Module 05

Topic STEEL
Lecture Video lecture by Arch. Joe Juson
Quiz BT 05 Wood
Student’s Study the following:
Assignment No. 5 1. All about Wood, e.g., history, materials, application,
(For self-study) etc.

Building Technology
Instructor: Arch. Jose B. Juson Jr.
JPT Review Center

WHAT WOOD NEEDS?

Carbon dioxide (inhaled) + Water (root) = glucose (food) + oxygen (exhaled)
6CO2 + 6H20 = C6H12O6 + 6O2
WOOD IS A POLYMER!!

EARLWOOD - the terms springwood and

summerwood were used earlier for earlywood and latewood, respectively, which erroneously
represented a connection with a calendar season of the year. In many tropical areas, which
remain wet throughout the year, the growth of a tree occurs throughout the year.
SPRINGWOOD (light) – known as Earlywood
SUMMERWOOD (dark) – known as Latewood
HEARTWOOD – relatively more decay resistant than sapwood
HEARTWOODS (redwood) – specified for lumber elements resting directly on concrete or
masonry foundations, such as sill plates and sleeper.
HARDWOOD – generally flowering trees, have broad leaves, and are typically deciduous,
shedding and regrowing leaves annually.
 Longitudinal cells have small and large cavities. Smaller cells provide strength; larger
cells conduct food. Rays more prominent more interesting grain.
SOFTWOOD- do not bear flowers, having a single main stem, and most are evergreen, with
leaves that are needlelike. i.e., conical, hence, softwoods are also called conifers
 Longitudinal cells are of the same type and almost the same size. Rays less prominent,
less interesting grain matures faster.

o o
LUMBER – applies to wood products derived directly from logs through sawing and planning
operations only
 only solid pieces of wood are classified as lumber
 solid lumber, solid sawn lumber, and sawn lumber
 glue-laminated lumber, parallel strand lumber and laminated veneer lumber (solid
lumbers)
manufactured wood products – products manufactured with altered or transformed wood fiber
have been developed. Not called lumber
PLYWOOD – one of the earliest of these products

WOOD’s ANISOTROPIC CHARACTER

 Despite differences, the microstructures of softwoods and hardwoods are essentially
similar, consisting longitudinally oriented hollow tubes.
LUMBER is stronger along the grain than across the grain. Unlike steel and concrete, which are
ISOTROPIC materials (having the same properties in all directions) wood is an anisotropic
material.
 Lumber splits easily when nailed close to an end because if its low tensile strength across
the grain resulting from the weak glue bond between fibers
 Wood is weaker in shear along the grain than across the grain , because individual cells
can easily slip (slide) against each other
 Shrinks substantially across the grain

1. Which of the following two terms are used synonymously?

a. Lumber and wood
b. Lumber and laminated veneer lumber
c. Lumber and solid sawn lumber
d. All of the above
2. The approximate density of lumber is
a. 35 pcf.
b. 35 psf.
c. 55 pcf.
d. 55 psf.
e. 75 pcf.
3. The cellular structure of wood consists mainly of
a. Hollow, small, approximately spherical cells
 b. Solid, small, approximately spherical cells
c. Hollow, small, approximately ellipsoidal cell
d. Hollow, long tubular cells
e. Either (c) or (d)
4. If we cut a cross section through a tree trunk, we will see a number of rings. The most
appropriate term for these rings is
a. Annual rings
b. Growth rings
c. Concentric rings
d. Eccentric rings
e. All of the above
5. The walls of the wood cells consist primarily of
a. Calcium
b. Glucose
c. Cellulose
d. Copper
e. Lignin

6. The term sapwood and heartwood refer to

a. Two different wood species
b. Two different subspecies of wood
c. Two different parts of a growth ring
d. Two different parts of the same tree
7. The difference between softwoods and hardwoods is based on the
a. Strength of wood
b. Density of wood
c. Abrasion resistance of wood
d. Botanical characteristics
e. Decay resistance of wood
8. Hardwoods are generally used for fine-quality flooring, furniture, and wall paneling
a. True
b. False
9. In a 2x6 stud, the wood grain is parallel to the
a. Vertical direction
b. 2-in. dimension
c. 6-in. dimension
10. Wood is
a. Stronger along the grain than across the grain
b. Stronger across the grain than along the grain
c. Equally strong in both directions of the grain
FROM LOGS TO FINISHED TO LUMBER
Conversion of log into lumber happens in lumber mills usually close to forests. Process consists
of four basic steps:
- Transportation of logs from the forest to the mill
 - Debarking of logs
- Sawing the debarked logs into lumber
- Surfacing lumber members smooth
In modern mill, the sawing operation is highly automated and is typically controlled by one
person – THE SAWYER
FLAT-SAWN and RADIAL SAWN LUMBER (methods for sawing logs)
FLAT SAWN LUMBER – some growth rings run parallel to the edges of cross section. In other
pieces, rings are diagonally oriented to the edges and in other pieces, rings are perpendicular
(AKA plain sawing)
RADIAL SAWN – converted into 4 pieces thru center of log. (Quarter sawing). In a quarter-
sawn piece lumber, the growth rings are perpendicular to its wider faces
QUARTER SAWN – more wasteful
- More dimensionally stable, resists wear and abrasions
- Commonly specified for high grade finish floors
MOISTURE CONTENT – in a piece of wood is the weight of water in wood divided by its
oven-dry (complete dry) weight, expressed as a percentage:
MC= weight of water in wood/ weight of oven dry wood x 100

A piece of wood weighs = 6lb.

Weigh of dry piece = 4.5 lb
Weigh of water is = 1.5lb
CAVITY WATER/ FREE WATER – evaporates first
CELL WALL WATER/ BOUND WATER – all the free water has evaporated
FIBER SATURATION POINT (FSP) – stage at which all free water has evaporated and bound
water has begun to evaporate (30%)
Lumber is typically seasoned in the mill to an MC is 19% or less – a value that distinguishes dry
lumber from green lumber
- A piece of lumber whose MC < 19% (DRY LUMBER)
- MC > 20% (GREEN LUMBER)
- MC < 19% is not susceptible to fungal decay
AIR DRYING – dry naturally. They are stacked one over the other in piles in such a way that air
circulates freely around them.
KILN SEASONING – much faster. High temperature in the kiln also kills any fungus that may
be present in the living tree. Stacked in a chamber through which warm air with a controlled
amount of humidity (steam) is circulated
Wood shrinks only across the grain, not along the grain
The shrinkage and swelling are much larger along the direction of growth rings in lumber
(tangential direction) than perpendicular to the direction of growth rings (radial direction)
Quarter sawn lumber shrinks uniformly and tangentially flat-sawn lumber will generally cup,
bow and twist on drying.
Four types of seasoning distortions in dimension lumber:
- Crook
- Bow
- Cup
- Twist
The difference between tangential and radial shrinkage produces seasoning distortions in lumber.
The nature of the distortions depends on the position the piece of lumber occupied in the tree.
Distortion is most pronounced in plainsawn lumber.
CHECKS – radial cracks on lumber

LUMBER SURFACING
- Saw blades for mass manufacturing are coarse-edged
- Surfacing is done by high-speed planning machines – replacement for the traditional
hand-held carpenter’s plane
o SEASONING USUALLY PRECEDES SURFACING
- Lumber that has been surfaced before seasoning is S-GRN (surfaced green)
- S1S – surfaced on one side
- S2S – surfaced on two sides
- S4S – surfaced on all sides
- S1S1E – surfaced on one side and one edge
- S2S1E – other designation
- S1S2E– other designation
Rough or surfaced lumber
- Two crossed lines = continuous member
- One diagonal member = interrupted (discontinuous)
Nominal dimensions correspond roughly to the wood in the log before it is sawn, seasoned and
surfaced.
1. Structural lumber is typically
a. Flat-sawn
b. Quarter-sawn
c. A or b (depending on the type of structural member
2. Flat-sawn lumber is dimensionally more stable than quarter-sawn lumber
a. True
 b. False
3. Which of the following terms means the same as quarter-sawn?
a. Tangentially sawn
b. Radial sawn
4. The weight of a piece of lumber if 2lb. the weight of the same piece after it is fully dried
is 1.8lb. what is the original moisture content in the wood?
a. 7%
b. 9%
c. 11%
d. 15%
e. None of the above
5. Fungal decay in wood occurs when the moisture content in wood if
a. Greater than or equal to 15%
b. Greater than or equal to 20%
c. Greater than or equal to 25%
d. Between 15% and 25%
e. None of the above
6. The moisture content in a piece of lumber has been measured to be 15%. According to
the wood industry, this piece of lumber will be classified as
a. Dry
b. Green
c. Wet
d. Moist
e. Arid
7. From user’s point of view, the difference between MC 15 and KD 15 is generally ignored
a. True
b. False
8. The term S-DRY implies that the lumber has been
a. a stored in a dry climate
b. sawed when its moisture content was … 25%
c. surfaced when its moisture content was … 25%
d. sawed when its moisture content was 19%
e. surfaced when its moisture content was … 19%
9. The term S2S implies that the lumber has been
a. Sawed twice
b. Sawed from two sides
c. Surfaced on two sides
d. None of the above
10. A 10ft. long stud was installed in position when the wood’s moisture content was 19%.
During a long dry spell, the wood’s moisture content became 8%. The new stud length
will be
a. Approximately 9ft 10 in
b. Approximately 9ft 12 in
c. Approximately 9ft 11 in
d. Approximately the same as the initial stud length of 10 ft
11. A piece of lumber is specified as 2x4 in cross section. This refers to its
 a. Actual cross-sectional dimensions
b. Nominal cross-sectional dimensions
12. The actual dimensions of 4x8 lumber are
a. 3-1/2”x7-1/2”
b. 3-1/4”x7-1/2”
c. 3-1/4”x7-1/4”
d. 1-3/4”x11-3/4”
e. None of the above
13. The actual dimensions of 2x12 lumber are
a. 1-1/2”x11”
b. 1-1/2”x11-1/2”
c. 1-1/2”x11-3/4”
d. 1-3/4”x11-3/4”
e. None of the above
14. In calculating the board foot measure, we must use the actual dimensions of lumber, not
its nominal dimension
a. True b. False

15. A retailer of building materials purchased 1,000 pieces of 2x12 lumber, each 10ft long.
How many board feet did the retailer purchase?
a. 1,000 bd. Ft
b. 10MBF
c. 20,000 bd ft.
d. 100,000 bd ft
e. None of the above

QTY. bd. ft= 1000x2x12x10

12 =20,000bd. ft

LUMBER’S STRENGTH AND APPEARANCE

- Strength of a piece of lumber is affected by its species and is a function of specific
gravity
- Also affected by its growth and manufacturing characteristics. Includes slope of grain,
knots, checks, shakes, splits and wane
- Slope of grain affects lumber’s strength. Easily observed by examining the longitudinal
grain of lumber in comparison with the edge of member
Knot – occurs where a branch emerges from the tree trunk
- Presence of a knot in a member reduces its strength
- Anatomy of a knot. Grain orientation in the vicinity of a knot
- Effect of the location of a knot on the bending strength of a member
Loose knot – results when the branch dies during the tree’s growth and the successive growth
rings of the trunk encircle this dead branch
A loose knot reduces the strength of wood substantially, and if rotting occurs in the knot, a knot
hole results
ENCASED KNOT - A knot that is knot loose, but is tightly intergrown with adjoining tissue
CHECKS, SHAKES & SPLITS
Check – separation of wood fibers along the rays (perpendicular to growth of rings). Caused by
drying of wood and occurs at the ends of the member and also on its faces. It results when
surfaces of wood dry faster that its interior.
Shake – separation of wood fibers along the growth rings. It occurs during the growth of the tree
and is not due to drying.
Split – occurs at the ends of a member and is a complete separation of wood fibers through the
entire end. It is believed to be caused by a weakness that occurred during the growth of the tree
and was aggravated during drying.
Wane – the absence of wood or the presence of bark at the corner or the edge of a piece; also
reduces the strength of the member

Lumber Grading - It is graded either for appearance or structural properties

Structural Grading – used to rate strength and stiffness properties of a piece of lumber. It is done
either visually or by machine
Visual grading – trained inspectors examine each piece for growth ring density and for
growth and manufacturing characteristics, judge it according to standard grading rules, and then
stamp it accordingly
Machine grading – automatic device assesses the structural properties of the wood and
stamps a grade on the piece. This assessment is made either by flexing each piece between
rollers and measuring its resistance to bending (machine stress-rated) or by scanning the wood
electronically to determine its density.
Appearance Grading – used to rank the visual qualities of lumber intended for flooring,
trim, cabinetry and other finish, nonstructural uses.
Machine stress-rated (MSR) lumber or simply machine rated lumber – using high grade
equipment to obtain stiffness and other properties, including the affixing of grade stamp;
Nondestructive testing
Mechanical deterioration of wood is due to physical wear, such as the abrasion caused by foot
traffic or wheeling equipment on a floor.
Other causes of mechanical wear, which occur primarily in wood exposed to the exterior
climate:
a. Erosion of the material by wind and water
b. Material fatigue – caused by its repeated expansion and contraction
c. Deterioration – caused by freeze-thaw cycles
Chemical deterioration – due to the effect of chemicals (acids and alkalies) in the environment
and the chemical breakdown of wood’s constituents by the ultraviolet rays of the sun
Biodeterioration – major cause of wood’s deterioration is biological; caused by living organisms
that use wood as food. Two such groups of organisms consume wood:
 Fungi & insects
 Termites – land-based insects that consume wood
 Marine borers – water-based wood eating insects
 Carpenter ants – can nest inside by weakening the wood to some degree
Fungal decay – simply the decay of wood (also called rotting); fungi cannot manufacture their
own food but live off the food produced by other plants. Since wood is mainly cellulose and
lignin, it is an excellent source of food for these parasites.
Reducing or preventing termite damage- multipart strategy is required to reduce or prevent
termite damage in wood buildings. For wood members not buried in the ground, all or a
combination of the following strategies are generally recommended
- Maintain distance between wood and ground
- Provide soil barrier, that is a chemical soil treatment
- Use naturally decay – resistant or preservative treated wood
- Use termite shield (generally made of galvanized sheet steel profiled with a drip-edge-
type bend)
- Inspection and remediation
Maintenance distance between wood and ground
- The best line to defense against termites it to provide sufficient distance between the
ground and the wood member, supplemented by frequent inspection to ensure that no
mud tunnels exist
Soil treatment
- Treating soil around foundation walls and soil below concrete slabs on grade or basement
slabs provides additional protection against termites
- Application of chemicals (aldrin or dieldrin- 0.5% in water emulsion) done by specialist.
Booster applications may be needed in some locations every few years
Preservative-treated wood
- Use of naturally decay resistant species gives limited protection against termites
- Most effective and the most commonly used method of achieving termite protection
- It is commonly specified for outdoor decks, fences, verandahs, porches, and lumber
buried in the ground
- Three types of preservative are commonly used for the purpose:
o Creosote (oldest and most effective preservative) used on railroad ties, utility
poles, highway guardrail posts, marine bulkheads and piles
o Oil-borne preservatives - Pentachlorophenol (or simply penta) most commonly
used oil-berne preservative
 o Waterborne preservatives- common applications on outdoor decks, fences,
gazebos, playground equipment, structural framing and highway noise barrier
 Commonly used preservatives are
 Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
 Alkaline copper quat (ACQ)
 Copper azole (CA)
 Sodium borates (SBX)
- Pressure treated lumber (preservative pressure injected into lumber)
- KDAT (kiln dried after treatment)

Manufactured Wood Products

- processed into manufactured products, rather than used directly as sawn lumber
- exceed the structural efficiency and quality of sawn lumber
- overcome the size limitations of lumber
- make economic use of raw wood materials that previously may have been treated as
waste
- they are made by bonding together lumber members, wood veneers, wood strands, wood
particles, and other forms of wood fibers to produce a composite material
two types of manufactured wood products:
1. engineered wood products- those that are engineered for structural applications (glue
laminated wood, structural composite lumber, wood I-joist, plywood, oriented strand
board (OSB), and wood trusses
2. industrial wood products – include particle board (used for cabinetry), medium- density
fiberboard (MDF) and high-density fiberboard (HDF) also called hardboard
Glue laminated wood (called GLULAM) – response to span limitations, made from individual
lengths of dimension lumber that are glued together to form large cross sections.
- Generally made from dimension lumber, it uses lumber that’s has been dried to 12%
moisture content to minimize shrinkage or checking
- For long span beams
- For heavy columns and heavy trusses
- Can also be curved
Balanced and unbalanced glulam beams
 - Unbalanced beams – the quality of the lumber used in upper laminations id different from
that of the lumber used in lower laminations; can be only used as single-span
- Balanced glulam beams are more versatile because they can be used for any span
condition
Hybrid glulam – beams substitute composite laminated veneer lumber for the usually solid wood
top and bottom laminations in the beam.
Laminating – effective way of using short lengths of high-grade sawn lumber obtained by
eliminating pieces that are of low grade due to knots, shakes and splits,
Cross-laminated timbers (CLTs) – structural panels laminated from solid lumber with the
orientation of member in each layer alternating from those above and below.
- Assembled from dimensions lumber 5/8” thickness, upto 9 ½” width
- Usually made in odd number of layers

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE LUMBER

Laminated Veneer lumber (LVL)
- produces by gluing together dried wood veneers that are approx. 1/8” thick.
- The wood grain in all veneers runs in the same direction.
- Like sawn lumber, LVL is stronger along the grain and weaker across the grain
- LVL is generally used as floor joists and rafters
- Less likely to warp or split compared to sawn lumber
- LVL stronger than sawn lumber same dimension
Parallel strand lumber (PSL)
- Made by gluing together narrow strands of veneer in place of wide veneers
Laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL) – made from shredded woods
strands, coated with adhesive, pressed into a rectangular cross section, and cured under heat and
pressure (wood strands used in manufacture of LSL are longer than in OSL)
ADVANTAGE: SIZE & QUALITY
- Structural composite lumber products make productive use of wood materials that are
fast-growing
- Same benefits as glue laminated wood: dimensional stability, structural strength up to
three times that of conventional solid material, availability of large sizes and long lenth
and consistent quality
- Potential for offgassing of volatile organic compounds such as formaldehyde gas
WOOD I-JOISTS
 - Made by gluing wood flanges to a wood web
- Commonly used as floor joists and roof rafters
- I-joist is lighter, because of less wood fiber than a corresponding sawn lumber joist
WOOD-PLASTIC COMPOSITE (WPC) products
- Blends plastic with wood or agrc’l fibers
- Used mostly for exterior decking, exterior railing systems and finish trim
- Match conventional wood decking in lengths up to 6.0m
- Greater allowance for thermal movement
- Closer spacing of the supporting members
- Maybe prefinished, factory primed, encapsulated w/in a dense plastic outer shell, or
coated with resin-impregnated paper that improves the quality of field- applied finishes
- Less maintenance
FINGER-JOINTED WOOD TRIM
- Made from short lengths of solid wood finger jointed and glued into longer lengths
- Competes in the same market with WPC trim
- Typically finished with paint

ROOF TRUSSES

1. The most common use of glulam members is in

a.
b. Structural panels d. Short-span beams
c. Long-span beams e. None of the above
2. Unprotected glulam members with a large cross sections are considered to provide fire
resistance rating up to
a. 12 hrs c. 2 hrs e. 4 hrs
b. 1 hr d. 3 hrs
3. A glulam member
a. Must be made using long, continuous lengths of high-grade sawn lumber
b. Is generally stronger and stiffer than sawn lumber of the same dimensions
 c. Requires complete protection from exterior elements due to its water-soluble
adhesive
d. None of the above
e. All of the above
4. Unbalanced beams can be used only as single-span beams
a. True b. False
5. Balance glulam beams are mandated for
a. Continuous beams
b. Single-span beams
c. Beams with an overhang
d. A and C
e. B and C
6. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is
a. Produced by gluing together wood veneers that are approximately 1/8” thk.
b. Generally used as floor joists
c. Glued with all veneers running in the same direction
d. Stronger along the grain and weaker across the grain
e. All of the above
7. Wood I-joists are made of LVL or solid sawn lumber flanges and webs
a. True b. False
8. Compared to sawn lumber joists, wood I-joists are
a. Less expensive
b. Slightly heavier
c. Dimensionally more stable
d. All of the above
9. Characteristics of a truss include
a. Greater spanning capability than sawn lumber beam w/ same amount of material
b. Individual members joined together to form interconnected rectangular frames
c. Individual members joined together to form interconnected triangular forms
d. A and B
e. A and C
10. Nail plates for joining truss members, are generally used only on one face of truss
a. True
b. False (on both sides)
11. Wood trusses are generally spaces at
a. 12 in. on center
b. 24 in. on center
c. 48 in. on center
d. 60 in. on center
WOOD PANELS
 - Are important part of wood frame construction. They used structurally as floor sheathing,
roof sheathing and wall sheathing and nonstructural – as exterior siding and interior
siding
Structural wood panels
- Plywood (veneered panel)
- Oriented strand board (OSB) non veneered panel
Plywood panels – made up of thin layers of wood veneer glued together
Composite panels – two parallel face veneers bonded to a core of reconstituted wood fibers
Non veneered panels – made from various formulations of reconstituted wood fiber materials as
follows:
 Oriented strand board (OSB) – made of long shreds (strands) of wood
compressed and glued into three to five layers
o OSB is the strongest and stiffest type of non-veneered panel
o Used for sheathing and subflooring of light frame wood buildings
 Particle board – manufactured in different density ranges, and is made up of
smaller wood particles than OSB that are compressed and bonded into panels
o Use mainly as a base material for wood veneer and plastic laminate
o Also used as underlayment panel
 Fiberboard – very fine-grained board made of wood fibers and synthetic resin
binders. It is generally limited to interior uses.
o Limited to interior uses
o Most commonly used form of fiberboard is medium-density fiberboard
(MDF)
Veneers for structural panels:
 Rotary sliced – most economical method
 Plain sliced or quarter sliced – for better control of grain figure in veneers destined for
finish woodwork
Other wood panel products:
- Hardwood
- Insulating fiberboard sheathing
- Cellulosic fiber board
- Hardwood plywood
Non-wood fiber panels:
- Agrfiber or biocomposite panels
- Strawboard panels
- Bamboo
OSB PANELS (ORIENTED STRANDBOARD)
- Panels are made by gluing layers of wood strands under heat and pressure
 - Generally made to same dimensions as plywood panels
- 4ft x 8ft and is stronger along its long direction
- Intended only for structural applications
Performance-Rated engineered wood panels
- Are meant for structural applications and for non-structural use in exterior siding.
- Rating provides the user with the panel’s structural capacity and other performance data,
such as its intended end use and durability.
Performance rating – means that as long as panel meets the specified requirements for end use
(exposure durability and span rating) it does not matter which material – plywood or OSB
Intended End use: performance-rated panels can be used in one of three situations:
- Sheathing (over studs, floor joists, or rafters)
- Combination floor sheathing
- Exterior siding
Exposure durability – engineered wood panels are produces in two exposure- durability
classifications:
- Exterior rated panes – designed for permanent exposure to weather – to withstand the
effect of rain, humidity and sunshine.
- Exposure 1 – meant for use in protected situations, that is where the panels are to be
covered with an exterior facing material.
o However, it is designed to withstand the effect of weather for several days due to
construction delays
- They both use the same waterproof glue
-
1. Plywood panels are made by gluing under heat and pressure layers of
a. Wood veneers so that wood grain in all layers is in the same direction
b. Wood veneers so that wood grains in adjacent layers mare perpendicular to each
other
c. Shredded wood strands so that strands in all layers are in the same direction
d. Shredded wood strands so that the strands in adjacent layers are perpendicular to
each other
2. Cross-graining makes a plywood panel
a. Dimensionally more stable
b. Less likely to split than solid sawn lumber
c. Stronger in the direction of face veneer grains
d. All of the above
e. A and C
3. Plywood panels should be placed with their longer dimension
a. Parallel to rafters or joists
b. Perpendicular to rafter or joists
c. Diagonal to rafters or joists
d. Either a or b
e. Either a or c
 4. With respect to veneer quality, softwood plywood is graded in grades
a. A to c
b. B to d
c. A to d
d. A to e
e. B to f
5. OSB panel has greater shear strength than plywood panel of same size and thickness
a. True
b. False
6. Grade stamps on engineered wood panels specify
a. Intended use and exposure
b. Allowable spans
c. Mill number
d. Thickness
e. All of the above
7. Exterior siding panels may be made of OSB or plywood
a. True
b. False
Fastener for connecting wood members
- Joinery methods (art or craft of forming joints, esp. in woodwork)
- Joints in contemporary wood construction
- Made by simply nailing the members
- Or nailing them through sheet metal connectors
- In some joint, adhesives are used in additions to nails. Others screws and bolt are
necessary
TYPES OF NAILS
Common nail – most commonly used nail type for connecting wood frame members. Thick
shanks give greater strength than box nails
Box nail – used for attaching wood siding and shingles. Thick shank reduces wood splitting.
Sinker nail – tapered head that sinks into wood. Sinker nails have a thin shank like box nails and
are generally vinyl coated
Duplex nail – double head for contemporary nailing, used in scaffolding and concrete formwork.
Casing nail- for wood trim, window frames, casing and decks. Small head for countersinking.
Finish nail – for finer carpentry & finishing. Small head for countersinking.
Ring shank nail – for attaching floor sheathing and gypsum wallboard. Ring shank gives greater
holding power.
Fluted shank nail – for attaching wood to masonry concrete. High carbon steel gives this nail
greater impact resistance
Roofing nail – large head for attaching roof shingles.
NAIL CONNECTIONS
 Face nailing – strongest of the three because it has the highest withdrawal resistance
 End nailing – the weakest connection
 Toe nailing – stronger than end nailing, but it is used where access for end nailing is
unavailable.
 Blind nailing – used in finished wood flooring
SHEET METAL CONNECTORS
 Light gauge sheet metal connectors (generally ga. 16 to 20) – used in conventional wood
framing, such as joints between beam and joists, rafters/ trusses and top plate, studs and
bottom plate
 Heavy gauge sheet steel connectors (generally ga. 7 to 12) – used in heavy wood framing,
as in joints between post and beam, between two beams, between post and foundations.
They are also used in high-wind or high seismic regions in wood light-frame buildings
 Joist hanger used for connecting floor joists with supporting beam. Can reduce the overall
height of the floor because, without their use, the joists will have to rest over the beam.
2 types of joist hangers:
 Face-mounted hanger – used to connect joists to beam or header
  Top-mounted hanger- used where face mounting is not possible such as when connecting
joists to a steel beam
Timber connectors:
 Split-ring connectors- is inserted in matching circular grooves to mate pieces of wood
clamped together with a central bolt
 Timber rivet connections – formed by fastening steel plates to large wood members with
spike-like rivets.
1. Several different types of nails are used in wood frame construction. They are typically
distinguished from each other by the
a. Nail head and nail shank
b. Nail head and nail tip
c. Nail tip and nail shank
d. Nail head and type of threads
e. None of the above
2. The nails most commonly used in wood frame construction are
a. 4d, 6d, 9d, and 12d
b. 6d, 12d, 18d and 24d
c. 6d, 10d, 16d and 20d
d. 6d, 8d, 10d and 16d
3. Nails work best when they are subjected to
a. Shear
b. Tension

4. Which of the following connections is the strongest?

a. Face nailing
b. Toe nailing
c. End nailing
5. Nail popping is primarily a problem in floor sheathing and is caused by the shrinkage of floor
sheathing
a. True
b. False
6. Joist hangers are steel connectors
a. That connect floor joists with a supporting beam
b. That connect floor joists with the supporting wall
c. That connect floor joist the floor sheathing
d. All of the above
7. The adhesives used in making engineered wood products contain
a. Urethane
b. Styrene
c. Formaldehyde
d. Lignin
e. None of the above
8. Gaseous emissions produced by engineered wood products decrease over time
a. True
PREFABRICATED PANELS
Framed panels – simple sections of conventional dimension lumber framing, sheathed with
plywood or OSB, trucked to the construction site, and rapidly nailed together into a complete
building frame.
Structural insulated panels (SIPs) – panels are adhered to a stiff plastic foam core; also called
sandwich panel
Stressed-skin panels (SSPs)- panels attached to dimension lumber framing.
Panelized construction – whole sections of wall or floors are conventionally framed and sheathed
in the factory, and then trucked to the construction site and installed in rapid succession.

Wood Light Frame Construction

Heavy timber frame system – consisting of thick masonry walls, heavy timber posts, beams and
thick wood plank floors and roofs. The joints between heavy timber posts and beams consisted of
mortise-and-tenon or dovetail joints
Balloon frame (first wood light frame system)
- Invented to replace the heavy timber
- Consisted of thin, closely spaced vertical members called studs and similar floor and roof
framing member called joists and rafters
- Continuity of studs became the major limitations of balloon frame
- Dimensionally more stable because it has a much smaller overall cross-grain lumber
dimension than the platform frame
Fire stop- provided at every floor line. w/o fire stops airspace between the studs is continuous
from top to bottom, creates fire risk because fire occurring in stud cavity of one floor can spread
to another floor. Fire stop separate cavities & deprive fire of oxygen.
Cross member – connect parallel member together to form a frame and play an important
structural role
1. Roughly how old id WLF construction?
a. 1,000 yrs
b. 800 yrs
c. 600 yrs
d. 400 yrs
e. 200 yrs
2. When WLF was first discobered, it was called a
a. Balloon frame
b. Rigid frame
c. Skeleton frame
d. Platform frame
 e. Portal frame
3. WLF construction originated in
a. The UK
b. France
c. Australia
d. Norway
e. US
4. In the early version of WLF construction, studs were continuous from foundation to the
roof
a. True
b. False
5. In time, the early version of WLF construction was modified to what is now called a
a. Balloon frame
b. Rigid frame
c. Skeleton frame
d. Platform frame
e. Portal frame
6. The type of WFL construction that has the largest amount of cross-grain lumber is
a. Balloon frame
b. Rigid frame
c. Skeleton frame
d. Platform frame
e. Portal frame
7. The framing members in a WLF building are generally
a. 1-by solid lumber members
b. 2-by solid lumber members
c. 3-by solid lumber members
d. 4-by solid lumber members
e. None of the above
8. The center to center spacing of framing members in a WLF building are generally
a. 12”, 16” or 24”
b. 12”,24” or 36”
c. 2ft., 3ft., or 4ft.
d. 4ft., 6ft., or 8ft.
e. Virtually any spacing may be used, depending on arch’l and struc’l considerations
9. The center to center spacing of framing members in a WLF building is mainly based on
a. Age old practice
b. Structural considerations
c. Size of the sheathing panels
d. Insulation requirements
e. B and C
Essential of wall framing:
Double top plate – doubling the top plate makes it stronger and allows floor joists or rafters to be
placed anywhere on the top plate.
 - If single top plate is used, floor joists & rafters must align with underlying studs
- Another reason for doubling top plate is to provide structural continuity in the top plate
Diaphragm – in wood framed (shear) wall produces tension as well as compression in the top
plate under wind or earthquake loads
Sill plate or sole plate – a plate not in contact with the foundation
Jack stud – a partial-height stud that supports the lintel beam referred to as a header
10. The top plate in a WLF wall generally consists of
a. One 2-by member
b. Two 2-by members
c. Three 2-by members
d. Any one of the above depending on architectural considerations
e. None of the above
11. The bottom plate in a WLF wall is called
a. A sill plate
b. A sole plate
c. A and B are synonymous term
d. Either A or B depending on the location of the wall
12. A sill plate in a WLF wall must be anchored to the foundation with at least
a. 1-in. – diameter bolts spaced a maximum of 6 feet on centers
b. 3/4-in. - diameter bolts spaced a maximum of 6 feet on centers
c. 1/2 in - diameter bolts spaced a maximum of 6 feet on centers
d. 1/4 in. - diameter bolts spaced a maximum of 6 feet on centers
e. None of the above
13. A corner made by two WLF wall must have at least
a. Two studs
b. Three studs
c. Four studs
d. Five studs
e. Six studs
14. A jack stud is always accompanied by a king stud
a. True
b. False
15. In a WLF wall assembly, a cripple stud is used
a. At a wall corner
b. At a wall T-junction
c. At the ends of a wall opening
d. Above a header or below rough sill
e. Both A and B
16. A header over an opening bear directly on
a. Cripple studs
b. Jack studs
c. King studs
d. Common studs
17. A precut stud length equal to 7ft, 8-5/8 in. is commonly used because
 a. It provides a floor to ceiling height of 8ft
b. It permits the use of 1/2 in, thick gypsum board
c. It permits the use of OSB sheathing; otherwise, more expensive plywood
sheathing is needed
d. It is more energy efficient
18. The header over an opening wall made of 2 * 6 studs consists of
a. Three 2-by lumber members nailed together
b. Three 2-by lumber members nailed together with one intervening filler
c. Three 2-by lumber members nailed together with two intervening fillers
d. Two 2 -by lumber members nailed together with three intervening fillers
e. Two 2 -by lumber members nailed together with two intervening fillers
19. In a WLF building, a floor framing plan indicates
a. The layout of studs and their spacing
b. The layout of studs and exterior wall sheathing
c. The layout of floor joists and blocking
d. The layout of floor joists, floor beams, and blocking
e. The layout of floor beams, studs and wall sheathing
20. A non-load-bearing wall in a building is one that supports the loads from the roof but not
from any floor
a. True
b. False

21. The primary purpose of full-depth blocking in a floor frame is to

a. Reduce compressive stresses in floor joists
b. Prevent buckling of floor joists
c. Reduce tensile stresses in floor joists
d. Give additional nailing surface for a gypsum board ceiling
e. Give additional nailing surface for floor sheathing
22. Blocking between floor joists is required where
a. The joists bear on a wall
b. The joists bear on a beam
c. The joists are hung on a beam using joist hangers
d. All of the above
e. Both a and b
23. A floor in a WLF building that supports a non-load bearing wall generally requires no
additional strengthening or stiffening when
a. The wall runs parallel to floor joists
b. The wall runs perpendicular to floor joists
24. A roof with gable ends on both sides in a rectangular building has
a. Eaves on all four sides
b. Eaves on three sides
c. Eaves on two sides
d. Eave on one side
e. No eaves
25. A rectangular roof with hip ends on two sides has
a. Eaves on all four sides
 b. Eaves on three sides
c. Eaves on two sides
d. Eave on one side
e. No eaves
26. In the building industry, the slope of a roof is generally expressed
a. In degrees
b. In radians
c. As a rise to run ratio
d. As a run to rise ratio
e. None of the above
27. Because ridge board is a struc’l member, its size depends on roof loads
a. True
b. False
28. A bird’s mouth cut in rafters is made at the ridge
a. True
b. False
29. In a roof with a ridge beam
a. Ceiling joists are spaced at 12 in. on center maximum
b. Ceiling joists are spaced at 16 in on center maximum
c. Ceiling joists are spaced at 24 in on center maximum
d. None of the above

30. When a collar tie is provided in a pitched WLF roof, it should be located in the
a. Upper ¼ of attic
b. Upper 1/3 of attic
c. Lower ¼ of attic
d. Lower 1/3 of attic
e. Center of the attic
31. The primary purpose of collar ties is to increase the
a. Wind uplift resistance of roof framing
b. Gravity load resistance of roof framing
c. Wind uplift resistance of floor framing
d. Gravity load resistance of floor framing
32. If the cross-grain lumber dimensions in WLF building are the same throughout the entire
building, it is not subjected to any swelling or shrinkage
a. True
b. False
33. As per the building codes, the type of construction that WLF represents is
a. Type I construction
b. Type II construction
c. Type III construction
d. Type IV construction
e. Type V construction
34. The maximum number of floors allowed by building codes for single-family dwelling
built using wood light-frame construction is
a.