captain’s clock.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
1 TIME&DATE from GPSSU or MMR (if installed)

DATE CAPT CLOCK
TIME
CAPTAIN CLOCK INPUT CLOCK
SWITCH INPUT
LEFT FLIGHT TO DFDAC

MANAGEMENT COMPUTER VIA EIUS
CAPT CLOCK
UTC TO
COCKPIT VOICE
RECORDER
LEFT CENTRAL
28V DC APU MAINTENANCE COMPUTER
BAT. BUS
C10530
CLOCK DISP
28V DC MAIN
HOT BAT.
BUS C1220
ELECTRONIC RIGHT CENTRAL
CLOCK MAINTENANCE COMPUTER
P6 MAIN PWR DIST PNL

DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT
DATE
F/O CLOCK CLOCK
TIME INPUT OUTPUT
1 TIME&DATE from GPS or MMR (if installed)
RIGHT FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT COMPUTER
1 CAPTAIN’S CLOCK IS PRIMARY SOURCE OF BOTH
F/O CLOCK FMCS UNLESS CAPTAIN’S CLOCK FAILS THEN
SWITCH F/O CLOCK F/O’S CLOCK BECOMES THE PRIMARY SOURCE.
Figure 100 B747 - 430 Clock Interface

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Recording Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
RECORDING SYSTEMS
Overview
General Monitoring System
In an aircraft, various recording systems can be installed. In order to find out the condition of some aircraft parts, for example the
Some systems are mandatory. Some systems are optional. engines, many aircraft have an monitoring system installed which records
many data from various systems.
On Board Maintenance System It is used by the engineering to find out which aircraft parts are in a critical
In order to speed up repairs in case of a malfunction, many aircraft have an on condition and may have the risk of a malfunction in the near future. By this,
board maintenance system installed which stores faults. engines and other parts can be used as long as possible on the one hand and
The faults are reported by the computers of various aircraft systems. on the other hand they can be replaced at the home base before they cause
trouble in flight.
In most aircraft with such a system it is filed in ATA chapter 45. In some aircraft
it is filed in ATA chapter 31. The system is filed in ATA chapter 31.
However, the on board maintenance system is discussed in EASA sub-module In some aircraft types, the flight recorder system and the monitoring system
M11.18, M12.18 or M13.10. share some components.
The data is not only recorded. It can be sent to the engineering department
Cockpit Voice Recorder during flight via a data transmission system.
A voice recorder is used to record the communication of the pilots and the The manufacturers found different names for the monitoring system:
sounds in the cockpit. It is used for accident investigation after a crash.
S ACMS (Aircraft Condition Monitoring System)
This system is mandatory.
S AIDS (Aircraft Integrated Data System)
The system is filed in ATA chapter 23.
S ADAS (Aircraft Data Aquisition System)
However, the cockpit voice recorder system is discussed in EASA sub-module
S HUMS (Health and Usage Monitoring System).
M11.5.2, M12.7.2 or M13.4.
Flight Data Recording System

A flight data recorder system is used to record data from various aircraft
systems and sensors. It is used for accident investigation after a crash.

This system is mandatory.
The system is filed in ATA chapter 31.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
SYSTEM / VOICE RECORDING / MONITORING PURPOSE
System Computers On Board Maintenance System Trouble Shooting
Voice Communication Cockpit Voice Recorder Accident Investigation
Sensors
System Computers Flight Data Recording System Accident Investigation
Sensors
System Computers Monitoring System Monitoring of engines, APU and aircraft usage
by Ground Engineer Department
Figure 101 Recording and Monitoring Systems

FRA US/O-5 WeR Sep 12, 2014 01|General|L1|A/B12 Page 179
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Flight Data Recording System

Regulations Flight and Aircraft Data
Aviation law demands that a flight data recorder and a cockpit voice recorder The basic parameters for all recorders are:
are installed on commercial aircraft. The recorders are used to reconstruct the S altitude (STD ALT)
flight after an accident or incident.
S airspeed
The flight data recorder must
S vertical acceleration ( VAcc )
S record data on how the crew conduct themselves from before the actual
S course (magnetic HDG)
independent movement of the aircraft and ends when the aircraft can no
longer move under its own engine power, All parameters must be allocated with a time. Furthermore, for aircraft with a
weight exceeding 27,000 kg and certified before 01.01.87 the following are
S be bright orange or yellow with reflective stripes,
required:
S have a transmitter, which enables it to be located under water,
S beginning of each voice radio transmission/ATC event
S have a recording capacity of 25 hours which is continuously updated when
S pitch attitude
in operation (aircraft with take-off weights under 5700 kg need only 10 hours
recording capacity). S roll attitude
The installation of a flight data recorder in an aircraft is governed by the and for aircraft certified after 01.01.87:
relevant construction regulations (for large aeroplanes for example the CS-25 S thrust of each engine
or FAR-25). S lift configuration (lift/drag)
The data capacity of the recorder regarding aircraft operation (weight, number S air temperature
of seats, date of certification) is governed by EU-OPS 1 −715,−720,−725, or
S auto flight control mode
FAR §121.343 (Operating Requirement).
S angle of attack (AOA).
In addition for aircraft with a weight greater than 27,000 kg, certified after
01.01.87:
S position of the primary flight controls
S pitch trim
S radio altitude
S primary navigation indications
S cockpit warnings
S landing gear position.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 102 Flight Data Recorder

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Digital Flight Data Recording System

Architecture Logic
The figure shows the basic architecture of a digital flight data recorder system. The ON/OFF Logic is a set of switches and relays.
It provides the recorder with power when the aircraft is in flight.
Acquisition Unit
In most aircraft, it also provides power if the engines are running.
The acquisition unit receives various data from aircraft systems and
parameters from some sensors. In helicopters, it will provide power if the rotor speed is above 50%.
Additionally, it receives information about date and flight leg from the flight Panel
management computer.
The panel can be used by the pilots for a preflight check and by maintenance
Since this unit might have additional functions in some aircraft types the name personell. A switch is used to override the logic.
may be different.
Recorder
Accelerometer
The reorder will start working as soon as it gets power from the logic or the
The accelerometer is part of the flight recorder system in medium and large panel. If it does not work, this OFF-status will be indicated.
aeroplanes.
It provides the parameters for linear acceleration along all three axis. Monitoring
The recorder sends back the recorded data to the acquisition unit. By this,
correct recording is monitored.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Underwater
Locator
Beacon
Status Signal
Linear
Accelerometer
Status
Signal
Aircraft
Systems
Harvard Bi−phase
Parameters
Harvard Bi−phase
Playback
Status Signal
Digital Flight Data Recorder

(DFDR)
Bipolar
Return to Zero
Recorder
Status Signals Control
OPTIONAL Panel
Figure 103 Digital Flight Data Recorder System

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Flight Data Recorder Location in Aeroplanes

Regulations Location
For aircraft with a weight below 5700 kg the flight recorder and cockpit voice Class II data recorders in civil commercial aircraft are mainly located in the tail
recorder can be in the form of a single unit. Depending on the classification of section.
the flight data recorder, various locations are possible.
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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LOCATION A310
LOCATION B737
Figure 104 Location Flight Data Recorder (Aeroplanes)

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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ULB
General
All flight data recorders have an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB) to locate
the aircraft under water if it crashes into the sea.
The ULB and the Flight Recorder can withstand depths of more than 3000
metres.
Transmission Signal
The ULB transmits an audio signal at 40 kHz that can be picked up by an
underwater microphone.
The transmission starts automatically when the battery of the beacon comes in
contact with water and continues for a minimum of 30 days.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 105 Underwater Locator Beacon

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Gyroscopic Principles
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
General
Types of Gyroscopes CAUTION: GYROSCOPES ARE MECHANICAL PRECISION
Three types of gyroscopes are used in aviation today: INSTRUMENTS AND MUST BE HANDLED WITH CARE.
S gyroscopes which work on a mechanical basis IF POSSIBLE GYROSCOPES SHOULD BE INSTALLED AND
REMOVED ONLY WHEN STATIONARY.
S gyroscopes which work on an optical basis
IF TIME IS TOO SHORT (STOPPING TIME ABOUT 10 - 15
S gyroscopes which work on an oscillation basis.
MIN.) A FAST RUNNING GYROSCOPE MAY ALSO BE
Mechanical Gyroscopes REMOVED.
IN NO CASE MAY A GYROSCOPE RUNNING AT MEDIUM
Depends on
General SPEED BE REMOVED (AFTER APPROX. 3 MINS. FROM
Mechanical gyroscopes, which are electrically driven in most aircraft, are the SWITCHING OFF) AS THE GYRO WILL TEND TO
basic components of a number of devices for instrument flight. FLOUNDER.
A gyroscope has certain properties which are used for the artificial horizon, the BEARINGS AND FRAME CAN BE DESTROYED!
directional gyro and the turn-and-bank indicator.
For a basic knowledge of the function of these devices an introductory
explanation is necessary. Gyroscope removal is done
S A gyroscope is a fast rotating mass, equally distributed around the rotating when :
axis. It makes every effort to maintain the direction of its axis in space. Its
inertia in relation to forces acting on it increases with rotational speed, mass
and distance from the rotational axis. Gyro is stopped
S The gyroscope does not resist a force acting in the direction of the axis or a
parallel shift of the gyro axis. Gyro is moving fast
S If an exterior force tries to change the direction of the gyroscope axis, the
gyroscope precedes at a 90_ angle to the force acting on it. The direction in
which the gyroscope precedes is dependent on the rotation of the
gyroscope. The gyro precedes until its sense of rotation corresponds to the
rotational direction acting upon it.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MOVEMENTS WITHOUT
GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION
Figure 106 Gyro Performance

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Degrees of Freedom
General
Any body can move around three axes in a free space. If the movement around
one axis is limited, we speak of a low degree of freedom of the body. If
movement around all axes is possible, a high (total) degree of freedom exists.
With reference to the gyroscope this means:
Gyroscope with one Degree of Freedom

The gyroscope can only move around its own axis. There is freedom of
movement around one axis.
Gyroscope with two Degrees of Freedom
The gyroscope is mounted in a frame, which for its part can rotate around an
axis perpendicular to the gyro axis. Thus there is freedom of movement around
two axes.
Gyroscope with three Degrees of Freedom
The gyroscope is gimballed by means of two frames. The frames are called the
inner and outer cardan frames. There is freedom of movement around three
axes. A gyroscope which can assume any position in a free space is a fully
gimballed gyroscope.
Half Degree of Freedom

If a gyroscope frame is constrained by means of springs so that it finds a
position of rest to which it constantly tries to return, it no longer has its full
freedom of movement. It is a frame with a half degree of freedom. Such a gyro
system therefore has 1 1/2 degrees of freedom.
NOTE: In American literature the degree of freedom around the spin axis
is not included.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
1 Degree
SPRING
2 Degrees
3 Degrees
1,5 DEGREES
1 SPIN
1 AXIS LIMITED BY SPRING
Rate Gyro
Figure 107 Degrees of Freedom

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Space Stability
General
Devices which are based on the space stability of the gyroscope have a fully
gimballed mounting of the gyro system with three frames at 90_ to each other.
Thus the gyro axis can assume any position in a free space (directional gyro,
artificial horizon).
If an aircraft or even a spaceship changes its attitude, the gyro axis still points
to the same direction.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 108 Space Stability

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Drift and Topple

Earth Rate Precession
Apparent wander of the axis of a free gyroscope as a result of the rotation of
the earth acting on the space stability of the gyroscope is called ERP (Earth
Rate Precession). In relation to the earth’s surface this three dimensional
wander can be divided into horizontal and vertical components.
The horizontal component of apparent wander is called apparent drift and
amounts per hour to
15° Sinus of latitude.
Stability of gyroscope depends on
The vertical component is known as apparent topple and amounts per hour to Rotation speed
15° cosinus of latitude. Mass of the rotor
Apparent wander is thus greatest at the poles and apparent topple is greatest And distance
at the equator.
Earth Transport Precession

The statements above are only true if there is no aircraft movement, i.e. the
gyroscope remains at the same place.
The apparent wander of the gyroscope caused by the east-west movement of
the aircraft is called transport wander or ETP (Earth Transport Precession).
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
WANDER
REAL WANDER APPARENT WANDER
PRECESSION MOTION BY BEARING APPARENT MOVEMENT BY MAINTAINING A

FRICTION OR UNBALANCE OF THE POSITION IN SPACE, I.E. APPARENT
GYROSCOPE AND GIMBALS MOTION RELATIVE TO THE ROTATING
(MECHANICALLY CAUSED WANDERING) EARTH OR BY TRANSPORT (ERP + ETP)
DRIFT TOPPLE DRIFT TOPPLE
RATE OF WANDER IN THE RATE OF WANDER IN THE RATE OF WANDER IN THE RATE OF WANDER IN THE
HORIZONTAL DIRECTION VERTICAL DIRECTION HORIZONTAL DIRECTION VERTICAL DIRECTION
Figure 109 Relationships of Real and Apparent Wander

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Apparent Drift due to Rotation of the Earth
If a fully gimballed directional gyro with its axis parallel to the earth’s surface is
over the North Pole, the earth is spinning below the space stable gyroscope.
For an observer standing at the north pole and turning with the earth the
gyroscope appears to rotate 360_ in 24 hours, thus per hour
360 = 15_
24
At lower latitudes apparent drift becomes smaller and is zero at the equator. It
amounts per hour to 15_ sinus of the latitude.
Example: in Hamburg (latitude 53_ north) apparent drift is 15_ times
sine of the latitude
= 12_ per hour.
Apparent Topple due to Rotation of the Earth

If a fully gimballed vertical gyro with its axis vertical related to the earth’s
surface is located at the equator, the earth is spinning below the space stable
gyroscope. For an observer standing near the gyro the gyroscope appears to
topple 360_ in 24 hours, thus per hour
360 = 15°
24
At higher latitudes apparent topple becomes smaller and is zero at the poles. It
amounts per hour to 15_ cosine of the latitude.
Example: in Hamburg (latitude 53_ north) apparent topple is15_ times
cosine of the latitude
= 9_ per hour.
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
6:00 UHR
GYRO
SPACE STABLE
Figure 110 Apparent Drift due to the Rotation of the Earth

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Apparent Topple due to Transport
If a fully gimballed artificial horizon gyroscope, whose axis is vertical at the
north pole (axis pointing towards the centre of the earth), is taken from the pole
to the equator, the axis appears to topple for an observer on the earth, until it is
horizontal at the equator.
Real Drift and Real Topple

Constructional influences cause real drift or real topple.
Real drift and real topple are caused by:
S defective gyro and frame bearings
S unbalance of the gyro and frame.
Real drift and real topple are error values over and above the error values due
to the earth’s rotation and transport.
Effects of Gimbal Error (Method Error)

Gimbal error of the directional gyro mainly occurs during a turn, resulting in a
direction indication error. This is known as the cardan error.
Gimbal lock is the extreme case of frame error. Here the two frames are
aligned. A gyroscope with gimbal lock is unusable.
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 111 Apparent Topple due to the Transportation

INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Erection System
General
To use a gyro for aircraft instruments, the total effect of topple must be
eliminated with a so called „erection system“.
It controls the gyro axis to keep a constant direction to the earth’s surface.
Either vertical for the vertical gyro, or horizontal for the directional gyro.
Gravity
The erection system uses the gravity of the earth as a reference signal. Either
detected by a moving mass like a pendulum or by liquid level switches.
Depending on the gyro type, the erection is done by mechanic force of gravity
or be electrical torque motors which apply force to the gyro.
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INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LIQUID LEVEL SWITCH PENDULUM
TOTAL TOPPLE:
APPARENT TOPPLE
+
REAL TOPPLE
Figure 112 Erection System

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Optical Gyroscopes
Introduction
There are two types of optical gyroscope:
S ring laser gyro
S fibre optic gyro.
LASER means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Sagnac Effect
The effect was discovered by Georges Sagnac (1869−1926) in 1913. He
observed that between two coherent beams of light, one moving clockwise and
the other counterclockwise in a circuit and on the same course directed by
mirrors, a phase displacement occurs if the apparatus is rotated.
General
The principle of the RLG (Ring Laser Gyroscope) is that two
counterpropagating laser beams in a ring cavity are compared with each other.
The RLG has a double laser exciter, mirrors, prisms and light sensors. Optical
gyroscopes work according to the optical principle, known as the Sagnac
effect.
Two beams moving in opposite directions in a cavity (circle, triangle or square,
etc.) have a phase differential which is proportional to the rotational speed of
the cavity. Beams of light interfere at extremely small angular velocities, but in
such a case they are difficult to measure. In general, the larger the beam cavity
is, the easier the interference pattern can be measured.
Optical gyroscopes can be constructed with mirrors or fibre optics. Optical
gyroscopes with mirrors are easy to measure but are constrained by the size of
the unit (28 cm orbit). Optical orbits with fibre optics are not so easy to
measure but have a large orbit (several hundred metres of fibre optics).
Figure 113 Laser Gyro of an IRU
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
WITH CLOCKWISE TRACK ROTATION

THE CLOCKWISE RUNNER WINS
CW
LIGHT
CCW
SOURCE
ROTATION
SEMI−TRANSPARENT
MIRROR
MIRROR
DISPLAY
Figure 114 Basic Principle of a Laser Gyro 1

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Artificial Horizons
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS
General
General
There are two important functions of gimballed gyros in the aircraft:
S Attitude Measurement
S Directional Measurement.
Gyro Axis
For artificial gyros, gyros with a vertical axis are used. They are called ”vertical
gyro”.
Gyros with a horizontal axis are used for compass systems.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Direction
Y
X
PITCH
ROLL
Y
Horizon
Compass
Figure 115 Function of Aircraft Gyros

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Gyroscopes in the Aeroplane

Attitude Measurement
In aeroplanes, gyros with a vertical axis are used for measuring the changes in
the angle of the longitudinal axis (x-axis) and lateral axis (y-axis).
The result of the measurement is the angle of roll and pitch.
Because of its function this gyroscope is called the attitude gyro.
The rotational axis of the attitude gyro must always point towards the centre of
the earth, in other words be vertical.
Directional Measurement
For measuring direction the changes in the angle of the vertical axis are
determined.
The resulting measurement is the angle of flight direction, the course.
In accordance with its function this gyroscope is called the directional gyro.
The rotational axis of the directional gyro must always be parallel to the earth’s
horizon, in other words horizontal.
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Y
X
PITCH
ROLL
Attitude
Direction

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Instrument
Attitude Measurement
A vertical gyro is used as the reference for the attitude indication in aircraft,
also called the artificial horizon.
The vertical gyro is integrated in the attitude indicator of small aircraft and in
the standby horizon of larger aircraft.
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Horizon
(small aircraft)
Standby Horizon
(medium and large aircraft)
Figure 117 Artificial Horizon

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Standby Horizon
Power Supply
The artificial horizon is one of the four most important indications in an aircraft,
so it must be available for as long as possible.
Therefore the vertical gyro of the standby horizon is electrically driven by
energy from the aircraft battery system.
Erection System
The erection system works mechanically.
This makes sure that the horizon indication is usable even after a total loss of
electrical power, as long as the gyro runs stable during its spin down time of
about 20 minutes.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 118 Standby Horizon Erection System

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Caging Knob
General
An erection system can only influence the gyro axis to a maximum of three
degrees per minute.
To erect the gyro immediately, for example after power activation, it needs a
caging mechanism.
Handling
When you pull the caging knob the gimbals are caged and stabilized in the
normal position.
Please make sure that the gyro runs with full speed or is stopped completely
when you use gimbal caging. Any intermediate speed may damage the gyro
because of the limited stability.
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Caging Knob
Figure 119 Erection System

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Gyro Drive
General
A gyro needs a high rotational speed to have enough stability.
Air Driven Gyros

In small aircraft the speed is generated by air. The airflow is generated by a
vacuum or suction pump which sucks the cockpit air via a filter through the
indicators and drives the gyro body which is formed like a small turbine.
A suction regulator controls the suction to about 5 inches of mercury to prevent
gyro overspeed.
The pilot can monitor the suction with a pressure gauge.
Electrical Driven Gyros

In all commercial aircraft the gyros are driven by electric motors. This is more
reliable and gives a stable speed in all flight situations.
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Figure 120 Gyro Drive

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ISIS
General
The latest standby horizons are integrated into a solid state electronic standby
instrument system.
It is named ”Integrated Standby Instrument System” (ISIS).
Recent systems, such as the GH-3000, supply attitude, altitude and airspeed
indications. In addition magnetic heading and mach number can be displayed.
The individual original standby instruments are no longer needed. The following
external sensors are present:
S an ADC-3000 to supply air data
S a 3−axis magnetometer to supply attitude and heading.
The system supplies the following data:
S calibrated airspeed
S barometric corrected altitude
S baroset value
S mach number
S pitch attitude
S roll attitude
S slip/skid
S heading (degrees).
Figure 121 ISIS A 380
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Figure 122 ISIS Display

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Vertical Gyro
General
A vertical gyro is a gyro with three degrees of freedom. It is used for artificial
horizons when the gyro is not linked mechanically to the indication of an
instrument.
The vertical gyro can be installed in an avionic compartment and serve as a
sensor for the attitude of the aircraft. In the cockpit, an indicator is needed
then.
Vertical gyros are driven electrically. An erection system will hold the gyro axis
in the vertical position.
Outputs
When the aircraft turns around the pitch axis or the roll axis, the angle of the
attitude is sensed by synchros. The synchro signal is used by the indicator or
by an indication system.
Various aircraft systems use attitude signals.
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Y
X
PITCH
ROLL
Pitch Axis Synchro Roll Axis Synchro
Fixed
Housing
Fixed
Housing

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Gyroscopes
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Erection Function
Force
To keep the axis of the gyro vertical an erection system is needed.
S The air driven gyro uses pendulums to generate an erection force by the
airflow.
S Electrically driven gyros use level switches with a conductive fluid which
activates a torque motor when the gyro axis topples.
Precession
Due to the phenomenon of precession, forces must be applied 90 degrees from
the result to be achieved.
Electrically Driven Gyros

The torque motor brings the gyro axis back to the correct direction.
When the roll level switch detects an incorrect direction of the axis it activates
the roll torque motor, which applies a force to the gyro gimbal.
This force generates a corresponding precession force to bring the gyro back
to the correct direction.
The rate of gyro erection is limited to 3_ per minute. This rate is sufficient to
compensate the apparent topple of 15_ per hour plus any precessions from
real topple.
This erection rate is so small that during normal turns and accelerations no
significant error can build up.
Fast Erection
In electrical gyros a faster erection rate with about 20_ per minute is activated
when the gyro is switched on after a long power interruption.
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Z Yaw Axis
Pitch Axis Y X
Roll Axis
Roll Torque Motor

Torque
Motor
Pitch
Torque
Motor
Level Switches
Figure 124 Vertical Gyro Erection System

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Cutout Function
General
The erection system works fine as long as the only acceleration is the weight.
As soon as longitudinal accelerations or centrifugal forces work on the vertical
gyro, it can not detect the centre of the earth any more.
For this, the erection system must be switched off during curves or longitudinal
accelerations.
Cutout Switches
Electrical gyros have erection cutout switches.
They detect an acceleration in the pitch or roll axis and interrupt the
corresponding erection circuit for as long as the accelerations last.
Holding Pattern
Long acceleration periods like during full turns must be prevented because the
gyro topple cannot be compensated during that time.
Therefore, during holding, aircraft fly racetrack patterns instead of full turns.
This gives the erection system after each half turn enough time to compensate
any gyro topple.
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Roll Torque Motor
Pitch Torque Motor

Centrifugal Force
Weight Resultant Force
Figure 125 Vertical Gyro Cutout Function

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
System Architecture
Signals
The signals for the ADI are supplied by a remote vertical gyro which is located
in the electric compartment.
The signals come from synchros, on the vertical gyro gimbals, which transfer
the pitch and roll angle into the electrical signal.
In addition a gyro valid signal is sent to the ADI when the gyro is operating with
normal speed.
All signals use independent wires. For easier identification in the schematic we
have combined all wires to a single line.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 126 Attitude System

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Switching
The Captain and the First Officer must have their own independent attitude
indications so we need two independent vertical gyros.
If one of the two gyros is faulty a switching restores the attitude indication from
a third vertical gyro.
This gyro can be transferred either to captains or first officers ADI to replace a
faulty gyro.
Other Systems
The attitude information from the vertical gyros is not only used for the ADIs. It
is also provided to other systems like the autoflight system (AFS) and the
weather radar system (WXR).
Usually the components are supplied from the Captains vertical gyro.
If there is a second system installed, like a second autopilot, these components
are supplied from the first officers vertical gyro.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 127 Attitude System Switching

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Attitude Director Indicator

General Attitude Display Test
The attitude direcor indicator (ADI) is one of the most important indicators. It is By operating the ATT TEST button a test bias voltage is switched to the
part of the Basic T. accumulation points of the two synchro systems.
It mainly shows two values: The ADI should show defined values for pitch and roll then.
S attitude which means it shows the artificial horizon
S Indications from the flight director system.
Additionally, the ADI is an indicator for some more parameters.
Attitude
Attitude indication is essential for steering the aircraft.
The pitch and roll information from the vertical gyro is transmitted to the horizon
indicator in the form of synchro signals.
A VG valid direct current confirms the functionality of the VG. The attitude of
aircraft in relation to the horizon is the main indication of the ADI (Attitude
Director Indicator). The aeroplane symbol is on the instrument housing itself
and therefore follows any movement of the aircraft.
A blue and black ball is held in a fork and turns contrary to any aircraft
movement, being kept horizontal by the VG.
S With roll movements the horizon ball is turned by the fork counter to the
aircraft movement.
S With a pitch movement of the aircraft the ball in the fork turns around its
own axis.
The pitch scale is expanded in the horizontal attitude range to increase the
indication precision range (pitch expansion).
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Artificial Horizon
Flight Director Indications

Figure 128 ADI

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Artifcial Horizons
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Additional Indications on the ADI Localizer and Radio Altitude

Modern ADI have other indication functions than just attitude. This integration The localizer pointer and the scale are a function of the ILS system. The
of systems enables the pilot to view various flight data quickly and easily. runway symbol is positioned by the ILS localizer deviation signal to give a
visual representation of the position of the aircraft relative to the runway. The
Turn and Slip marks represent about one degree deviation (left or right) from the localizer.
The slip indicator is a purely mechanical indicator, a ball in a curved glass tube In addition, the runway symbol is at the same time the LRRA indicator (low
filled with liquid, which shows apparent vertical under the influence of gravity. range radio altimeter). The indication begins at 200 ft and proceeds up to the
The slip indicator supplies information about the turn of the aircraft. The aircraft symbol, i.e. the radio altitude decreases.
indicator represents a rate of turn movement at 180°/min. The localizer indicator is an electric servo motor. Its movement reacts to a
The indicator is a moving coil instrument, the movement of which is a reaction change in the signal of the VHF navigation receiver.
to the change in rotational velocity of the vertical axis. Yaw rate is used for the Radio altitude is also an indication driven by a servo motor, whereby the signal
signal. comes from the LRRA system.
Glideslope Decision Height
The glideslope pointer and the scale are functions of the ILS (Instrument The DH indicator illuminates when the radio height of the aircraft is less than
Landing System). The pointer represents the position of the glideslope relative the DH set on the LRRA.
to the aircraft. Each marking is equivalent to about one third of a degree
The DH indicator can be checked with a PTT button.
deviation from the glideslope.
The instrument is a moving coil instrument. Its movement reacts to a change in
the signal from the VHF navigation receiver.
Speed Indicator
The pointer shows on the scale the speed of the aircraft relative to the
computed speed of the auto throttle system or the speed command system.
If the required speed is the same as the calculated one, the pointer is in the
central position.
Flight Director Indicator Bars

The flight director bars are controlled by the flight director system to show the
pilot the direction in which the aircraft is to be flown. This flight path can be a
preset heading, a radio navigation course, a selected altitude or a localizer or
glide path.
The FD bars are moved by servo motors, whose signal comes from the FD roll
or pitch channel of the FD system.
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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Artifcial Horizons
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
FD Pitch Command Bar
Roll Angle Scale

Decision Height Lamp
FD Roll Command Bar

Pitch Scale
Horizon Line
Glide Slope Pointer and Scale

Speed Indicator and Scale
Fixed Aircraft Symbol

Localizer Course Deviation
and Rising Runway Symbol
Test Switch
Slip Indicator Rate of Turn Pointer and Scale
Figure 129 ADI Indication

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Comparison
General
The attitude reference system has an attitude comparison as an additional
safety feature.
It compares the two indicated attitudes by deriving a signal directly from the
indication.
If the pitch or roll indications differ by several degrees an alert is triggered by
the instrument warning system.
If the aircraft is equipped with primary flight displays instead of ADIs a
message called CHECK ATTITUDE appears on top of the attitude indication on
both PFDs.
Fault Isolation
To find out which of two different indications is correct you always need a third
independent source of information for comparison.
In the attitude reference system, this is either the vertical gyro number 3 or the
standby horizon.
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Figure 130 Attitude Comparison

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Gyro Handling
General
Gyros are very precise mechanical components. They must be handled with
great care to prevent any damage to their sensitive parts like the bearings.
During removal and installation always follow the procedures in the
maintenance manual.
Most importantly, never move a gyro when it is running at medium speed. This
is between 3 minutes after power interruption until it is completely stopped after
about 20 minutes.
During this period the gyro has decreasing stability and would start tumbling
and this causes high stress on the bearings.
Normally, wait until the gyro has completely stopped or if this is not possible,
because of the long waiting time, you must move the gyro when it is running at
high speed.
Movement of the Aircraft

You must observe the same caution when you move an aircraft on the ground.
Any movement during the intermediate speed period of the gyro can damage it
or degrade its performance.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 131 Gyro Handling

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Turn and Slip Indicators
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TURN AND SLIP INDICATORS
General
Rate of Turn
For holding patterns, the curve is defined clearly: the aircraft must make a 180_
turn in one minute.
To achieve this, there is a sensor for the rate of turn and an indicator.
Sensor
The sensor for the rate of turn is a rate gyro.
Indication
Various indicators can be used to achieve the required rate of turn:
S Turn and Slip Indicator
S Turn Coordinator (aeroplanes only)
S ADI.
In aircraft with a glass cockpit, the rate of turn is shown on a display.
Slip Indicator
The rate of turn indication is always supplemented by a slip indication from an
inclinometer, also called the ball.
It shows the pilot the direction of the resultant forces during turn.
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Turn and Slip Indicator
ADI
Rate of Turn Pointer and Scale
Turn Coordinator
(Aeroplane)
Figure 132 Turn and Slip Indicators

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Slip Indicator
General
The ball is made of metal and its movement is dampened by a liquid.
The combined indication of rate of turn pointer and ball give the pilot
information about the quality of a turn.
S When the ball is centred, it means that a turn is perfectly coordinated
because the vertical axis of the aircraft is parallel to the resultant force of
the turn.
S When the ball moves in the direction of the turn, this means the bank angle
is too large for the actual rate of turn and the aircraft slips.
The pilot must increase the turn rate by moving the rudder pedals in the
direction of the ball, here to the right.
S When the ball moves in the opposite direction of the turn the bank angle is
too small for the actual rate of turn.
The pilot must decrease the turn rate by moving the rudder pedals in the
direction of the ball, here to the left.
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Slip Indicator
Force
Force
Right Turn, View from aft Right Turn, View from Front
Figure 133 Slip Indicator
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Turn and Slip Indicator

General
The rate of turn indication shows a full deflection when a complete turn would
need two minutes − this is also called a standard turn.
The indication is only accurate when the gyro speed is normal, because the
precession force which acts against the spring depends on the gyro stability,
which is proportional to the speed.
Therefore rate gyros are generally driven by electric motors.
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Slip indicator has gyro of one cage

Artificial horizon has gyro of two cages
Figure 134 Turn Indication

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Rate Gyro
The rate of turn indicator consists of a complete and a constrained degree of
freedom. The gyroscope axis is parallel to the aircraft’s lateral axis.
The gyro axis is mounted in a frame which has limited rotation around the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis due to the force of a return spring. When the aircraft
turns on its vertical axis, its rotation also affects the gyro according to
gyroscopic laws.
Thus the gyro axis precedes and twists the frame towards the force of the
return spring.
The tilt of the frame is transmitted to a pointer.
In the case of conventional turn pointers the pointer width equals a two minute
circle, i.e. in two minutes the aircraft turns 360_.
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Scale
Pointer INPUT
AXIS
(Yaw)
Resulting Turn
Movement
Spring
Force
PRECESSION AXIS
Precession
Figure 135 Rate of Turn Indicator and Rate Gyro

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Turn Coordinator
General
In small aircraft you often find a turn coordinator instead of a rate of turn
indicator.
In this indicator, the rate gyro is turned by 45_ degrees so that it is also
sensitive to the roll rate.
The result, is that the turn coordinator shows the yaw rate when the bank angle
is constant, but shows a roll rate when the bank angle changes.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 136 Turn Coordinator

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Rate of Turn and Slip Indication

General
The figure shows the indication during different attitudes and rates of turn.
”Slip” means, that devices inside the aircraft ar drawn to the centre of the
curve. ”Skip” is the opposite force.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
NO TURN
BANK LEFT BANK RIGHT
RIGHT TURN
SKID SLIP
LEFT TURN
SKID
SLIP
Figure 137 Rate of Turn and Slip Indication

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Directional Gyros
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
DIRECTIONAL GYROS
Direction Indicator
General
A direction indicator can show the direction of the aircraft without using the
magnetic field of the earth.
It is also called ”heading indicator”.
Operation
A direction indicator has 3_ of freedom and a horizontal axis.
The gyro keeps its direction stable when the aircraft turns its nose.
In this example of a directional gyro from a small aircraft you can see that the
indicator scale is connected to the gyro gimble.
When the aircraft with the indicator turns, you can read the changing direction
behind the lubber line on the front glass.
Handling
As soon as the gyro has its operational speed the heading must be adjusted
manually.
To do this, the pilot must read the heading from a magnetic compass first.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Adjustment Knob
Figure 138 Gyro Compass

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Construction
The basic construction of a gyro compass or direction indicator located in the
cockpit can be seen in the illustration below. A space stable gyro has the
property that it can maintain the position it has taken up and thus the course.
When the rotational axis remains parallel to the earth’s surface, directional
information can be seen from a lubber line on the housing, which rotates
around the gyro. The gyro compass is set manually according to the indication
on the magnetic compass.
Indication precision is subject to:
S apparent drift
S real drift
S cardan error.
For this reason the course indication must be regularly synchronised by hand
with the indication on the magnetic compass. The indication on the directional
gyro is thus relatively exact only for a short time (5 - 10 minutes) and is
therefore well suited when flying a curve to take up a new heading.
A technical device in the DG ensures that the inner frame cannot topple as a
result of aircraft movements or technical shortcomings of the gyro.
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4 3 2 1 0 35 34 33
Lubber Line
Set
Knob
Figure 139 Direction Indicator

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Directional Gyro
General Drift
Directional Gyros are used as sensors for remote compass systems. An important difference of the DG to the VG is that it drifts.
Like in an artificial horizon system with a vertical gyro, the sensor is installed The drift of an DG must be compensated.
anywhere and the indicator is located in the cockpit. Commercial aircraft use electrical gyros with an automatic drift compensation.
Many features of the directional gyro are the same as for the vertical gyro. So it
is either driven pneumatically or electrically and it has an erection system which First type has gyro directly drives the indicator ( gyros inside )
keeps the gyro axis, in this case, horizontal.
A level switch and a torque motor does this task in the electrical gyro.
Second type has flux valve drives the indicator ( gyros inside )
Indication
In aircraft with analogue instruments, some indicators are used to show the Third type has flux valve drive remote gyros wich sends
heading: synchros to drive the indicator ( remote gyros out side the
S HSI indicator )
The Horizontal Situation Indicator shows the heading and some information
from radio navigation systems. Most modern has IRS
S VOR RMI
The VOR Radio Magnetic Indicator shows the heading and some
information from VOR navigation system.
S ADF RMI
The ADF Radio Magnetic Indicator shows the heading and some
information from ADF navigation system.
In aircraft with glass cockpit, the heading is displayed on the Primary Flight
Display (PFD) and the Navigation Display (ND). Artificial horizon has vertical gyros
HSI has directional or horizontal gyros
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ADI
VOR RMI
ADF RMI
HSI
RW
Compass Indications
Directional Gyro
Figure 140 Directional Gyro

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Construction
The basic technical construction of this gyro corresponds to that of the gyro
compass.
As however the directional gyro is a component of the remote compass system
and is not found on the instrument panel, it is more sophisticated than the gyro
compass.
The main components of the DG are:
S gyro electric motor; two pole pairs, 11,000 rpm
S liquid level switch with levelling torque motor for levelling
S slaving torque motor for drift elimination
S monitoring system
S heading synchros for coupler, A/P, and so on.
Not all Directional Gyros do have a slaving torque motor for drift elimination. In
remote compass systems, the drift can also be compensated by other means.
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Liquid−Level−
Switch
AC
EXC.
Torque−Motor
Slaving
Torque Motor
Slaving
Amplif. RW
Two DGs
AC
EXC.
Figure 141 Levelling and Slaving

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Magnetism
General
Course indication is extremely important when conducting flight. For this
reason two magnetic heading reference systems working independently of
each other and a magnetic compass (standby compass) must be installed in
commercial aircraft.
The compass systems always point in the direction of the earth’s magnetic
field, i.e. to magnetic north. Although nowadays, thanks to modern navigation
systems such as INS or IRS, we are not dependent on the directional
information using magnetic north, it is still in modern aircraft (VOR RMI
indicates with reference to magnetic north).
The Magnetic Field of the Earth

A magnet is an object made of magnetised material with the property of
attracting iron. It has two poles between which so-called magnetic lines run.
The effective area of the magnetic lines is known as the magnetic field. The
earth too has a magnetic field. In this way we can regard the earth as a giant
permanent magnet. Its interior is a bar magnet, the ends of which are located
at the magnetic north and south poles of the earth.
A suspended, free-turning magnetic needle (compass needle) aligns itself with
the earth’s magnetic lines. It is therefore possible to navigate using such a
compass needle.
The north pole of the magnetic needle will show ”north” because there is the
magnetic south pole of the earth.
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MAGNETIC GEOGRAPHIC
SOUTH POLE NORTH POLE
MAGNETIC AXIS
AXIS OF ROTATION
Figure 142 Magnetic Field of the Earth

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Heading Variation
General General
The indicated heading is the angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis, which The angle between True North (TN) and Magnetic North (MN) is called the
is shown with the so called lubber line and the direction to the north pole. variation.
True heading is in reference to the geographic north pole, also called true The actual variation depends on the position on earth.
north, or TN in short and magnetic heading is in reference to the Magnetic
North pole, also called magnetic north, or MN in short.
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Figure 143 Variation

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Basis for Navigation

The different variations at different locations are basically no problem, because
all navigation equipment and runway directions as well as all information on
maps are based on the magnetic heading.
Pole Drift
Unfortunately the position of the magnetic poles is drifting, so magnetic
references, like runway headings must be updated every few years.
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Figure 144 Navigation Charts

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Inclination
General
The compass can only use horizontal magnetic field lines to measure the
heading. As you can see here, only near the equator are all magnetic field lines
horizontal.
In other areas the field lines decline to the earth’s surface, and this is called
inclination.
The magnetic field is split into a horizontal and a vertical component.
The result of the inclination shows, for example, that at a latitude of 50_ the
strength of the horizontal component has already decreased to 50% and at
more than 70_ the horizontal component is so weak that it is not useable for a
compass.
Polar Navigation
In the regions near the poles a directional gyro or a inertial stabilized system
must be used.
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Figure 145 Inclination

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Compass Systems
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COMPASS SYSTEMS
General
Measuring the Direction of the Earth’s Magnetic Field
There are at present three methods of measuring the angle between the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis and magnetic north.
Mechanical Method
The angle is determined using a mounted, freely rotating permanent
magnet (magnetic needle principle).
This is called ”Direct reading Compass”.
Electronic Method
The angle is determined using an earth magnetic field detector.
This is called ”Remote Reading Compass”.
Mathematical Method
The angle is determined using the variation for every geographical
location stored in a navigation computer (IRS).
This is part of the theme ”navigation” (ATA 34).
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Direct Reading Compass
Heading Determination with IRS

Remote Reading Compass

Figure 146 Heading Determination Techniques
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8

General
A direct reading compass has no electrical parts, except a light, and contains
all parts necessary to read the magnetic heading.
In commercial aircraft it is called standby compass, because the heading
indication is part of the basic T and therefore must always be available even
after a total electrical power loss.
Location
The standby compass is usually located at the centerpost between the front
windshields. Here it is readable by both pilots and as far as possible away from
foreign magnetic fields of electrical equipment.
Indication
The standby compass has a housing with a glass window. The window has a
vertical line in the centre, called the lubber line.
The lubber line shows the heading on the turnable compass scale.
Magnet
A Permanent magnet turns the compass scale into the direction of the
magnetic field.
Dampening
The instrument is filled with a fluid to dampen the compass scale movements.
An expansion unit compensates fluid expansion caused by temperature
changes.
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Figure 147 Direct Reading Compass I

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Compass Deviation
General
The direct reading compass is also affected by a magnetic field inside the
aircraft, for example, from electrical equipment which is active during normal
aircraft operation.
This aircraft magnetic field changes the direction of magnetic north to the so
called compass north.
The difference is called deviation.
Compensation
You can minimize the deviation with small adjustable magnets inside the
compass, called the compass compensation.
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Figure 148 Compass Deviation

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Deviation Card
General Example
When a compensation has been performed, the deviation should be as small In the figure below, you see that if the pilots of the aircraft D-ABHL want to fly
as possible. 000_, they have to steer 001_.
However, it will not be zero because this is nearly impossible with the means
for adustment.
So the headings must be checked in steps of 30 degrees and the indication of
the Direct Reading Compass as well.
Then for each of these headings the reading is remarked on a Deviaton Card.
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Figure 149 Deviation Card

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Effects of Inclination
GENERAL
No Accelearation
The permanent magnet with the compass scale is kept horizontal by a pivot
point bearing to measure the horizontal component of the field.
But this only works perfectly when the aircraft does not fly a turn and flies at a
constant airspeed.
Accelerations
Any aircraft acceleration during speed changes or turns moves the magnet out
of the horizontal position.
Effect
The vertical component of the earth’s magnet field points down on the northern
part of the earth and up on the southern part.
If the compass is not in the horizontal plane completely, the vertical component
of the earth’s magnet field will influence the compass magnet.
Depending on the actual heading of the aircraft, the compass will turn right or
left then and, consequently, show a falsified heading.
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Figure 150 Effects of Inclination

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Remote Compass System

General
A remote compass system uses a sensor for the earth’s magnetic field and a
directional gyro. In the instrument panel, there is an indicator.
Most aeroplanes and some helicopters have two separated remote compass
systems, one for each pilot.
Flux Valve
The magnetic field detector, also known as the flux valve, has the function of
detecting an electric signal which clearly represents the direction of the
horizontal components of the earth’s magnetic field to the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft.
This signal is further processed in the magnetic heading reference systems
and stabilised there for the purpose of indication or steering.
The magnetic field detector is suspended fully cardanically in a
hemisphere-shaped housing.
For this reason its measuring plane remains horizontal within lateral and
longitudinal inclinations of about 30_.
The measuring element moves together with the rotation of the vertical axis.
There is a damping liquid inside the hemisphere.
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Mounting Plate
Cardan Joint
Housing
Exciter Coil
Spoke
Signal Coil
Plug
Figure 151 Flux Valve

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Flux Valve
General
The flux valve transfers the direction of the magnetic field into a proportional
electrical signal.
It has an iron core and three sensing coils that generate electrical signals
whose intensity and direction depend on the direction of the magnetic field.
A coil only induces a voltage when the intensity of the magnetic field changes.
Therefore the iron core of the flux valve is frequently saturated by an
alternating current in an excitation coil.
Saturated iron has the same magnetic resistance as air so the magnetic field
uses the shortest way and bypasses the 3 coils.
When iron is not saturated it has a magnetic resistance which is less than
1/10000 of air, so the magnetic field uses an even longer way through the iron
and the coils.
”Valve”
This alternate switching of the magnetic field functions like a valve. This is the
reason for the name flux valve.
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Excitation Current
Iron not saturated Iron saturated
Figure 152 Flux Valve

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Flux Valve Location in Aeroplanes

In order to exclude the influence of magnetic interference fields to the greatest
possible extent, the flux valves are located at the wing tips, in the vertical
stabiliser or in the tail cone.
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FLUX VALVE # 1
FLUX VALVE # 2
TAIL
FIN
Figure 153 Flux Valve Location (Aeroplanes)

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Remote Compass System Architecture

General
Direction Indicators and Directional Gyros have the disadvantage of the drift.
Magnet compasses as well as Flux Valves have the disadvantage of a falsified
heading during accelerations and turns.
This happens because during accelerations the flux valve will swing so that it is
also affected by the vertical magnetic field.
With a combination of a Flux Valve and a Directional Gyro a remote compass
system is possible which shows the correct heading on an indicator.
Stable Heading
The system has an indicator which receives the stable heading information
from an Directional Gyro.
A Flux Valve measures the direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of the magnetic field is compared to the heading shown on the
indicator and the difference is used to adjust the DG direction with a torque
motor.
Torque Limit
The torque generates a gyro precession which changes the DG direction with a
maximum of 2_ per minute. This is enough to compensate any drift.
The maximum of 2_ per minute makes sure that the Flux Valve can not change
the indication during accelerations and turns.
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Directional Gyro
Flux Valve
Figure 154 Remote Compass System

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ADF RMI
The name ADF RMI contains two acronyms:
S Automatic Direction Finder
S Radio Magnetic Indicator
The ADF is a radio navigation system. The arrows in the ADF RMI point to
tuned broadcast stations.
The indicator is used for the indication of a radio navigation system as well as
for the indication of the magnetic heading.
In the architecture shown below, the ADF RMI contains a compass rose and a
slaving annunciator.
Slaving Annunciator
The pilot can monitor the correct function of the system with a slaving
annunciator, because it shows the difference between the indicated heading
and the flux valve signal.
In the architecture shown below, the difference is detected inside the ADF RMI.
When it fluctuates around 0, it shows that the DG has the correct stable
direction and the flux valve provides correction signals.
Only long term deflections show an error in the system.
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Slaving Annunciator
Compass Rose
ADF RMI
Differentiator
Directional Gyro
Flux Valve
Figure 155 Slaving Annunciator

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Power Up
After power up, the Directional Gyro will speed up and align in a horiziontal
plane automatically.
The direction of the DG may be any direction. As a result, the compass rose of
the ADF RMI will show any direction, too.
The torque of the Slaving Torque Motor inside the DG generates a gyro
precession which changes the DG direction with a maximum of 2_ degrees per
minute.
So it might take some time until the heading indication is correct.
Synchronizing Knob
With the synchronizing knob the indication of the compass rose can be
influenced.
When used, the heading difference which is shown by the Slaving Annunciator
can be minimized.
By this, the time until the heading indication is correct is much shorter.
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Synchronizing Knob
Slaving Annunciator
ADF RMI
Directional Gyro
Flux Valve
Figure 156 Slaving Annunciator

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Compass Coupler
General Monitoring
A more complex type of remote compass system uses a so called compass The compass coupler also has an internal monitoring which will activate a
coupler. warning flag in the indicator when the heading signal is not reliable.
In this system we also compare the flux valve signal with the output to the
indicators, here for example a RMI, but do not adjust the DG to the corrected
value.
Instead of this the correction is used internally by a stepper motor which
adjusts the output signal with the maximum rate of 2_ per minute.
The DG drifts freely and provides a so called DG heading, which is the angle
between the aircraft x−axis and the stable gyro direction.
The compass coupler system has a fast synchronization.
It is automatically available when you switch on the system.
Manual Heading Adjustment
A fast compass setting is also available for manual adjustments of the heading
indication from a compass controller.
This is done for example when the flux valve is not useable or for testing.
Switch
With a switch on the compass control panel you can switch off the correction
signal from the flux valve, for example, when the flux valve has a failure.
This can be also used during flights near the poles when the earth’s magnetic
field is unusable. Then the system is not slaved by the signals from the Flux
Valve and the indication will drift.
Slaving Annunciator
The compass control panel also has a slaving annunciator which shows the
correction signal from the flux valve as already described for the previous
system.
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Compass Controller
Compass Coupler
Directional Gyro
Flux Valve
Figure 157 Compass Coupler

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Heading Signal Distribution

General
The distribution of the heading signals is comparable to the attitude reference
system.
The main difference is that both pilots usually get the heading signals from both
compass systems indicated.
The HSIs or NDs show the information of their own compass system and the
RMIs show the information of the opposite compass system.
The heading is also provided to the autoflight systems.
Compass system 1 to autoflight system number 1 and compass system 2 to
autoflight system 2.
Failures
A heading warning flag shows the pilot when the signal is not valid.
In this case the pilot can use the heading transfer switch to connect the user to
the other heading sensor or if available to a third unit.
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Figure 158 HDG Signal Distribution

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Example of components B747−200

General
The figure shows a Remote Compensator for two compass systems and one
Compass Coupler.
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B747−200
Figure 159 Compass Coupler and Remote Compensator

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HSI
General
HSI means Horizontal Situation Indicator.
This indicator shows the situation of the aircraft when it is viewed from above.
Heading
The main indication is the compass rose.
VOR
A course related to a VOR ground radio station can be selected. The white bar
will show a deviation from the selected course.
In the example below, the selected course is 85 degrees.
This is an indication for a navigation system.
DME
The HSI can show the distance to a DME ground station.
DME is the acronym for Distance Measurement Equipment.
This is an indication for a navigation system.
Other Indications
An HSI can show some more indications. All of them are indications for
navigation systems.
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SPEED ADI ALTITUDE
HSI
RW
HSI
Basic T HSI
Figure 160 HSI
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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Glass Cockpit
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
GLASS COCKPIT
Introduction
General
”Glass Cockpit” means that computers and displays are used instead of
instruments.
Flight Monitoring
Flight monitoring is done with the help of the instruments and indicators in the
basic T and some other navigation indicators.
In a glass cockpit, it is done by two displays for each pilot.
In many aircraft this is called EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System).
Central Warning and Engine Indications

Aircraft may have a lot of engine indications. In a glass cockpit, the parameters
are shown on two displays.
In many aircraft, alerts are shown at the related control panel and in a central
warning panel. In a glass cockpit, the alerts of the central warning panel are
shown in a display.
Terminology
For the glass cockpit, there are various names.
For example:
S EIS (Electronic Instrument System)
S IDS (Integrated Display System)
S CDS (Control and Display System).
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Flight Monitoring Central Warning and Engine Indications Flight Monitoring

Figure 161 Instruments and Glass Cockpit

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System Arrangement
Components Displays
A typical Electronic Instrument System has the following components: Displays are mainly used for two purposes:
S Display Computers S Navigation
S Display Units S Information about the aircraft
S Control Panels. There are three generation of display units:
S In the early 80’s simple cathode ray tubes were installed as displays. They
Display Computers
received video signals from the display computers.
Display computers receive various inputs from many aircraft systems and send
S In the late 80’s display units were installed. They received data and had an
these data to the Displays.
integrated symbol generator. Cathode ray tube and symbol generator form
The inputs are: a display unit.
S Navigation data (digital) S Since the 90’s LCD display units are installed in new aircraft.
S Auto Flight System data (digital)
Navigation
S Engine data (digital)
The navigation data and the information about the activities of the auto flight
S Data from various aircraft systems (digital and analogue)
system are displayed on the Electronic Flight Instruments.
There are at least two display computers. Large aircraft have a third display
Each pilot has two Display Units:
computer for redundancy.
S Primary Flight Display (PFD)
The arrangement which computer supplies which display unit depends on the
type specific engineering. S Navigation Display (ND)
EFIS Technical Information

EFIS is the Electronic Flight Instrument System. It is a part of the Electronic Most aircraft types have two display units which show engine data and some
Instrument System EIS and shows navigation data. data from aircraft systems like the air conditioning system, the hydraulic
system and some others.
Some manufacturers use the name EFIS for the complete EIS system.
One of these displays additionally shows alerts from various aircraft systems if
Control Panels something is out of limit.

Since there are many data from the navigation systems each pilot can select
on a related EFIS Control Panel what he wants to see on his navigation display
(ND).
For the centre displays there is one control panel. It is used to select the
system which is appropriate to be monitored.
Additionally, there are features to handle the alerts.
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EFIS EFIS
Engine/Alert Display ND
PFD ND PFD digital data
analog data
System Display
Schematic created by Rainer Werner

Copyright at Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH
Display Computer Display Computer Display Computer

(spare)
Engine Data and Aircraft System Data

Various Navigation and Autoflight Systems Various Navigation and Autoflight Systems
LTT
Figure 162 Electronic Instrument System Arrangement

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Examples for Aeroplanes

EIS - IDS ECAM (Airbus) consists of the following displays:
The electronic instrument system (EIS - Airbus) or the integrated display S E/WD engine / warning display
system (IDS Boeing) is represented in the cockpit by six indication display S SD system display
screens.
EICAS (Boeing) consists of the following displays:
The six indication display screens, DUs or IDUs, are divided as follows:
S UPR EICAS engine / warning display
− EFIS electronic flight instrument system
S AUX EICAS system display
displays (4)
− ECAM electronic centralized aircraft monitor (Airbus)
displays (2)
or
− EICAS engine indicating and crew alerting system (Boeing)
displays (2)
The EFIS of the captain and F/O each consist of a

S PFD primary flight display
S ND navigation display.
The PFD supplies flight monitoring information and parameters, such as
− attitude
− horizontal situation
− mach/airspeed
− altitude
− vertical speed
− radio altitude
− weather radar information

− marker beacon indication
− flight mode annunciation.
− terrain display
− TCAS
The ND supplies information about the attitude of the aircraft on the horizontal
plane with respect to the earth’s surface.
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AIRBUS ALL, MD 11 : EIS (ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM)

B737−6/ -7/ -8/ -900 : CDS (COMMON DISPLAY SYSTEM)
B747−400, B777 : IDS (INTEGRATED DISPLAY SYSTEM)
ALL A/C TYPES : EFIS (ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM)

A320, A330, A340, B747−400, MD11 :ATA 31
A300, A310, B777 :ATA 34
PRIMARY NAVIGATION NAVIGATION PRIMARY

FLIGHT DISPLAY DISPLAY FLIGHT
DISPLAY DISPLAY
AIRBUS ALL : EIS (ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING SYSTEM)

B737−6/ 7/ 8/ 900 : MFD (MULTIFUNCTIONAL DISPLAY)
B747−400, B757, B767, B777 : EICAS (ENGINE INDICATION AND CREW ALERTING SYSTEM)
MD 11 : EAD / SD (ENGINE ALERT DISPLAY / SYSTEM DISPLAY)
Figure 163 Overview of Display Systems

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
The EIDS replaces nowadays the complexity of electromechanical instruments
in conventional cockpits.
The main advantages for the operator are as follows.
S Necessary data is displayed on a clear, bright, coloured screen.
S All six screens are identical and can display various images. The advantage
of this is that no data is lost if one screen fails.
S Due to the smaller number of components maintenance is less expensive
and simpler.
For the A 380 the term CDS is used for EIDS.
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 164 CDS A380

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Display Unit Failures

General
The four main types of display unit failure are:
S missing colours
S bad picture quality
S total loss
S Overheat.
Overheat
When a CRT type Display Unit detects internal overheat it can react in two
steps:
S First, it switches the raster colours off. This will leave only strokes, but all
information is still given. Less heat is produced then.
S Second, it switches off the display.
Overheat can be caused by in internal failure or by problems in the cooling
system.
When the DU cools down to the limits, it will activate the display again.
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SPEED AP1
ALT
20 20 33
140 32
10 10
31
120 3000
10 10
29
100 28
20 20
29
1010
Figure 165 Normal CTR Display

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Electron Beam Failure
If in a CRT, one electron beam has failed, there is no white in the picture and
information normally presented in the missing colour will not be shown.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
SPEED AP1
ALT
20 20 33
140 32
10 10
31
120 3000
10 10
29
100 28
20 20
29
1010
Figure 166 Green Electron Beam Failure

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Red Electron Beam Failure
When the red electron beam fails, the display turns monochrome.
This is because warning labels are presented in red, and they must not be
allowed to disappear.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AP1
SPEED
ALT
20 20 33
140 32
10 10
31
120 3000
10 10
100
20 20
1010
Monochrome Display
Figure 167 Red Electron Beam Failure

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Input Failures
General
If an input signal is not available, the indication for the related parameter will
disappear and a flag appears instead.
In this example, AHRS means ”Attitude Heading Reference System”.
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Figure 168 Input Fail

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Electronic Flight Instrument Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
General
Introduction Additional Information
The EFIS (Electronic Flight Display) is a component of the glass cockpit and In addition other information, which is not shown on conventional instruments,
has the function of supplying the crew with information and navigation data for is displayed on the PFDs and NDs.
controlling the flight path. It includes:
This information is displayed on the PFDs and NDs. S wind
Instruments Replaced S speed information (trend, limits, targets)
The following conventional instruments are replaced by the EFIS: S flight plan
S ADI S flight path vector
S HSI S radio station identifiers
S VS indicator S terrain display
S mach airspeed indicator S TCAS
S weather radar Because of the flexibility which the screen offers, much data is only displayed
when the respective flight phase is undertaken.
S flight mode annunciator
S ADF RMI
S VOR RMI
S altimeter
S RA indicator
S DME indicator
S TAS indicator
S marker lights.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Primary Flight Display Navigation Display

Boeing
Figure 169 PFD and ND

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
EFIS Control Panels

General
EFIS Control Panels are used in all aircraft with an EFIS.
They have various appearances.
Many basic functions are the same on all types, but many types have some
type specific additional functions.
Basic Functions
The basic functions of all EFIS Control Panels are as follows:
S Baro correction for the air data system with indiction on the PFD
S Mode selection for the ND
S Range selection for the ND
S Selection of TCAS indication on the ND
S Selection of various additionals information on the ND.
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Baro Correction
ND Mode Selector Range Selector
Push for
ND CTR or
ARC Mode
Push for TCAS

ND Display Select Switches
B747−400
Figure 170 EFIS Control Panel

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Figure 171 EFIS Control Panel (A340)

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RW
Figure 172 EFIS Control Panel (MD 11)

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PFD
General
The PFD is normally shown on the outboard display unit and can be switched
automatically or manually to the inboard display unit on failure.
The figure shows the structure of the PFD.
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Figure 173 PFD Structure

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Details
Four basic pieces of flight information must be presented on all aircraft types in
the same location. This standard arrangement is called the ”Basic T Format”.
Since this rule also applies to aircraft equipped with EFIS, the Primary Flight
Display shows:
S the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the artificial horizon in the centre of
the display
S the airspeed of the aircraft on the left-hand side,
S the Altitude on the right-hand side,
S the heading at the bottom.
Additional in the normal mode the following parameters are displayed:
S Pressure setting (baro correction)
S Vertical speed
S Radio Altitude (navigation system)
S AFCS information (autoflight system).

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
(Helicopter)
Figure 174 PFD

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ILS Mode
When the Instrument Landing System (ILS) is working the PFD is used as a
display for this system.
The ILS is a navigation system.
In the ILS Mode is the following information displayed:
S ILS source
S Localizer
S Glide slope
S Marker indication.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 175 PFD in ILS Mode

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ND
General
The Navigation Display (ND) presents the situation of the aircraft seen from
above. By this, it fully replaces the HSI.
Indications on the ND can be displayed in different modes and formats. You
select different modes and formats with the EFIS Control Panel.
The only parameter which is discussed in the section for instruments (ATA 31)
is the heading.
All other information on the ND is based on data from the navigation systems.
ND Modes
No matter what you select on the EFIS Control Panel there are basic pieces of
information that are always present:
S the actual aircraft heading which you find at the top of the compass rose
S a small aircraft symbol, used as a reference, normally displayed in the
center of the screen
S waypoint data gives information about the next navigation point
S wind direction and velocity
S speed above the ground, known as ground speed.
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Heading
Figure 176 ND
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ILS Mode
In the ILS−Mode parameters from the Instrument Landing System (ILS) are
indicated during the ILS−Approach.
In some aircraft it is named Approach-Mode.
You can see the indicated information of the localizer and the glideslope
deviation.
The ILS is a navigation system.
Excepted the heading, all other information on the ND is based on data from
navigation systems.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Heading
Figure 177 ND (ILS Mode)

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Navigation Mode
In the Nav−Sector Mode are additional displayed: the waypoint, the
range−selection and the route−indication.
This information is from the Flight Management System.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Heading
Figure 178 ND (Navigation Mode)

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 179 ND (Airbus)

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RW
Figure 180 ND (McDonnell Douglas)

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Central Warning Systems
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
CENTRAL WARNING SYSTEMS
Local Warnings
Introduction Example
In an aircraft there are various sytems active. Since many of them are The figure shows an overhaed panel of an aircraft in the 60’s of the last
important, monitoring systems were developped. If a parameter is out of limit, a century.
related light illuminates. There are various indicators, switches and announciator lights.
Most alerts are announciated by an amber light. But some very critical Any announciator light shows one specific malfunction.
warnings are announciated by a red light.
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B737−200
RW
Figure 181 Annunciator Lights

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Pushbutton Lights
In the 80’s of the last century, aircraft manufacturers integrated most
annunciator lights to the related switch. These switches are pushbuttons. So
when a light illuminates, pressing it will change the state of the related switch.
All pushbuttons are dark during normal operation and only light up when there
is a local warning like FAULT or when the system is not in its normal switching
state.
Colour Code
All pushbutton lights are colour coded to help in the easy identification of
abnormal conditions:
S Red is used when an immediate action is necessary, like when you get an
engine fire
S Amber lights are used when action is required but not necessarily at once,
for example like with this GENERATOR FAULT light
S White indicates that the system is no longer in the normal switching state,
as in this system, which is switched off.
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 182 Pushbutton Lights

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Master Warning
General
The attention getters consist of the master warning and master caution lights,
and the associated aural warnings.
You find the master warning and master caution lights on the glareshield
directly in front of the pilots.
Master Warning
The master warning lights flash red and you hear a continuous aural warning.
The light is activated when any red annunciator light illuminates.
Master Caution
The master caution lights are steady amber lights that come on with a single
aural warning.
This light is activated when an important amber annunciator light illuminates.
Sound
The continuous and short aural warnings sound different depending on the
aircraft type and the type of warning.
Reset
The attention getters must be reset in order to silence the aural warning and to
allow a new crew alert when the next warning or caution occurs.
You normally reset an alert by pressing the illuminated master warning or
master caution light.
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Figure 183 Attention Getters

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Centralised Caution Panel

General Example
Since the Master Caution Lights and Master Warning Lights do not give an If the AC Bus 1 of the aircraft has no power, the AC Bus Off Relay will be
information which system is affected and which local light is illuminated, a de-energised. In the Overhead Panel, the related local light ”AC BUS 1 OFF”
centralised help was developed. illuminates. This light is not in the pilot’s eye level.
For this, a centralised caution panel is installed at the pilots’ eye level. Therefore, on the Centralised Caution Panel the light ”ELEC” illuminates. Two
The Centralised Caution Panel indicates a fault in a particular system whose seconds later, the Master Caution Lights will illuminate.
local warning light is installed on the overhead panel.
The Master Caution Light can be cancelled by pressing its light cover. Thus,
another fault can be indicated.
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CENTRALISED CENTRALISED
WARNING PANEL WARNING PANEL
115 V AC
BUS 1
AC BUS MASTER CAUTION LIGHT
MASTER CAUTION LIGHT
OFF RELAY
SYSTEM LIGHT
BATTERY
CENTRALISED
WARNING PANEL
RESET
MASTER CAUTION
LIGHT TO OTHER
CIRCUITS
Figure 184 Centralised Warning Panel

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Central Warning Displays

General
Central warning displays provide the flight crew with text and graphic
information about the present failure condition.
The central warning systems in different aircraft types have generally the same
function but as you might expect, they have different names.
Example
On the helicopter EC 135, the central warning system is called CAD standing
for Caution and Advisory Display.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Centralised Warning Panel

CAD
Figure 185 Caution and Advisory Display

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Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring

ECAM– Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring
ECAM is a central warning system designed by Airbus.
ECAM is present in the cockpit as
S engine/warning display E/WD
S system display SD.
E/WD
The E/WD displays in the upper part the engine parameters, fuel and flap and
slat position and in the lower part alert messages and memo messages.
Two symbols – STS , ADV – can be displayed in the lower part of the E/WD.
STS indicates an available status page.
ADV is displayed when ECAM is working as a mono display (only one ECAM
display).
SD
The SD displays possible system pages, as well as, for example, in cruise the
cruise page (consists of engine and air pages).
The status page is also displayed on the SD.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
HYD G RSVR
LO LVL
-PTU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.OFF
-GREEN ENG 1 PUMP . . .

OFF
HYD G RSVR LO LVL Caution Message

-PTU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OFF
-GREEN ENG 1 PUMP . . . OFF
Engine / Warning Display System Display with Cruise Page
Figure 186 E/WD and Cruise Page - ECAM Display

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ECAM CONTROL PANEL
The ECAM CONTROL PANEL is used to CLR
S control the brightness The CLR light in the push button comes on when warning, caution or status
S call up system pages messages appear on the ECAM display.
S call up messages By pushing it when it illuminates each warning at the top is deleted.
S cancel, delete or call up again warnings and messages on the After the last clearance memo messages reappear.
ECAM display units.
RCL
TO CONFIG The warning/caution messages, cancelled by using CLR, are recalled.
T/O power configuration is simulated.
STS
When everything is normal, „TO CONFIG NORMAL“. appears on the E/WD.
The status page is displayed.
The following are checked:
If no status messages are present, the normal messages are displayed again
S slats and flaps in T/O Range after 5 seconds.
S speed brakes retracted
S door closed
S wheel brakes not OVHT
S sidesticks operative.
EMER CANC
With this push button the following are cancelled:
− aural warnings
− master warning lights
− master caution and caution ECAM messages.
ALL
By pressing and holding this button the system pages are called up at one
second intervals.
Pressing briefly makes the system page move forward by one page.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 187 ECAM Control Panel

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Design of the E/WD
The upper part of the E/WD contains the engine control parameters and in
addition the displays for
S FOB (Fuel On Board) and
S slats and flaps position in symbol form.
On the lower part memo messages of the aircraft systems or temporarily
selected functions are displayed.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PRIMARY ENGINE
PARAMETERS
FUEL
SLATS
AND
FLAPS
WARNINGS
AND MEMO
ENG 1 FIRE
−THR LEVERS........IDLE
−PARKING BRK.........ON
−ENG MASTER 1.......OFF
−ENG 1 FIRE P/B ...PUSH
−AGENT 1..........DISCH
STATUS AND −ENG MASTER 2.......OFF
SYSTEM PAGE −ACT VHF1........NOTIFY
overflow arrow
PERMANENT DATA
MEMO MESSAGES: −A/C system functions selected

−or check lists.
WARNING AND CAUTION MESSAGES
Note: An overflow arrow appears when the text of warning and
caution messages exceeds the capacity of the display.
Figure 188 Engine / Warning Display - ECAM Display

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Design of the System Display – SD
The SD is used to show the system and status pages.
System Page
One of twelve system pages can be displayed at any one time. On the lower
part of the system page the following permanent data is shown:
S TAT
S SAT
S GMT
S GW (gross weight)
S G-load or selected altitude.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PRIMARY ENGINE
PARAMETERS
FUEL
SLATS
AND
FLAPS
HYD
GREEN BLUE YELLOW
WARNINGS
AND MEMO 0 PSI 0 PSI 0
PTU
ELEC
RAT OVHT
LO LO
LO
STATUS AND
SYSTEM PAGE
TAT +19 C G.W. 60300 KG

SAT +18 C 23 H 56 C.G. 28 1 %
PERMANENT DATA
Hydraulic Page
Figure 189 System Display Example: Hydraulic Page - ECAM Display

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
System Pages
The figure shows some system pages. They can be selected on the ECAM
Control Panel.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
BLEED CAB PRESS LDG ELEV 2000 FT

ENGINE E L E CBAT 1 BAT 2
f.used V/S FT/MN CAB ALT 28 V DC BAT 28 V
vib (n1) 24 C 24 C P FT 50 A 50 A
0 0
lbs
0 0
PSI 2 UP
C H C H DC 1 DC 2
50 C RAM 8 0 0
20 oil 20 vib (n2) AIR 50 C 10 DC ESS
0 0 0 500 TR 1 TR 2
0 115 qt 0 11 5 2 DN 28 V
0 0 LO HI LO HI ESS TR EMER GEN 28 V
150 A 150 A
100 ps 100 SYS1
0 0 safety AC 1 AC ESS AC 2
0 0 30 PSI PSI 30
27 C C 28 vent GEN1 GEN2
c 0 % APU GEN 0 %
20 20 APU nlet extract 0 V 0 V
nac 1 2 94 %
c 0 hz 116 V 0 hz
20 20 IP HP HP IP pack 1 pack 2 dg 11 C 20 400 hz 20 C dg 2 2
Engine Bleed Cabin Pressure Electric
HYD F U E L LBS F.USED 2 apu

F.USED 1
green blue yellow 0 0
FOB APU GEN avail
72
0 PSI 0 PSI 0 35558 116 V BLEED
ptu APU 4OO HZ 45 PSI
RAT ELEC
LO ELEC LO
N
FUEL LO PR
10
LO LEFT CTR R GHT
o 99
FLAP OPEN
EGT
1552 12193 8068 12193 1552 5 7
3 58O .C LOW OIL
+11c c +10 +10
c c +11 LEVEL
Hydraulic Fuel
APU
WHEEL F/CTL GBY

DOOR/OXY OXY 1850 PSI
AVIONIC
SPD BRK
CABIN SLIDE SLIDE CABIN L
AIL
R
AIL
Cond
AVIONIC ELAC1 SEC1
BG 2 2 GB
CARGO 3
20 c 20 20 c 20
EMER EMER 1 rel2 3 rel4 PITCH TRIM GY
SLIDE SLIDE EXIT l up R
EXIT
CARGO
ELEV RUD elev
auto brk
BULK med BG GBY YB
CABIN SLIDE SLIDE CABIN
Door/Oxygen Wheel Flight Control
Figure 190 A 320 System Display - ECAM Display

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Status Page
Following a defect the status and system page supplies the necessary
information about the aircraft system affected.
The status page is automatically called up with SLATS > 2 during approach
and manually by pressing the status pushbutton on the ECAM CP.
The status page contains a number of messages about aircraft conditions
when defects occur, with permanent data on the lower part.
Design
The left side shows limits and deferrable procedures in blue, in green landing
conditions and information, and the cancelled caution on the lower part.
On the right side INOP systems and under MAINTENANCE defects are
displayed which do not trigger a warning but which must be rectified within 500
flight hours.
When the status page is not called up, the indication STS appears on the
E/WD if something is present on the status page.
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PRIMARY ENGINE
PARAMETERS
FUEL
SLATS
AND STATUS
FLAPS INOP SYS
MIN RAT SPD.........155 KT G+B HYD
CAT 2
WARNINGS
APPR PROC DUAL HYD LO PR B ELEC PUMP
AND MEMO .IF BLUE OVHT OUT: G RSVR
−BLUE ELEC PUMP....ON L+R AIL
SPLR 1+3+5
L ELEV
−L/G............GRVTY EXTN SLATS
−LDG SPD INCREM......10 KT AP 1+2
−LDG DIST............X 1.8 ENG 1 REV
NORM BRK
CAT 1 ONLY NW STEER
FLAPS SLOW
STATUS AND
SYSTEM PAGE
MAINTENANCE
CANCELLED CAUTION APU
NAV IR 2 FAULT AIR COND
TAT +19 C G.W. 60300 KG

PERMANENT DATA
SAT +18 C 23 H 56 C.G. 28 1 %
Figure 191 Status Page Example

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ALERT LEVELS
ECAM
Depending on their importance for continuing the flight the following levels are
classified on the ECAM:
S Level 3 Warnings
S Level 2 Caution
S Level 1 Caution
S Status Messages.
Other Types CFDR

In other aircraft types, letters my be used instead of the numbers for the levels.
121.5 Hz is the signal used on black box

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Figure 192 Alert Levels

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LEVEL 3 Warnings
are warnings with highest priority.
There is a real emergency and the crew must react immediately.
Examples:
S stall warning
S overspeed warning Level 3 warning is the most critical
S engine fire
S excess cabin altitude
Level 3 warnings are given with an aural alarm and a flashing master warning
light.
If available, a system page may also appear on the SD.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 193 Level 3 Alert Activation A380

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LEVEL 2 Cautions
These are warnings which have no direct influence on the flight.
Greater attention is necessary.
Example:
S IDG 1 OIL LO PR
Level 2 warnings are given with a single chime and the master caution light.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
LEVEL 1 Cautions
These are cautions drawing attention to a defective system which is not
required for the flight to continue.
Examples:
S BRAKES PSCU CH 1 FAULT
S RECORDER DFDR FAULT
They appear on the E/WD. There are no aural alarms or warning lights.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System

Introduction
The EICAS with its two display units is for
S engine indication and
S system monitoring.
On the upper EICAS the primary engine parameters are permanently
displayed.
On the lower EICAS the following can be displayed:
S secondary engine parameters
S synoptics
S status information
S maintenance pages.
The lower EICAS display can be selected for synoptics and status information
using the
S EICAS display select panel (EDSP) or the maintenance pages via the CMC.
After power-up data is displayed on both DUs as follows:
S upper EICAS the primary engine data
S lower EICAS the secondary engine data.
The EICAS display units are supplied via an ARINC 429 data bus by one of the
three EFIS/EICAS interface units (EIUs).
All important aircraft systems supply data to the three EIUs.
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MAIN EICAS DISPLAY
CAuTION MESSAGE
(ELEC AC BUS 3)
EICAS DISPLAY
SELECT PANEL
EVENT / REC MAIN EICAS DISPLAY
PUSHBUTTON
AUX EICAS DISPLAY

ELECTRICAL SYNOPTIC
STATUS MESSAGE
ELEC IDG 4
AUX EICAS DISPLAY
MCDU
REAL TIME DISPLAY

RESET OF MANUAL SNAPHOTS
LATCHED STATUS AUTO SNAPSHOTS
MESSAGES
Figure 196 EICAS Boeing

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
General Environmental Control System
The EICAS primary format shows on the main EICAS display at power−up and The environmental control system data block shows:
during normal operation. Colour changes indicate degraded system operation S duct pressure
and miscellaneous prompts are used to monitor related system operation.
S cabin altitude
To maintain a ”quiet, dark” flight deck, information that is not required is
S landing altitude
removed. Primary engine parameters and the fuel system data always show.
S cabin differential pressure.
Engine Parameters The ECS data block shows when certain ECS related events or messages
The primary engine parameters are: occur. The conditions that cause the data block to show are:
S N1 rotor speed S manual landing altitude shown
S exhaust gas temperature (EGT). S cabin altitude readout is amber/red
S cabin delta pressure readout is amber/red
Alert Message Field
S ECS maintenance pages or ECS synoptic or EICAS secondary−full is
The alert message field shows:
selected.
S Level A warning messages in red
The ECS data block is available in all main EICAS formats.
S Level B caution messages in amber
S Level C advisory messages in amber and indented FMC Data
S Level D memo messages in white. Thrust mode and total air temperature show above the primary engine
parameters.
Gear and Flaps
The landing gear status shows when the gear is down or when a gear
malfunction exists. The area blanks when the aeroplane is in the air and the
gear has retracted normally.
The flaps indications monitor flap position and flap movement.
The indications change to show abnormal conditions or alternative flap
selection. The area blanks with the flaps set at zero and the flaps fully
retracted.
Fuel
Fuel system data shows:
S total fuel in kilogrammes x 1000
S fuel temperature
S fuel to remain in a fuel jettison condition.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
TOTAL AIR
TEMPERATURE WARNING,
CAUTION AND
ADVISORY
MESSAGES
TAT +21c TO +23c CABIN ALTITUDE
N1 ACTUAL 82.7 82.7 REV 82.7 AUTOTHROT DISC
OUTFLOW VLV L
75.3 75.3 40.9 79.8 ALERT
MESSAGE
(11 LINES) FIELD
N
1
MEMO
PRIMARY MESSAGES
NAI
ENGINE
CON IGNITION
PARAMETERS
SEATBELTS
WAI WAI RECALL STATUS PG 1
STATUS CUE
EGT ACTUAL FL 250 246−324 KTS
587 587 97 623 IN-FLT START ENVELOPE

DOWN
GEAR LDG GEAR STATUS
EGT
F 5
ECS L
A
DATA BLOCK P
S
FLAP STATUS
12 DUCT PRESS 12
CAB ALT 7500 RATE +250 TOTAL FUEL 155.0 KGS X

1000
LDG ALT 200 AUTO P 5.6 TEMP +10c FUEL SYSTEM
DATA
Upper IDU
Figure 197 Primary EICAS Display

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AUXILIARY EICAS − SECONDARY ENGINE FORMAT
The secondary engine format shows on the auxiliary EICAS display at
power−up. This format consists of secondary engine parameters. They are:
S N2 rotor speed in percent
S fuel flow in lbs. or kg X1000 per hour
S oil pressure in psi
S oil temperature in ° C
S oil quantity in quarts or litres
S engine vibration in relative units.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
N2 ACTUAL
78.3 78.3 78.3 81.8
N2
FUEL FLOW
17.6 17.6 FF 17.6 18.3
OIL PRESSURE
OIL P
65 65 66 66
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL T
105 105 103 107
OIL QUANTITY
15 15 OIL Q 19 15
N2 N2 N2 N2
VIBRATION
1.2 1.2 VIB 0.5 1.2
Lower IDU
Figure 198 AUX EICAS Display
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
AUXILIARY EICAS − MAINTENANCE PAGES MODES

General
Maintenance pages for specific systems show data in three modes. These
modes are as follows:
S real time (current dynamic data)
S manual snapshot (a snapshot of the real time format due to flight or
maintenance crew actions)
S automatic snapshot (a snapshot of the real time format due to an
out−of-limits condition).
Manual Snapshots
Manual snapshots are stored in the manual event non-volatile memory.
Storage is available for up to 5 manual snapshots for each system.
Automatic Snapshots
Automatic (auto) snapshots are stored in the auto event non-volatile memory.
Auto snapshots occur automatically for a system when parameters exceed
preset
values. Storage is available for up to 5 auto snapshots for each system.
Auto events for the performance, EPCS and APU maintenance pages are not
inhibited. All other auto events require that any two engines are running and
the parking brake is released.
Also, engine exceedance page storage is not inhibited.
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MANUAL
SNAPSHOT
AUXILIARY EICAS
REAL
TIME
DATE AND UTC
AUTO
SNAPSHOT
AUXILIARY EICAS
EVENT WHICH CAUSED

THIS AUTO SNAPSHOT
AUXILIARY EICAS
Figure 199 AUX EICAS Display - EICAS Maintenance Page

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MAINTENANCE PAGE REPORTING
General
Real time EICAS maintenance page data, or manual or auto snapshot data
goes to the multipurpose printer (via the CMCs) or to ACARS when a report is
necessary.
Real Time Data

On the EICAS PAGE CONTROL menu, push the line select key (LSK) next to
REPORT>. The REPORT menu shows. Push the LSK next to PRINTER or
ACARS to start a report of real time EICAS maintenance page data.
Snapshot Data
On the EICAS PAGE CONTROL menu, push the LSK next to <MANUAL (or
AUTO) SNAPSHOTS. The MANUAL (AUTO) SNAPSHOTS menu shows.
Note that the text next to LSK 6 left shows −− DISPLAY MODE.
Use this mode to show snapshot data on the auxiliary EICAS display.
Push the LSK next to REPORT>. Note that the system is now in the REPORT
MODE. Push the LSK next to one of the snapshots shown. The REPORT
menu shows. Push the LSK next to PRINTER or ACARS to start a report of the
selected snapshot data.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 200 EICAS Maintenance Page Menu

INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Ground Proximity Warning System
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM

Introduction
Basic GPWS
The purpose of the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is to warn the
flight crew when the aircraft mistakenly comes too close to the ground.
This is done by:
S an aural alert using a synthetic voice
S annunciator lights in front of the pilot.
In some aircraft there are also alert messages on the primary flight displays.
The basic GPWS system operates automatically when the aircraft height is
less than 2500 ft.
This system is installed in all aeroplanes except the very small ones.
It is rarely installed in helicopters.
HAM US/F-4 SaR Jul 1, 2007 01|Introduction|L1|A/B12 Page 370

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PFD
Figure 201 Basic GPWS

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Enhanced GPWS
An advanced system is the enhanced ground proximity warning system.
It shows the terrain around the aircraft on the navigation display and gives a
warning when the aircraft gets too near to the terrain.
These functions are independent of the radio altitude.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
PFD
ND
Figure 202 Enhanced GPWS

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Architecture
The main parts of a GPWS are as follows:
S One Ground Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC)
S Indications Inputs are
S Inhibit Switches (some aeroplanes only)
Radio altimeter
The GPWC receives various inputs from an Air Data Computer and from
various navigation systems.
Central air data
computer
ILS
FRA US/O-5 WeR Nov 12, 2014 02|Computer|L1|A/B12 Page 374

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
GPWC GPWC
(Honeywell) (Allied Signal)
Figure 203 Ground Proximity Warning Computer

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
General
The Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System incorporates the The EGPWS has all the features of the GPWS basic modes and the following
functions of the basic GPWS. additional functions:
The basic GPWS is operative over a range from 30 ft to 2450 ft. radio altitude S Terrain Awareness Alerting and Display
and includes the following alerting modes (modes 1 to 6) : S Terrain Clearance Floor.
The purpose of the Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is
to help prevent accidents caused by controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). This is
done by comparing the aircraft position (FMS or GPS) to an internal database.
The system achieves this objective by accepting a variety of aircraft
parameters as inputs, applying alerting algorithms, and providing the flight crew
with aural alert messages and visual annunciations and displays in the event
that the limits of any alerting envelope are exceeded.
Additionally, Windshear alerting (mode 7) can be provided for specific aircraft

types.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
FATALITIES NUMBER OF FATAL ACCIDENTS
NUMBER OF FATAL ACCIDENTS

FATALITIES
Figure 204 Types of Accidents

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Evolution of EGPWS
The first generation of GPWS, MARK I, was developed in the early 1970s EGPWS was developed to address the remaining CFIT issues and to add
because of a FAA ruling in 1974. virtual look−ahead capability. A recent study of CFIT accidents analyzed
Continuous improvements have been made to the GPWS as a result of this GPWS performance in each case with the results shown in the following figure:
experience, and two new products were introduced in the late 1980‘s: EGPWS improvements were focused on solving the following problems.
S MARK V for digital aircraft and S No Warning
S MARK VII for analogue aircraft. The primary cause of CFIT is landing short with no GPWS warning. When
First generation systems do not give the pilot information about the cause of the landing gear is down and landing flaps are deployed, the GPWS expects
the warning. It is possible that false warning are generated. The voice warning the aeroplane to land and therefore issues no warning. EGPWS introduces
“Too Low Gear“ clearly identifies the problem. the terrain clearance floor (TCF) function, which provides GPWS
protection in the landing configuration.
The implementation of GPWS has been very effective at reducing CFIT
accidents. About 95% of the world‘s fleet is equipped with GPWS, but CFIT S Late Warning or Improper Response
continues to be the number one cause of airline passenger fatalities worldwide. The occurrence of a GPWS alert typically happens at a time of high
Much of this continuing problem is due to CFIT situations not addressed by workload and nearly always surprises the flight crew. Almost certainly the
early generation GPWS. Today, a very large number of CFIT accidents occur aircraft is not where the pilot thinks it should be, and the response to a
in the landing configuration on a stable non−precision approach in low visibility, GPWS warning can be late in these circumstances. Warning time can also
short of the runway. In this configuration, the GPWS expects the aeroplane to be short if the aircraft is flying into steep terrain since the downward
land and will not issue a warning. looking radio altimeter is the primary sensor used for the warning
Nuisance warnings have been problematic in early generation GPWS and, in calculation. The EGPWS improves terrain awareness and warning times
fact, have caused pilots to ignore valid warnings in CFIT accidents. by introducing Terrain Display and the Terrain Data Base Look Ahead
protection. EGPWS builds on the proven success of the GPWS and
Over the years, much of GPWS development and improvements has been
continues improvement focusing on the actual causes of CFIT.
focused on eliminating nuisance warnings.
A comparison of older generation systems with the EGPWS is shown in the
Terrain clearances at certain airports can also cause nuisance or short
following figure.
warnings. Modern AlliedSignal GPWS has incorporated envelope modulation
that monitors aircraft position relative to a database of specific troublesome The Mark VI EGPWS utilises regions of a global terrain database that is
terrain airport locations. When the GPWS recognizes that the aircraft is landing organized in a flexible and expandable manner. Using digital compression
at one of these airports, it will adjust the warning modes for that airport, but techniques the complete database is stored in a non−volatile memory within
only under specific conditions. the LRU. Updates and additions are easily done via the LRU front panel and a
PCMCIA card.
The evolution of GPWS over the years has been a history of steady and
continuous improvement. While the data shows a marked reduction in
CFIT, primarily due to GPWS, data also shows that CFIT remains the
number one safety concern. The next significant improvement to GPWS
is the Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS).
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
COMMERCIAL JET AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS

1988−1995
Late Warning or
Improper Pilot Response
No GPWS installed 41%
31%
No Warning
28%
Comparison of GPWS Generations
MARK I MARK II/III MARKV/VII EGPWS

BASIC GPWS WITH 5 MODES X X X X
ENUNCIATE CAUSE OF WRNG X X X
AIRSPEED MODE EXPANSION X X X
ALTITUDE CALL−OUTS X X
BANK ANGLE WARNING X X
ENVELOPE MODULATION X X
TERRAIN CLEARANCE FLOOR X
LOOK−AHEAD WARNING X
TERRAIN DISPLAY X
NUISANCE WARNINGS OFTEN COMMON RARE RARE
Figure 205 Aircraft Accidents Statistic

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Operation
General Auxiliary Functions
The EGPWC knows 6 basic modes of ground proximity warning. In addition to the main alerting functions, the EGPWC also performs the
The modes 1 to 5 are basic system requirements. subsequent auxiliary functions:
Mode 6 provides additional protection in form of a selectable menu of radio S input signal processing, to include filtering and signal monitoring,
altitude callouts during the landing approach. It also provides an optional alert S alert output processing, to include alert prioritisation, voice message
for excessive bank angles. synthesis, audio output and display, warning lamp drivers,
The modes are program−pin selectable before installation of the EGPWC. S Built−In Test Equipment (BITE) and monitor, to include cockpit−activated
An overall EGPWS block diagram of the system also shows the enhanced self−test,
additional components. S interface with the CMC/CFDS maintenance systems with interactive
The enhanced ground proximity warning computer (EGPWC) is the control unit protocols when the aircraft is on the ground,
of the EGPWS. S front panel PCMCIA operations to upload software and databases,
The primary functions of the computer are: S front panel maintenance test operations for system check and
S receiving and processing of serial digital and discrete data for use in troubleshooting,
computing warning mode conditions. S front panel system status readouts to monitor system conditions.
S warning mode computations to determine when the aircraft penetrates one
of the warning boundaries mentioned above.
S output warnings and control
S audible and visual indications when a mode computation reveals a boundary
penetration.
S monitoring and indicating of the GPWS status as well as internal monitoring
of the GPWC. The computer stores failures for later readout on a front
panel BITE display.
The main part of the EGPWS operations is the warning function. This function
is independent of the other functions. For example, the loss of the terrain
awareness display function will not affect the operation of the ground proximity
warning functions as long as the necessary inputs are still available.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Headset
Figure 206 EGPWS Simplified Schematic

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 1 − Excessive Descent Rate
When the aircraft penetrates the outer alert boundary, the EGPWS generates
the aural message ”SINK RATE”. When the aircraft penetrates the inner alert
boundary the aural message ”PULL UP” is generated.
In both cases the computer also generates a discrete output to drive visual
annunciations.
The computer defines the two alert boundaries by inputs of barometric vertical
speed, inertial vertical speed and radio altitude.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 207 Mode 1 Excessive Descent Rate

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 2 − Excessive Terrain Closure Rate
When the aircraft closes in on the terrain with a hazardous rate the EGPWS − MODE 2B
generates MODE 2 alerts. The MODE 2B alert is generated when the aircraft is in the following
For MODE 2 alerts the aircraft can be in configurations:
S descent, S the flaps are set to the landing position,
S level flight or S the aircraft position is within +/−2 dots of the localizer and/or the glide
S climb. slope centerline indication during an ILS approach,
The system uses a combination of vertical speed and radio altitude signals S for the first 60 seconds after take-off.
when it computes the mode alert boundaries. If the aircraft penetrates the MOD 2B envelope with either gear or flaps not in
There are two submodes, MODE 2A and MODE 2B, determined by aircraft the landing configuration, the aural message ”TERRAIN TERRAIN” is
configuration. generated initially. If the aircraft continues to penetrate the envelope, the aural
message ”PULL UP” is repeated until the aircraft exits the envelope. In both
− MODE 2A
cases the computer also sends signals to drive visual annunciators.
The MODE 2A alert is generated when the aircraft is in any configuration other
If both gear and flaps are in landing position the aural message ”TERRAIN” is
than defined for MODE 2B.
repeated until the aircraft leaves the warning envelope. The aural „PULL UP“
When the aircraft penetrates this mode’s alerting boundaries the computer messages are suppressed.
generates the aural message ”TERRAIN TERRAIN” together with visual
annunciation signals. If the aircraft continues to penetrate the boundaries, the
aural message changes and ”PULL UP” is repeated until the aircraft exits the
warning envelope. The upper alert boundary varies as a function of aircraft
speed.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 2 A MODE 2 B
Figure 208 Mode 2 Excessive Terrain Closure Rate

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 3 − Altitude Loss After Take-off
The MODE 3 function provides alerts when the aircraft looses a significant
amount of altitude immediately after take-off or during a missed approach.
The EGPWC receives altitude above sea level information. When a loss of
altitude is detected the computer calculates the amount of permitted loss
before an alert is initiated. When the landing gear is up and the flaps are not in
landing position after take-off or a go around, the computer initiates the MODE
3 alert, if an altitude loss larger than permitted is detected.
This alert will remain on until the aircraft reaches sufficient altitude and is no
longer in the take-off phase of the flight.
The MODE 3 warning is an aural message ”DON’T SINK” and an activation of
visual annunciators. The visual annunciators remain active until a positive rate
of climb is established.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 209 Mode 3 Altitude Loss After Take-off

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 4 − Unsafe Terrain Clearance
The EGPWS provides MODE 4 alerts and warnings when insufficient terrain
clearance is detected in reference to phase of flight and speed.
There are 3 submodes.
S MODE 4A
MODE 4A is active during cruise and approach with the landing gear not in
landing configuration. The standard upper boundary is 500 feet radio altitude. If
the aircraft penetrates this boundary from above with the landing gear still up at
190 knots or below, the aural message ”TOO LOW GEAR” is generated. The
upper boundary increases with airspeed linearly. It is at its maximum of 1000
feet radio altitude at 250 knots and above. If this boundary is penetrated, the
aural message ”TOO LOW TERRAIN” is generated.
S MODE 4B
For the MODE 4B function the upper boundary decreases to 245 feet radio
altitude when the landing gear is lowered. Penetration of the boundary at
speeds below 159 knots results in a ”TOO LOW GEAR” aural message with
the gear up. With the gear down but the flaps not in landing configuration the
aural message ”TOO LOW FLAPS” is generated.
The EGPWC generates the aural message ”TOO LOW TERRAIN” at speeds
above 159 knots, if the boundary is penetrated.
S MODE 4C
MODE 4C is based on a minimum terrain clearance or floor that increases with
radio altitude during take-off. A value equal to 75% of the current radio altitude
is accumulated in a long term filter. Any decrease of radio altitude below the
filter value with gear and flaps up results in the aural message ”TOO LOW
TERRAIN”.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 4 A
( GEAR UP )
MODE 4 C
( AT TAKEOFF )
MODE 4 B
( GEAR DOWN )
„TOO LOW TERRAIN“

„TOO LOW TERRAIN“
Figure 210 Mode 4 Unsafe Terrain Clearance

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 5 − Below Glide Slope
The EGPWC provides 2 levels of MODE 5 operations when the aircraft flight
path deviates below the glide slope beam during a front course ILS approach.
The ”soft” alert activation occurs whenever the aircraft is more than 1.3
dots below the beam centre. The volume level of the aural alert message
”GLIDE SLOPE” is approximately one half (−6dB) of the other alert
message volume levels.
The ”hard” alert activation occurs below 300 feet radio altitude whenever
the aircraft is more than 2 dots below the glide slope. The aural alert
message ”GLIDE SLOPE” is generated at full normal volume level.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 211 Mode 5 Excessive Glide Slope Deviation

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 6 − Callouts Bank Angle
The EGPWS provides MODE 6 alerts and callouts when the aircraft descends Mode 6 bank angle callouts occur when the aeroplanes bank angle is larger
below predefined altitudes, decision height (DH), minimums, approach decision than 10 degrees between 30 feet and 130 feet. Above 130 feet the callout
height or approaching minimums. occurs at 35 degrees, 40 degrees, and 45 degrees. The aural message is
“BANK ANGLE, BANK ANGLE“.
This mode also generates alerts and warnings for excessive roll or bank
angles.
The operator can select specific call−outs by program pins from predefined
menus. Modes 6 alerts and call−outs generate aural messages and ARINC 429
outputs, but no visual indications.
Altitude Callouts
Altitude callouts start at 2500 feet. At 2500 feet, there is an option to give the
aural ”TWENTY FIVE HUNDRED” or give the aural ”RADIO ALTITUDE”.
The minimums callout option gives an aural callout when the aeroplane
descends through the decision height altitude set on the EFIS control panels.
These are the aural callouts the GPWC can give for decision height:
S minimums
S minimums minimums
S decision height.
There is also an approaching minimums option callout that tell the pilots when
the aeroplane is approaching the decision height set on the EFIS control panel.
The callout normally comes on when the aeroplane altitude is 80 feet above the
decision height. The aural callouts for this option are:
S approaching minimums
S approaching decision height
S plus hundred (for this callout the altitude selection is set for decision height
+ 100 feet).

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Altitude Call-Outs Excessive Bank Angle

Figure 212 Mode 6 Callouts

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MODE 7 − Windshear Alerting (TSO−C117A)
Mode 7 produces optional alerts for flight into excessive windshear conditions
during take-off or final approach in accordance with TSO−C117.
The windshear caution, or pre−alert as it is sometimes termed, provides visual
and ARINC 429 output indications. The windshear warning also produces
aural, visual and ARINC 429 output indications.
This mode is selected with a program pin strap.
Windshear detection is active between 10 and 1500 feet AGL during the initial
take-off and final approach phases of flight.
Alerts and warnings are provided when the level of windshear exceeds
predetermined threshold values. The actual windshear value measured
represents the vector sum of inertial vs. air mass accelerations along the flight
path and perpendicular to the flight path. These shears result from vertical
winds and rapidly changing horizontal winds.
Windshear warnings are given for:
S decreasing head wind (or increasing tail wind) and severe vertical down
drafts.
S increasing head wind (or decreasing tail wind) and severe up drafts.
The windshear microburst phenomenon and windshear caution and warning
levels are illustrated in the following figure.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 213 Mode 7 Excessive Windshear Detection (RWS)

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Terrain Awareness Alerting and Display

General
A major new feature of the EGPWS is the incorporation of the terrain
awareness alerting and display functions. These functions use the aircraft’s
geographic position and altitude and the internal terrain database to predict
potential conflicts between the aircraft flight path and the terrain and optionally
provide graphic displays of the conflicting terrain. The feature is illustrated by
the block diagram in the following figure.
Terrain Awareness Inputs

The EGPWC receives aeroplane data from the air data inertial reference
system (ADIRS) and the global positioning system (GPS). The terrain
awareness function uses the following data:
S latitude
S longitude
S barometric altitude
S ground track
S ground speed
S heading
S roll attitude
S flight path angle (calculated by the EGPWC).
Terrain awareness uses GPS or FMS for latitude and longitude.
Terrain Awareness Calculation

The EGPWC has a world−wide terrain database in its memory. The EGPWC
looks at airplane’s position and track and compares this data to the terrain
database. If the EGPWC finds there is a terrain threat, it makes an alert.
Terrain Display Output

The EGPWC makes a digital map of the terrain forward of the aeroplane. It
sends this digital map to the display units (DUs) to show on the navigational
displays (NDs). The display uses different coloured dots to show terrain altitude
relative to aeroplane altitude.
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AMU
GPS
PFD
ADIRS
FMS
EGPWS DMC / DIU ND
Figure 214 Terrain Display

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Terrain Alerting TERRAIN CAUTION & WARNING ENVELOPE BOUNDARIES

Two alerting envelopes are computed, one corresponding to a
S caution-level alert and the other to a SLOPES=GREATER OF FPA OR +6°
S warning-level alert.
S Caution FLIGHT PATH ANGLE
(FPA)
The look-ahead caution alert is provided approximately 40 to 60 seconds
TERRAIN FLOOR
before a potential terrain conflict.
WARNING CAUTION
The caution level aural message is ”CAUTION TERRAIN” and repeated AREA AREA
every seven seconds while within the terrain caution envelope. Alert
discretes are provided to energise the terrain display relays.
S Warning SLOPES VARY WITH FPA
The look-ahead warning alert is provided approximately 20 to 30 seconds WARNING LOOK AHEAD DIST
before a potential terrain conflict. CAUTION LOOK AHEAD DIST
The warning level aural message is ”TERRAIN TERRAIN PULL UP” and WARNING LOOK UP DIST
”PULL UP” is repeated continuously while within the terrain warning CAUTION LOOK UP DIST
envelope. Alert discretes are provided to energise the terrain display relays.
The alerting envelopes are sized by a look−ahead distance in front of the
aeroplane, an altitude offset below the aeroplane, and a lateral distance on
either side of the aeroplane (see figure). The look−ahead distance varies
mainly with ground speed; as ground speed increases, the alerting distance
increases to provide roughly equivalent alerting times at all speeds. The PERSPECTIVE VIEW
look−ahead distance is primarily focused along the aeroplane flight path OUTSIDE LINES POINT OUT " 3°
CENTER LINE
(climbing, descending or level). An additional component looks six degrees up
POINTS ALONG GROUND TRACK
to protect against very high terrain (shown in Figures on the right). This
PLUS A LEAD ANGLE DURING TURNS
six−degree component actually looks ahead approximately twice the normal
look−ahead distance.
The altitude offset is normally 700 feet (213m) below the aeroplane. The STARTING WIDTH=1/4 nM
purpose of the offset is to provide terrain alerting when the aeroplane has less
than the normal terrain clearance.
The lateral distance is 1/8 of nautical mile (0.2 3 km) either side of the
aeroplane ground track and increases gradually up to the look-ahead distance.
LOOK AHEAD DISTANCE
To enable the aeroplane to land without nuisance alerts, the look−ahead
distance and altitude offset decrease as the aeroplane approaches the airport.
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Caution Envelope
Look-ahead
distance
Altitude
offset
Example: Caution alert at 2 nM

(45 sec @ 180 Kn)
Warning envelope
Look-ahead
distance
Altitude
offset
Example: Warning alert at 1.1 nM

(22 sec @ 180 Kn)
jc
Figure 215 Terrain Alerting
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Terrain Clearance Floor

The terrain clearance floor (TCF) alert function creates an increasing terrain
clearance envelope around the intended airport runway directly related to the
distance from the runway. TCF alerts are based on current aircraft location,
nearest runway centre point position and radio altitude.
TCF is active:
S during take-off mode when Mode 4 protection is not available, and
S during cruise and
S during final approach.
The EGPWC has a runway database in its memory. This database contains
the location of all hard surface runways in the world that are longer than 3,500
feet.
TCF makes a terrain clearance envelope around the runway. The altitude of
the envelope increases as the distance from the airport increases. The
EGPWC compares aeroplane latitude, longitude, and radio altitude with TCF
envelope data. If the aeroplane descends through the floor of the envelope,
The EGPWC makes an alert.
”TOO LOW TERRAIN” is enunciated upon penetration of the TCF.
The terrain clearance floor (TCF) alert message will occur two times when
initial envelope penetration occurs, and one time thereafter for each 20%
degradation in radio altitude.
At the same time the EGPWS warning lamps will illuminate. The lamps will
remain on until the alert envelope is exited.
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Figure 216 Terrain Clearance Floor

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Audio Menu
The three program pins allow for up to 512 (8 3) type selections. These menus
are only active when the callout enable discrete is active. If the discrete is not
selected, then only the MINIMUMS−MINIMUMS alert function is enabled
Appendix defines each of the altitude callout menu selections.
The selected callout menu will be enunciated as part of a self−test sequence.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
ALERT/WARNING CONDITION BASIC VOICE MENU MODE 4 TOO LOW FLAPS TOO LOW FLAPS
MODE7WINDSHEAR WARNING (SIREN) WINDSHEAR WINDSHEAR MODE 1 SINKRATE SINKRATE
(RWS) WINDSHEAR
MODE 3 DON‘T SINK DON‘T SINK (PAUSE) DON‘T SINK
MODE 6 BANK ANGLE BANK ANGLE MODE 5 GLIDESLOPE GLIDESLOPE
MODE 1 PULL UP PULL UP PWS Windshear Caution N/A − PWS Voice
MODE 2 PULL UP PREFACE TERRAIN TERRAIN MODE 6 APPROACHING DH SELECTED CALLOUT
MODE 2 PULL UP PULL UP MODE 6 BANK ANGLE BANK ANGLE (PAUSE) BANK AN-
V1 ALERT V1 GLE
ENGINE FAIL ALERT ENGINE FAIL MODE 7 WINDSHEAR ALERT (QUIET) (or CAUTION WINDSHEAR
if Caution voice Enabled)
TERRAIN AWARENESS PREFACE TERRAIN TERRAIN
TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING PULL UP AUTOPILOT ALERT AUTOPILOT
OBSTACLE AWARENESS PRE- OBSTACLE OBSTACLE TAKEOFF FLAP ALERT FLAPS (PAUSE) FLAPS
FACE TCAS RA N/A − TCAS Voice (may coincide with
Mode 6 voices)
OBSTACLE AWARENESS WAR- PULL UP 1,3
NING TCAS TA N/A − TCAS Voice (may coincide with
Mode 6 voices)
PWS Windshear Warning (PWS) N/A − PWS Voice
MODE 2 TERRAIN TERRAIN
MODE 6 MINIMUMS SELECTED CALLOUT
MODE 6 ALTITUDE ALTITUDE ALTITUDE
TERRAIN AWARENESS CAUTION CAUTION TERRAIN (PAUSE) CAU-
TION TERRAIN (7 sec pause)
OBSTACLE AWARENESS CAU- CAUTION OBSTACLE (PAUSE)
TION CAUTION OBSTACLE (7 sec pause)

MODE 4 TOO LOW TERRAIN TOO LOW TERRAIN
TCF TOO LOW TERRAIN TOO LOW TERRAIN
ALTITUDE ALERT 960 HZ TONE
MODE 6 ALTITUDE CALLOUTS SELECTED CALLOUTS
SPEED BRAKE ALERT SPEED BRAKE (PAUSE) SPEED
BRAKE
MODE 4 TOO LOW GEAR TOO LOW GEAR
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
MK V EGPWS Programming
Accomplishment Instructions
General
1. 1. Aircraft must be electrically energised.
2. 2. The PCMCIA card Allied Signal with the actual version of terrain
database must be used.
Programming
Perform loading procedure according to Allied Signal.
1. Get access to the EGPWC
2. Ensure that the 115VAC circuit breaker to the EGPWC is ON, and that the
COMPUTER OK LED on the EGPWC front panel is ON.
3. Open the door on the EGPWC front panel.
4. Insert the PCMCIA card into the PCMCIA card slot. Insert card according
to the picture on the front panel of the EGPWC.
5. While the loading is in progress, the IN PROG LED remains ON and the
COMPUTER OK LED is OFF.
6. When the loading is complete, the XFER COMP LED goes ON.
7. Remove the PCMCIA card from the EGPWC.
8. After approx. 1.5 seconds, the COMPUTER OK LED goes ON to indicate
that the contents of the PCMCIA card were successfully loaded.
9. Close the door on the EGPWC front panel.
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Top of card
when inserted
PCMCIA card slot
Bottom of card
when inserted
EGPW COMPUTER
Figure 217 EGPWC

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Self Test
General S Level 1, Go/No−Go Test:
In addition to power−up and continuous BITE, user activated tests, via discrete This sequence indicates the system’s ability to perform all of its configured
test switches, and/or maintenance system commands are supported. functions.
− Training Information Point
Cockpit Self-Test
You can start a level one self test from the front panel of the GPWC, but
In aircraft with a cockpit−test switch it is possible to manually initiate tests and
you cannot see the flight deck annunciations. Use the GPW module to
BITE annunciation while the aircraft is on the ground.
start an operational test of the GPWS.
If the aircraft is above 2000 feet AGL cockpit self−test can be initiated,
− Short Level One Test — Normal Indications
provided no warning or alert is in progress.
For this sequence, when the test switch is activated, the cockpit lamps
A test switch on the unit‘s front panel, along with an audio headset jack, is also
are activated and aural messages are issued to indicate which functions
provided to give the flexibility of running tests both in the cockpit and at the
are correctly operating.
LRU. For some maintenance systems the test command is input via an ARINC
429 input word. For instance, if no faults exist on an installation that uses the terrain
awareness function in addition to basic GPWS and windshear, then the
Six levels of information are available through voice messages by pressing the
result of the present status test would typically be:
self−test switch. The test sequence in general is summarised as follows.
S ND system message TERR TEST shows in cyan
S ground proximity warning light on for 7 seconds
S glideslope lights on for 7 sec and aural message
S pull up message displayed for 7 sec and aural message
S windshear message displayed for 7 sec and aural message
S terrain test pattern displayed on the ND and aural message
S aural message sequence:
Glideslope−−−−Pull Up−−−−Windshear Windshear
Windshear−−−−Terrain Terrain, Pull Up
However, if no valid glideslope input were present, then the sequence

would be
S glideslope INOP−−−−−Pull Up−−−−−Windshear Windshear
Windshear−−−−Terrain Terrain, Pull Up
During system self−test all INOP type visual annunciation are activated.
− Long Level 1 Test
To start the long level 1 test, push and hold the test button until the first
voice is heard. This will do the short level one test procedures then
continue to give voice call−outs for all customer selected items.
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Figure 218 EGPWS: Self-Test, Level 1

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Self-test Level 2 to level 6

Self−test levels 2−6 access is through the GPW module and the GPWC. S Level 2, Current Faults:
When you use the GPWC, a 600 ohm headphone is necessary to listen to the This sequence identifies all faults, if any, that currently exist. It will
test information. Plug the headphone into the jack on the front panel of the distinguish between internal and external faults.
GPWC. If no faults exist, the message is „No Faults“.
If you do the tests from the flight deck, the information is heard over the flight S Level 3, Configuration Information:
deck speakers.
This sequence indicates the versions of the resident hardware, software
Use the self−test button on the front panel of the GPWC or the self−test button and database versions. Also provided are the current program pin option
on the GPW module to get access to levels 2−6. selections, including voice and callouts menu selections.
The self−test buttons have these two modes: S Level 4, Fault History:
S Short cancel — push the button for less than two seconds This sequence indicates all system faults that were logged for the past ten
S Long cancel — push the button for more than two seconds. flight legs. (Information on the last 64 legs is accessible via the RS−232
Use the self−test buttons for these functions: interface).
S start self−test level 1 S Level 5, Warning History:
S go to the next item or flight leg within a test This sequence provides all EGPWS alerts/warnings that were logged for the
past ten flight legs. (Information on the last 64 legs is accessible via the
S go to the next self−test level
RS−232 interface).
S end the self−test.
When a test level ends, the aural message PRESS TO CONTINUE
annunciates. Push the self−test button to go to the next test level.
If you do not push the self−test button within three seconds, self−test ends.
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Figure 219 EGPWS: Self-Test

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
S Level 6, Discrete Test
This sequence enables data transfer as a support for system set−up and
maintenance.
This test begins with the voice message DISCRETE TEST. If the conditions
for discrete data input change, there follows a voice message about the new
status.
You hear the voice message DISCRETE INPUT TEST − PRESS TO
CANCEL every 60 seconds. By operating the long or the short feed, the
self−test is ended.
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 220 EGPWS: Self Test

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Status LEDs
Purpose
There are three status LEDs on the front panel of the Ground Proximity
Warning Computer (GPWC). These LEDs turn on when there is power to the
GPWC.
The LEDs have the following colours:
S external fault — yellow
S computer OK — green
S computer fail — red.
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Figure 221 EGPWS: Computer Status LEDs

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Vibration Measurement and Indication
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION

General
Engines
An important engine indication is the indication for engine vibration. It enables
you to identify a rotor imbalance, which can be the first sign of engine damage.
The main parts of the engine vibration monitoring system are, as follows:
S The indication in the cockpit which you have just identified. This shows the
level of vibration usually in units.
S Then on the engine there are one or two vibration sensors, which deliver
electrical signals to a computer.
S This computer collects and filters the vibration data for indication and engine
trend monitoring. The computer is, for example, sometimes called the
engine vibration monitoring unit or EVMU for short.
Rotors and Gearboxes

It is possible to measure the vibrations in other parts of an aircraft. For
example, rotors and gearboxes are equipped with vibration sensors in many
helicopter types.
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Indication &
Trend Monitoring
EVMU
3
2
4
VIBRATION
5
0
Indicator Display Unit
Figure 222 Vibration Monitoring

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Engine Sensors
Location
The engine vibration sensors are accelerometers that measure the radial
acceleration of the rotor system.
You usually find two sensors on each engine.
S one sensor is located in the compressor area, for example near the N1 rotor
shaft, and
S a second sensor is in the turbine area, for example on the turbine frame.
Engine vibration sensors installed near N1

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Indication &
Trend Monitoring
Vibration Sensor
EVMU
Figure 223 Vibration Sensors I

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Types
Two different types of accelerometer are used on engines:
S one type is the electromagnetic accelerometer
S One type is the piezoelectric−crystal type sensor.

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Indication &
Trend Monitoring
EVMU Electromagnetic
Accelerometer
Piezoelectric-crystal
Accelerometer
Figure 224 Vibration Sensors II

M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Sensor Function
Electromagnetic Sensor
The electromagnetic sensor has a permanent magnet that is hold in the centre
by two springs. A fixed coil surrounds the magnet. Type of sensors
When there is a vibration, the coil moves up and down together with the sensor
housing. However, the magnet stays almost still due to its inertia force.
The difference in motion between the coil and the magnetic field induces an AC
voltage in the coil, like in a generator.
Piezoelectric Sensor Better
A piezoelectric crystal generates a voltage when you apply a force to the
crystal.
In this sensor the force is applied by an inertia mass, which presses the crystal
against the base plate when the sensor is accelerated.
Monitoring Unit
The vibration sensors give a signal to the monitoring unit with a voltage that is
proportional to the level of acceleration and a frequency that is equivalent to
the vibration frequency.
The monitoring unit filters and analyzes these signals from the accelerometers
for indication and trend monitoring.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Spring
Indication & AC
Trend Monitoring Coil Permanent Magnet
Filter Spring
EVMU
Electromagnetic Sensor
Inertia Mass
Base Plate
Piezoelectric Sensor
Figure 225 Operation of Vibration Sensors

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Indication
General
The vibration indication on modern aircraft is automatically controlled by the
monitoring unit.
In this example of an glass cockpit display there are two indications for each
engine.
S one indication shows units of vibration for the N2 rotor system and
S one for the N1 rotor system
Monitoring Unit
The monitoring unit generates the 2 indications from a single sensor signal.
This can be done by comparing the frequency of the vibration signal and the
two rotor speed signals.
Usually only the forward sensor is used for this indication, but the monitoring
unit is able to switch to the aft sensor when the forward sensor fails.
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Indication &
Trend Monitoring
Filter
Rotor Speed
EVMU
Figure 226 Vibration Indication on Display

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Detailed Vibration Indication

This example of an EICAS display shows the vibration in an analog and digital
format. There is only one value for each engine.
The monitoring unit usually selects the highest vibration signal for the
indication. The display also shows the sensor and filter functions that are used
for the indication.
Four different modes of indication are possible in this example.
S The first one shows FAN and means that the forward sensor is measuring
the vibration of the N1 rotor.
S LPT stands for Low Pressure Turbine and means that the aft sensor
measures the vibration of the N1 rotor.
S N2 means that the vibration of the N2 rotor system is measured by the aft
sensor.
S BB means broad band and shows the unfiltered vibration signal from the aft
sensor. This signal is used, for example, when a rotor speed signal is not
available.
When a vibration reaches a certain critical level, in some aircraft types the
corresponding vibration indication starts pulsing. Now the pilot must react to
find the reason for the vibration, for example by scanning other engine
indications or even by power reductions or engine shut-down.
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Indication &
Trend Monitoring
Filter
EVMU
Figure 227 Vibration Indication on EICAS

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Fan Balancing
General
For some engines you can also use the vibration monitoring system for ”on
wing fan balancing”.
It helps to find the highest imbalance with its exact location on the rotor.
The location is given by the so-called rotor phase angle. This is the position on
the rotor, measured in degrees from a fixed reference point.
You can measure the reference point for example with a ”trim balance sensor”.
This works like a rotor speed sensor but gives only one pulse for each rotation.
Indication
You can find the phase angle indication for example on an EICAS maintenance
page, together with all vibration signals.
On other aircraft you will find it on the print-out from the monitoring system.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Indication &
Trend Monitoring
Filter
Rotor Speed
EVMU
N1 Speed
Sensor
Display
Trim
Balance
Sensor
Figure 228 Phase Angle Measurement

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INSTRUMENTS (ATA 31) Fuel Quantity Indicating System
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM

General
Indicators
During flight, the pilots mus be informed about the mass of fuel on board
(FOB).
Depending on the aircraft type, analogue indicators or displays are used for
indication.
Additionally, large aeroplanes have an indication at the fuelling station. This is
needed by the fuelling personnel.
Measuring Methods
Basically, there are two methods to measure the fuel quantity:
S System with capacitors
S System with ultrasonic principle (larger aeroplanes only).
Three methods
Resistance ( old )
Capacitance
Ultra sonic
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
BO105
Analogue Indicator
(Cockpit)
A320
Display
(Cockpit)
A320
Digital Indicator
(Fueling Station)
Figure 229 Fuel Quantity Indicators

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
System Pages
General
The fuel system pages provide all other information necessary to monitor the
fuel system.
In addition to valve and pump status information, data on the quantity of fuel in
each individual tank and on the total fuel on board is displayed.
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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
B747
A320
Figure 230 Fuel System Pages

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Plane|L1|A/B12|M11
M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Fuel Quantity Probes

General
The number of probes in a tank depends on the size and shape of the tank.
The probes are installed vertically in each tank and reach from the bottom of
the tank to the top. The probes are therefore of different length.
The probes are capacitors. The capacity changes depending on the amount of
fuel.
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Figure 231 Fuel Quantity Probes

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Details
Each fuel quantity probe consists of two thin walled aluminium alloy tubes. The
tubes are installed coaxially and electrically isolated from each other to form a
capacitor.
Each probe also consists of a terminal block which contains the electrical
connection and the mounting brackets which fix the probe to the tank structure.
The space between the two tubes of the fuel quantity probe is filled with air
when the tank is empty or partially or completely filled with fuel depending on
the level of fuel in the tank.
The capacitance, C in short, of a fuel quantity probe is its capability to store
electrical energy, and depends on
S the area of the plates, called A, and on
S the distance between the plates, d.
It also depends on the material that replaces the air between the tubes. For
example when the probe is completely covered by fuel, the capacitance is
increased by a factor of 2.2.
This material dependent factor is called the dielectric constant.
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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Figure 232 Fuel Quantity Probe Architecture

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Capacitance Measurement
General Dielectric Constants
In the case of large commercial aircraft the fuel quantity is shown in units of (K = Kappa or E = Epsilon)
weight as the amount of energy present in the form of fuel is dependent on S Air = 1.0
weight. Furthermore with the huge quantities of fuel on board − up to one half
S Fuel = 2.01
of take−off weight − direct weight indication is necessary to calculate the
approved take−off and landing weights. The volume of the fuel and thus its S Water = 80
specific gravity (rho) changes with temperature. With the large tank capacity of Since fuel has a dielectric strength more than twice that of air, the capacitance
aircraft today the same number of litres can differ by several tonnes in a of the sensor increases with the amount of fuel in the tank. The change in
temperature range of −50 to +40 Celsius. A method of indication for the capacitance of the sensor is utilised in a bridge circuit to provide an amplified
reserve of fuel which takes this fact into account is based on a capacitive signal which rotates the pointer or actuates the digital display in the indicator.
bridge circuit.
Principle
With the capacitance method of measuring quantity the differing dielectric
constants of air and fuel (or oil) are put to use. A multi−tubular surface
condenser is installed in the tank which changes its capacity depending on the
level of fuel in the tank.
If the condenser is fully submerged, its capacity is doubled. The total capacity
results from the capacity of an empty tank plus the capacity change due to the
displacement of air between the plates. This difference in capacity corresponds Two types of fuel measurements
to the fuel quantity in the tank. Capacitance and ultra.......
NOTE: The fuel quantity indicator is a measurement of weight!
It is NOT a measurement of volume.
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HIGH
HIGH
IMPEDANCE
CABLE
Compensator
GROUNDING
CONNECTION
LOW
CONNECTOR
Tank Unit
Figure 233 Tank Unit and Compensator (Capacitive)

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M11.5.1|M12.7.1|M13.8
Ultrasonic Quantity Metering

Principle
Tank units transmit an ultrasonic signal. This signal is reflected at the surface
of the liquid. The same tank unit receives the echo.
A computer calculates the liquid level by the running time of the signal.
Each tank contains numerous tank units.
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TARGET
STILLWELL
ULTRASONIC
TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
Figure 234 Tank Unit (Ultrasonic)

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M11.05.01 31 B1 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES VIBRATION PRESSURE TRANSDUCER . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER . . . . . . 74
AND SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ALTIMETERS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
M11.5 INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . 1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
M11.5.1 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
BARO CORRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
EXAMPLE FOR BARO SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
FLIGHT MONITORING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 AIRSPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM) . . . 90
BASIC T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
LIMITS FOR AEROPLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
TRUE AIRSPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
AIR DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
MACHMETERS (PNEUMATIC SYSTEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
OVERSPEED WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
AIR DATA MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
DEFINING AIRSPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC
SYSTEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 VARIOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 IVSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 DIAPHRAGM VARIOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
STATIC PORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . 106
INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
PITOT PROBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
PRANDTL TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
TAT PROBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
INSTRUMENTS IN MODERN PLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
BLOCKED STATIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
BLOCKED PITOT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
EFFECTS ON TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 ANALOGUE ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 INPUT/OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 AIRSPEED INDICATOR WITH ANALOGUE INPUT . . . 118
EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 MASI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
TAS INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
VS INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
BAROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
DIGITAL ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
BOURDON TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
SOURCE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
PRESSURE SENSOR INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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NAVIGATION DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
HYBRID ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
AIR DATA INITIAL REFERENCE UNIT (ADIRU) . . . . . . 140 GYROSCOPES IN THE AEROPLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
ADM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
OVERSPEED WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 STANDBY HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
INTEGRATED STANDBY INSTRUMENT SYSTEM CAGING KNOB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
(ISIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 GYRO DRIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
AOA INDICATING AND STALL WARNING SYSTEMS 152 ISIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
AOA SENSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 VERTICAL GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 ERECTION FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
STALL WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 CUTOUT FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
ALTITUDE REPORTING / ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
ALTITUDE ALERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 COMPARISON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
ALTITUDE REPORTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 GYRO HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
CLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 TURN AND SLIP INDICATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
ANALOGUE DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
DIGITAL DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 SLIP INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
INTERFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
RECORDING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 TURN COORDINATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 RATE OF TURN AND SLIP INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
FLIGHT DATA RECORDING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 DIRECTIONAL GYROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
DIGITAL FLIGHT DATA RECORDING SYSTEM . . . . . . 182 DIRECTION INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
FLIGHT DATA RECORDER LOCATION IN DIRECTIONAL GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
AEROPLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
ULB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 HEADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 VARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 INCLINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
MECHANICAL GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 COMPASS SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
DEGREES OF FREEDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
SPACE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 DIRECT READING COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
DRIFT AND TOPPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 COMPASS DEVIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
ERECTION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 DEVIATION CARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
OPTICAL GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 EFFECTS OF INCLINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
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REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 TERRAIN CLEARANCE FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
FLUX VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 MK V EGPWS PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE . . . . . 280 SELF TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
COMPASS COUPLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 STATUS LEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
HEADING SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION . . . . . 414
EXAMPLE OF COMPONENTS B747−200 . . . . . . . . . . . 290 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
HSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 ENGINE SENSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
GLASS COCKPIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 SENSOR FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
SYSTEM ARRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 FAN BALANCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
EXAMPLES FOR AEROPLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
DISPLAY UNIT FAILURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
INPUT FAILURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 SYSTEM PAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS . . . . 310 FUEL QUANTITY PROBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
EFIS CONTROL PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 ULTRASONIC QUANTITY METERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
PFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
ND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
CENTRAL WARNING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
LOCAL WARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
MASTER WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
CENTRALISED CAUTION PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
CENTRAL WARNING DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
ELECTRONIC CENTRALISED AIRCRAFT
MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
ALERT LEVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
ENGINE INDICATING AND CREW ALERTING SYSTEM 360
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . 370
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
EVOLUTION OF EGPWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
TERRAIN AWARENESS ALERTING AND DISPLAY . . . 396
TERRAIN ALERTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
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Figure 1 Classic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 Bourdon Tube Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 2 Boeing B737−330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 37 Bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 3 Airbus A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 38 Instrument Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 4 Flight Monitoring (about 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 39 Pressure Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 5 Flight Monitoring: A310−300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 40 Pressure Transducer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 6 Flight Monitoring: A380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 41 Vibration Pressure Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 7 Basic Six . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 42 Piezoresistive Pressure Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 8 Basic T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 43 Piezoresistive Pressure Transducer Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 9 Development in Recent Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 44 Altimeter Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 10 Thermal Layering of Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 45 Altimeter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 11 Atmosphere and Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 46 Encoding Altimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 12 Presentation of Air Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 47 Altitude and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 13 Modern Presentation of Air Data on PFD and HUD . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 48 Altimeter Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions: IAS and CAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 49 Example for Altimeter Barometric Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 15 Airspeed Definitions: EAS and TAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 50 Airspeed Indicator Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Figure 16 Simple Pitot/Static System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 51 Airspeed Indicator Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 17 Two Separated Pitot Static Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 52 Airspeed Indicators (Aeroplanes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 18 Airspeed Indicator Quick Disconnect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 53 Effect of Air Density on Airspeed Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 19 Helicopter Static Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Figure 54 Machmeter Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 20 Static Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 55 Machmeter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 21 Assessment of Static Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 56 Overspeed Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 22 Pitot Pressure and Dynamic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 57 Mech. Variometer Principle (delayed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 23 Pitot Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 58 Variometer Principle (delayed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 24 Prandtl Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 59 Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 25 Standby Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 60 Pilot Disk Variometer Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 26 Blocked Static Ports: Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 61 Pilot Disc Variometer Principle (mobile tongue type) . . . . . . . 105
Figure 27 Blocked Static Ports: Descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 62 OAT Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 28 Blocked Pitot Tube & Drain Hole Blocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 63 TAT SAT Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 29 Blocked Pitot Tube & Drain Hole Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 64 Resistance Characteristics of TAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 30 Water in the Pitot Static System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 65 TAT Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 31 Pitot Static System Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 66 Pitot Static System with ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 32 Standby ASI Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 67 Analogue ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 33 Pitot Static System A 300 - 600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 68 Analogue Air Data System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 34 Barometer Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 69 Airspeed Indicator with Analogue Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 35 Bourdon Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 70 Mach Airspeed Indicator with Analogue Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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Figure 71 TAS Indicator with Analogue Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Figure 106 Gyro Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Figure 72 Vertical Speed Indicator with Analogue Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 107 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure 73 Digital ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Figure 108 Space Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Figure 74 Vertical Speed Indicator with Digital Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Figure 109 Relationships of Real and Apparent Wander . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Figure 75 Source Select Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Figure 110 Apparent Drift due to the Rotation of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 76 Primary Flight Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Figure 111 Apparent Topple due to the Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 77 EFIS Control Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Figure 112 Erection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 78 Navigation Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Figure 113 Laser Gyro of an IRU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 79 Hybrid ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Figure 114 Basic Principle of a Laser Gyro 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 80 ADIRU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Figure 115 Function of Aircraft Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 81 Air Data Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Figure 116 Function of Aircraft Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Figure 82 Overspeed Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Figure 117 Artificial Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Figure 83 ISIS Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Figure 118 Standby Horizon Erection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 84 ISIS Internal Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Figure 119 Erection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 85 ISIS Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 120 Gyro Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 86 AOA Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Figure 121 ISIS A 380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 87 Angle of Attack Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Figure 122 ISIS Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 88 Stall Warning Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Figure 123 Function of Aircraft Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 89 Stall Warning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 124 Vertical Gyro Erection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 90 Stall Management Computer System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Figure 125 Vertical Gyro Cutout Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 91 Warning Profile of an Analogue System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Figure 126 Attitude System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 92 Altitude Alert System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Figure 127 Attitude System Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 93 Altitude Alert System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 128 ADI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 94 Warning Profile of the Digital System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 129 ADI Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 95 Altitude Alert System Schematic - Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Figure 130 Attitude Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 96 Altitude Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figure 131 Gyro Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure 97 Clock A320 Configuration 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Figure 132 Turn and Slip Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 98 Clock B747−430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 133 Slip Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 99 Digital Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 134 Turn Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 100 B747 - 430 Clock Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 135 Rate of Turn Indicator and Rate Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 101 Recording and Monitoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Figure 136 Turn Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Figure 102 Flight Data Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 137 Rate of Turn and Slip Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 103 Digital Flight Data Recorder System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 138 Gyro Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 104 Location Flight Data Recorder (Aeroplanes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Figure 139 Direction Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 105 Underwater Locator Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Figure 140 Directional Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
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Figure 141 Levelling and Slaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Figure 176 ND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure 142 Magnetic Field of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Figure 177 ND (ILS Mode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Figure 143 Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Figure 178 ND (Navigation Mode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Figure 144 Navigation Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Figure 179 ND (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Figure 145 Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Figure 180 ND (McDonnell Douglas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 146 Heading Determination Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Figure 181 Annunciator Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 147 Direct Reading Compass I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Figure 182 Pushbutton Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Figure 148 Compass Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Figure 183 Attention Getters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Figure 149 Deviation Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Figure 184 Centralised Warning Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Figure 150 Effects of Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Figure 185 Caution and Advisory Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Figure 151 Flux Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Figure 186 E/WD and Cruise Page - ECAM Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Figure 152 Flux Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Figure 187 ECAM Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 153 Flux Valve Location (Aeroplanes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Figure 188 Engine / Warning Display - ECAM Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 154 Remote Compass System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Figure 189 System Display Example: Hydraulic Page - ECAM Display 347
Figure 155 Slaving Annunciator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Figure 190 A 320 System Display - ECAM Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Figure 156 Slaving Annunciator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Figure 191 Status Page Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Figure 157 Compass Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Figure 192 Alert Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 158 HDG Signal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Figure 193 Level 3 Alert Activation A380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Figure 159 Compass Coupler and Remote Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Figure 194 Level 2 Alert Activation A380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Figure 160 HSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Figure 195 Level 1 Alert Activation A380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 161 Instruments and Glass Cockpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Figure 196 EICAS Boeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Figure 162 Electronic Instrument System Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Figure 197 Primary EICAS Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Figure 163 Overview of Display Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Figure 198 AUX EICAS Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Figure 164 CDS A380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Figure 199 AUX EICAS Display - EICAS Maintenance Page . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 165 Normal CTR Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Figure 200 EICAS Maintenance Page Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Figure 166 Green Electron Beam Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Figure 201 Basic GPWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Figure 167 Red Electron Beam Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Figure 202 Enhanced GPWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Figure 168 Input Fail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Figure 203 Ground Proximity Warning Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Figure 169 PFD and ND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Figure 204 Types of Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Figure 170 EFIS Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Figure 205 Aircraft Accidents Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Figure 171 EFIS Control Panel (A340) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Figure 206 EGPWS Simplified Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Figure 172 EFIS Control Panel (MD 11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Figure 207 Mode 1 Excessive Descent Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 173 PFD Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Figure 208 Mode 2 Excessive Terrain Closure Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figure 174 PFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Figure 209 Mode 3 Altitude Loss After Take-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 175 PFD in ILS Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Figure 210 Mode 4 Unsafe Terrain Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
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Figure 211 Mode 5 Excessive Glide Slope Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Figure 212 Mode 6 Callouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 213 Mode 7 Excessive Windshear Detection (RWS) . . . . . . . . . 395
Figure 214 Terrain Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Figure 215 Terrain Alerting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 216 Terrain Clearance Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 217 EGPWC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 218 EGPWS: Self-Test, Level 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 219 EGPWS: Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 220 EGPWS: Self Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Figure 221 EGPWS: Computer Status LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Figure 222 Vibration Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 223 Vibration Sensors I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 224 Vibration Sensors II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Figure 225 Operation of Vibration Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 226 Vibration Indication on Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Figure 227 Vibration Indication on EICAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Figure 228 Phase Angle Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Figure 229 Fuel Quantity Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 230 Fuel System Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Figure 231 Fuel Quantity Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Figure 232 Fuel Quantity Probe Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure 233 Tank Unit and Compensator (Capacitive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Figure 234 Tank Unit (Ultrasonic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Page iv

B1-11f Aircraft Systems Instruments and Avionics - LTT - Topic 1151

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B1-11f Aircraft Systems Instruments and Avionics - LTT - Topic 1151

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Fundamentals

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M11A TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

FRA US/O-5 WeR Aug 1, 2014 ATA DOC Page 1

Aircraft Monitoring Parameters

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 08, 2016 01|Intro|L1|A/B12 Page 2

Captain’s EFIS Engine Indications First Officer’s EFIS

Figure 2 Boeing B737−330

Captain’s EFIS First Officer’s EFIS

Figure 3 Airbus A320

Flight Monitoring Instruments

HAM US/O-5 WaH Aug 3, 2012 04|Flugüberwachung|L1|A/B12 Page 6

Figure 4 Flight Monitoring (about 1944)

Figure 5 Flight Monitoring: A310−300

Figure 6 Flight Monitoring: A380

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 3, 2012 07|Basic−T|L1|A/B12 Page 10

Figure 7 Basic Six

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 3, 2012 07|Basic−T|L1|A/B12 Page 12

Instruments and Indicators Glass Cockpit

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 08, 2016 08|Trend|L2|B12 Page 14

TREND => CONTROL ELEMENTS INTEGRATION TREND => DISPLAY INTEGRATION

Figure 9 Development in Recent Years

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 08, 2016 01|Atmosphere A|L1|A/B12 Page 16

Figure 10 Thermal Layering of Atmosphere

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 08, 2016 01|Atmosphere A|L1|A/B12 Page 18

Figure 11 Atmosphere and Altitude

Air Data Measurements

Use of Air Data in the Cockpit

electricity in separate air data calculators and indicators using electrical

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 2, 2012 01|Luftdruckanzeigen|L1|A/B12 Page 20

AIRSPEED INDICATOR ALTIMETER

Figure 12 Presentation of Air Data

HAM US/O-5 WaH Sep 2, 2012 01|Luftdruckanzeigen|L1|A/B12 Page 22

Figure 13 Modern Presentation of Air Data on PFD and HUD

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 15, 2016 04|A/S A|L2|B12 Page 24

Figure 14 Airspeed Definitions: IAS and CAS

Compressibility Error EAS

HAM US/O53 WaH Nov 15, 2016 05|A/S B|L2|B12|M11 Page 26

IAS CAS TAS

Figure 15 Airspeed Definitions: EAS and TAS

PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS

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Area with Lower

Figure 16 Simple Pitot/Static System

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ASI = Airspeed Indicator

Figure 17 Two Separated Pitot Static Systems

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Figure 18 Airspeed Indicator Quick Disconnect

Static port connected to

AH and HSI CONTAINS GYROS

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Captain’s System ELEMENT

AEROPLANE STATIC PORTS

Figure 20 Static Ports

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SQUARE EDGE ROUNDED EDGE

FLARED AND RAISED

DIP IN SKIN BULGE IN SKIN

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Dynamic Pressure Measurement

Figure 22 Pitot Pressure and Dynamic Pressure