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UNIT 1.
WHAT IS LAW AND THE NEED FOR LAW. HISTORY OF LAW

Reading 1: The Need for Law. Functions of Law. Kinds of Law

Lead-in
A): Read the words. Mind the stress.
΄purpose de΄vote regu΄lation
΄conduct i΄mmoral discrimi΄nation
΄murder so΄ciety super΄vision
΄recognize con΄tribute situ΄ation
΄influence fa΄cilitate main΄tain
΄prison re΄gardless juris΄prudence

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun Adjective Verb Noun
murder to devote
society to define
negligence to exist
justice to regulate
tradition to inhibit
Variety to condemn
Culture to recognize
Peace to confuse
Difference to injure
Law to suffer
Influence to punish
C) Add negative prefixes:
moral advantage
legal perfect
order written

WHAT IS LAW
The question 'What is law?' has troubled people for many years. Scientists devote an entire field (цілу
галузь досліджень)of study known as jurisprudence to answering this question. Many definitions of
law exist, but for our purposes, we can define law as the set of rules(сукупність правил) and
regulations (положень)by which a government regulates, the conduct of people within a society (людей
у суспільстві). Law is a body of official rules and regulations(сукупність офіційних норм та
положень), generally found (зустрічаються)in constitutions, legislation, judicial opinions (судових
заключеннях), and the like, that is used to govern (управління) a society and to control the behavior of
the members. The nature and functions of law have varied throughout history. In modern societies,
some authorized body (деякі уповноважені органи) such as a legislature (закнодавчий орган) or a
court makes the law. It is backed (підтримується )by the coercive примусовою power of the state
держави, which enforces запезпечує the law by means за допомогою of appropriate відповідних
penalties санкцій or remedies засобів судового захисту. Even with this explanation, many questions
arise виникає. Where do laws come from? Do we need laws? Are all laws written? Can laws change? If
so, how? What is the difference between laws and morals?
Питання "Що таке закон?" хвилює людей багато років. Відповіді на це питання вчені
присвячують цілу галузь досліджень, відому як юриспруденція. Існує багато визначень права,
але для наших цілей ми можемо визначити право як сукупність правил і правил, за допомогою
яких уряд регулює поведінку людей у суспільстві. Закон - це сукупність офіційних норм і
правил, які зазвичай зустрічаються в конституціях, законодавчих актах, судових висновках тощо,
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які використовуються для управління суспільством та контролю за поведінкою членів. Природа

та функції права змінювалися протягом історії. У сучасному суспільстві закон ухвалює якийсь
уповноважений орган, такий як законодавчий орган чи суд. Він підтримується примусовою
силою держави, яка забезпечує виконання закону за допомогою відповідних санкцій або засобів
правового захисту. Навіть з цим поясненням виникає багато питань. Звідки беруться закони? Чи
потрібні нам закони? Чи всі закони написані? Чи можуть змінитися закони? Якщо так, то як?
Чим відрізняються закони від моралі?
Formal legal rules офіціальні правові норми and actions заходи are usually distinguished
відрізняються from other means of social control and guides for behavior such as mores нравы,
morality, public opinion, and custom or tradition. Of course, a lawmaker may respond відповідати to
public opinion or other pressures, and a formal law may prohibit what is morally unacceptable.
Офіційні правові норми та заходи зазвичай відрізняються від інших засобів соціального
контролю та керівництва поведінкою, таких як звичаї, мораль, громадська думка, звичаї чи
традиції. Звичайно, законодовець може реагувати на громадську думку чи інші тиски, а
офіційний закон може забороняти те, що є морально неприйнятним.
To understand the law, we must consider the relationship of law to morals. Traditional ideas of right and
wrong influence our legal system. Thus, most people condemn murder, regardless of what the law says.
However, everything that they consider immoral is not necessarily illegal. For example, lying to a friend
may be immoral but not really illegal.
Щоб зрозуміти закон, ми повинні розглянути відношення права до моралі. Традиційні ідеї
правильного і неправильного впливають на нашу правову систему. Таким чином, більшість
людей засуджує вбивство, незалежно від того, що говорить закон. Однак все, що вони вважають
аморальним, не обов’язково є незаконним. Наприклад, брехня другові може бути аморальною,
але насправді незаконною.
One thing is certain: every society has recognized the need визнало необхідність for law. These laws
may have been written, but even primitive people had rules to regulate the conduct of the group. For a
very long time now, members of every community have made laws for themselves in self-protection.
Without laws, there would be confusion плутанина, fear, and disorder. This does not mean that all laws
are fair or even good, but imagine how people might take advantage of one another without some set of
rules. We are far better off набагато краще with the imperfect laws which we have, than if we had none
at all.
Most people think of the law as prohibitive заборонювальне or punitive каральне - the police officer
полыцейський arresting a suspect or a judge imposing sentence виносить вирок on a defendant
пыдсудному. That can be true of criminal law, at least up принаймні to a point до певної точки, but it
overlooks не помічає the role of law in regulating disputes спорів and providing for a rational and
civilized way способу of ordering society.
але він не помічає ролі права у врегулюванні спорів та забезпеченні раціонального та
цивілізованого способу впорядкування суспільства.
Law serves a variety of functions право виконує різноманітні функції. It helps
1) to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively відносно stable society,
2) to contribute to social stability by resolving disputes in civilized fashion,
3) to facilitate сприяє business activities and private planning;
4) to provide some degree of freedom that would not otherwise в іншому випадку be possible,
5) to inhibit перешкоджає social discrimination and
6) to improve the quality of individual life in matters of health, education and welfare.
In many ways, law is the cornerstone of our culture. The rule of law provides society with the rules by
which all of us live. Conversely і навпаки, citizens have the right to rely посилатися на закон on the
law and be confident of the protection provided by the courts.
Laws fall into two major groups: criminal and civil. Criminal laws regulate public conduct and set our
duties owed to society встановлює обов’язки перед суспільством. A criminal case is a legal action by
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the government against a person charged with committing a crime. Criminal laws have penalties
requiring that offenders should be imprisoned, fined, placed under supervision, or punished in some
other way.
Civil laws regulate relations between individuals or group of individuals. A person can bring a civil
action (lawsuit судовий процес) when this person feels wronged or injured by another person. Civil
laws regulate many everyday situations such as marriage, divorce, contracts, real estate, insurance,
consumer protection and negligence.
1. Give each paragraph a heading of your own. Compare your headings with other members of the
group. Are all the headings possible?
2. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and expressions.

For our purposes; relationship of law and moral; confusion, fear, disorder; to take advantage of one
another; to regulate public conduct; to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society; to resolve
disputes; to facilitate business activities; to provide society with the rules; to imprison offenders; to
punish in some other way; to bring a case against somebody; be imprisoned, fined, placed under
supervision; to commit a crime; to feel wronged or injured; consumer protection; real estate;
negligence; to inhibit social discrimination; within the framework of an ordered society; to enjoy
rights; to live their lives accordingly.

3. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
Ціла галузь знань; набір правил та розпоряджень; присвятити відповіді на це питання; поведінка
людей; у межах суспільства (2); створювати закони; піддавати осуду вбивство; не обов'язково
незаконний; незалежно від того, що каже закон; брехати другові; підтримувати відносно
стабільне суспільство; робити внесок у соціальну стабільність; вирішувати суперечки у
цивілізований спосіб; користуватися правами; сприяти господарській діяльності; забезпечити
певну ступінь свободи; стримувати соціальну дискримінацію; покращувати якість приватного
життя; верховенство закону; скоїти злочин; обвинувачувати в скоєнні злочину; порушувати
цивільну справу проти особи; нерухомість; халатність; захист прав споживача; у справах
здоров’я, освіти та добробуту ; наріжний камінь нашої культури.
4. Find in the text a word or a phrase that means:
1) procedures taken in court synonymous to lawsuit; 2) rule made by authority for the proper regulation
of a society or correct conduct in life; 3) make less difficult or more easily to achieve;
4) legal ending of a marriage by law; 5) safeguard against loss, provision against sickness, death, etc. in
return for regular payment; 6) to put or keep in prison; 7) sum of money paid as a penalty for breaking a
law or rule; 8) happiness and prosperity; 9) to prevent an action or progress; 10) carelessness; failure to
take proper care or precautions

5. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.

injured; insurance; penalty; conduct; fear; takes advantage; offences; purpose; condemn; enable;
set; charged with; offenders
1. The main tendency is to refer to crimes as ________. 2. The police are sure that this person
committed the crime, so they _______ him ___ it. 3. He always _______ of the mistakes made by his
rivals. 4. We all _______ cruelty to children. 5. They condemned him for his bad _______. 6. The
_______ company will pay for the damage to my car. 7. The _______ of punishment is to correct anti-
social behaviour of _______. 8. The _______ for non-performance of contract is heavy. 9. We need a
set of rules of conduct to _______ us to live in any kind of satisfactory state. 10. If it were not for the
law, you could not go out without the _______ of being kidnapped, robbed or murdered. 11. When our
rules are once _______, no Governor should offer to alter them. 12. Two persons have been severely
_______ in a car accident.

B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb.

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1. Lawyers devote the entire field ____ study ____ answering the question ‘What is law?’. 2. It was
done ____ a good purpose. 3. She brought legal action ____ her employer regardless ____ danger to
lose the case. 4. Has every member of the family been equally provided ____? 5. Every society provides
people ____ the rules according ____ which they live. 6. The prisoner is charged ____ criminal
negligence. 7. Ukrainian lawyers have made a considerable contribution ____ development ____
jurisprudence. 8. He was released ____ prison and placed ____ supervision. 9. The driver was fined
____ exceeding speed limits. 10. We provide insurance ____ every employee ____ our company. 11. If
a person commits a crime, he goes ____ prison. 12. We owe our rights ____ our society. 13.
Psychologist inhibited her ____ committing suicide. 14. He is always taking advantage ____ my good
nature.

6. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. Law regulates …… a) traditional ideas of what is right or wrong; b) the conduct of people within a
society; c) everything that is moral or immoral.
2. Jurisprudence answers the question ……
a) ‘Are all laws written?’ b) ‘What is good and fair?’ c) ‘What is law?’
3. There are two main groups of laws: ……
a) criminal and civil: b) international and constitutional; c) family and public.
4. Everything that they consider immoral is not necessarily …. a) legal; b) illegal; c) unjust;
5.Law …… to social stability by resolving disputes in civilized fashion.
a) inhibits; b) contributes; c) improves;
6. Criminal laws require ……
a) imprisonment; b) recovery of damages; c) payment of medical bills.
7. A civil action is brought against a person …
a) who suffered damages; b) who committed a crime; c) committed a wrong.
8. Laws …… business activities and private planning. a) inhibit; b) contribute; c) facilitate;
9. An example of a civil case is ….. a) a robbery; b) a murder; c) a divorce.

7. Look through the text again and decide whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. Traditional ideas of right and wrong don’t influence our legal system. 2. Immoral actions are always
illegal. 3. Every society needs laws. 4. All laws are fair and good. 5. Members of every community keep
guns in their houses for self-defence. 6. Penalties for crimes under civil law are imprisonment, fines,
placing under supervision. 7. The law is an enabler, something that inhibits us to have rights. 8. Law
helps to provide some degree of freedom that is impossible to achieve in another way. 9. Law is the
cornerstone of jurisprudence. 10. A person can bring a civil action when another person commits a
crime.11. Primitive people didn’t have any rules that regulated people’s conduct.

8. Speaking Look through the text once more and say:

1) what law is; 2) why we need law; 3) what functions of the law are; 4) what criminal laws are; 5)
what civil laws are.

9. Translate into English.

А: 1. Я хочу присвятити своє життя науково-дослідницькій роботі в галузі конституційного
права. 2. Ви можете дати визначення «права»? 3. Закони завжди існували в нашому світі. 4. Ми
влаштовуємо зустріч з тією метою, щоб розказати про наші наміри. 5. Ми повинні регулювати
нашу поведінку відповідно до вимог суспільства. 6. Якщо з’явиться потреба, зателефонуй мені. 7.
Люди піддають осуду таку аморальну поведінку незалежно від того, що закон не вважає її
протизаконною. 8. Я не маю відношення до цього безладу. 9. Ми визнаємо, що скоїли
правопорушення. 10. Поліція арештувала людину, яку вона обвинувачує у вчиненні убивства. 11.
Я вчинив цю несправедливість зі страху. 12. Він намагався уникнути покарання, але його
засудили до ув’язнення. 13. Поліція здійснює нагляд за тими, хто був звільнений з в’язниці. 14.
Він був сильно поранений в автомобільній аварії (car accident). 15. Керівництво оштрафувало
своїх працівників за недбальство. 16. Ми подали позов проти компанії за порушення умов
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контракту та сподіваємося виграти судовий процес. 17. Наша фірма застрахувала співробітників
від нещасних випадків. 18. Люди повинні стримувати хибні бажання та наміри. 19. Закони
сприяють стабільному життю та добробуту та забезпечують певну ступінь свободи.
В: Home assignment.
1. Право – це набір правил, які регулюють поведінку людей у суспільстві. 2. Закони необхідні для
того щоб люди жили в цілковитій безпеці (safety). 3. Без законів люди можуть користуватися
один одним, в незалежності від того, чи вважають вони це справедливим, чи ні. 4. Не завжди
незаконним є те, що ми вважаємо аморальним. 5. Традиційні ідеї дуже впливають на нашу
правому систему. 6. Примітивні люди також мали певній набір правил, який регулював
поведінку у межах їх групи. 7. В сучасному суспільстві певний законодавчий (legislative) орган
створює закони. 8. Ми поділяємо закони на цивільні та кримінальні. 9. Кримінальні закони
вимагають таке покарання, як тюремне ув’язнення, штраф тощо. 10. Особа порушує цивільну
справу проти іншої особи, якщо вона почуває себе несправедливо ображеною. 11. Поліція
обвинувачує його у скоєнні злочину. 12. Закони обмежують (to limit) владу уряду, таким чином
вони забезпечують певну ступінь свободи громадянам. 13. Цивільні закони регулюють питання,
пов’язані зі шлюбом, розлученням, страхуванням, нерухомим майном, контрактами, халатністю,
захистом прав споживача тощо.
Reading 2: The History of Law
Lead-in
A) Read the words. Mind the stress.
΄ancestor de΄scend compen΄sation
΄pillar e΄ffect corres΄pond
΄victim in΄heritance Mesopo΄tamian
΄outlaw re΄venge codifi΄cation
΄kidnap ob΄serve Hammu΄rabi
΄testament legi΄slation ari΄stocracy
΄circumstance pre΄side Co΄mmandments

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun Verb Verb Noun
settlement to descend
Effect to codify
injury to observe
Compensation to murder
Collection to accuse
Punishment to kidnap
Invention to reflect
offence to correspond
Compiler Inherit

Reading 2: The Birth of Law

Laws and rules – and the customs and conventions звичаї та конвенції – from which they are
descended have always been the part of human life ever since our ancestors first began to live in large
and settled groups. But our knowledge is vague of laws that were in effect before the invention of
writing in about 3500 B.C. The earliest known legal text was written by Ur-Nammu, the king of the
Mesopotamian city of Ur, in about 2100 B.C. It dealt розглядва largely with compensation for bodily
injuries, penalties for witchcraft and runaway slaves.
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Закони і правила, а також звичаї та звичаї звичаї та конвенції, з яких вони походять, завжди були
частиною людського життя з тих пір, як наші предки вперше почали жити великими та осілими
групами. Але наші знання неясні щодо законів, які діяли до винаходу письма приблизно в 3500 р.
До н. Е. Найдавніший відомий юридичний текст був написаний Ур-Намму, царем
месопотамського міста Ур, приблизно в 2100 році до н. Він стосувався переважно компенсації за
тілесні ушкодження, штрафів за чаклунство та рабів -втікачів.
One of the earliest known collections of codified laws is the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi
[,hæmu΄ra:bi] was a king of Babylon from 1728 B.C. to 1686 B.C. So that everyone could know the
laws, they were carved into the stone pillars set up in the temple to the Babylonian god Marduk.
Однією з найдавніших відомих збірок кодифікованих законів є Кодекс Хаммурапі. Хаммурапі [,
hæmu΄ra: bi] був царем Вавилона з 1728 року до н. до 1686 р. до н. е. Щоб кожен міг знати
закони, вони були вирізані в кам’яних стовпах, встановлених у храмі вавилонського бога
Мардука.
Тhe pillar, lost for centuries after the fall of Babylon in the 16lh century B.C., was rediscovered by a
French archaeologist in 1901 amid the ruins of the Persian city of Susa. Hammurabi's words were still
legible. The pillar is now in the Louvre museum in Paris. The laws laid встановлені down by
Hammurabi were more extensive обширні than any that had, gone before діяли раніше. The entire
code consisted of 282 paragraphs. The laws covered crime, divorce, marriage, the rights of slave owners
and slaves, the settlement of debts виплата боргів, inheritance and property contracts договори; there
were even regulations about taxes and the prices of goods. Punishments under the code were harsh.
Стовп, втрачений століттями після падіння Вавилона в 16 столітті до нашої ери, був знову
відкритий французьким археологом у 1901 р. Серед руїн перського міста Сузи. Слова Хаммурапі
були ще розбірливими. Зараз цей стовп знаходиться в паризькому музеї Лувр. Закони,
встановлені Хаммурапі, були більш обширними, ніж будь -які, що діяли раніше. Весь кодекс
складався з 282 абзаців. Закони охоплювали злочинність, розлучення, шлюб, права
рабовласників і рабів, виплату боргів, спадкові та майнові договори; існували навіть положення
про податки та ціни на товари. Покарання за кодексом були жорсткими.
The cruel principle of revenge was observed дотримувавчя: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,
which meant that the punishment had to correspond to those damages and injuries that criminals had
inflicted upon their victims. Not only murderers but also thieves злодії and false accusers faced the
death penalty. And a child who hit his father could lose the hand that struck the blow. The code
outlawed private blood feuds and banned the tradition by which a man could kidnap and keep the
woman he wanted for his bride. In addition, the new laws took account of враховували the
circumstances of the offender as well as the offence. So a lower-ranking citizen who lost a civil case
would be fined less than an aristocrat in the same position – though хоча he would also be awarded less
if he won. Nevertheless, Hammurabi’s laws represented an advance прогрес on earlier tribal customs,
because the penalty could not be harder than the crime.
Дотримувався жорстокий принцип помсти: око за око і зуб за зуб, що означало, що покарання
повинно відповідати тим збиткам і травмам, які злочинці завдали своїм жертвам. До смертної
кари загрожували не тільки вбивці, а й злодії та фальшиві обвинувачі. А дитина, яка вдарила
батька, могла втратити руку, яка завдала удару. Кодекс заборонив приватну кровну помсту і
заборонив традицію, згідно з якою чоловік міг викрасти та залишити жінку, яку він хотів, для
своєї нареченої. Крім того, нові закони враховували особу злочинця, а також обставини
правопорушення. Тож громадянин нижчого рангу, який програв цивільну справу, був би
оштрафований менше, ніж аристократ на тій же посаді-хоча він також отримав би меншу
 7

винагороду, якби переміг. Тим не менш, закони Хаммурапі представляли собою прогрес у
попередніх племінних звичаях, оскільки покарання не може бути суворішим за злочин.
Another code of early law is the Code of Hebraic laws, or Mosaic Law of about 1400 B.C. This code is
set out in detail in the first five books of the Old Testament, which are called the Torah, meaning ‘law’
or ‘guidance’ These books recount розповідають the forty-year-long wandering of Moses and the tribes
племен of Israel from Egypt across the Sinai desert to the Promised Land of Canaan. While in the
desert, Moses was summoned to the top of Mount Sinai by God and was given the tablets of Ten
Commandments. Like the Babylonians, the Hebrew compilers believed that their laws were based on the
will of God.
Іншим кодексом ранніх законів є Кодекс єврейських законів, або Мойсеєвий закон близько 1400
р. До н.е. Цей код детально викладений у перших п’яти книгах Старого Завіту, які називаються
Торою, що означає „закон” або „керівництво”. Ці книги розповідають про сорокарічну подорож
Мойсея та племен Ізраїлю з Єгипту. через Синайську пустелю до Землі обіцяної Ханаанської.
Перебуваючи в пустелі, Мойсей був покликаний Богом на вершину гори Синай і дав йому
скрижалі Десяти Заповідей. Як і вавилоняни, єврейські упорядники вважали, що їх закони
ґрунтуються на волі Бога.
Unlike the commercially-oriented економічно-орієнтованого Code of Hammurabi, the Mosaic Law
reflects відображає the agrarian community спільноту which Moses presided over. As chief lawgiver
and magistrate, Moses was both a legislator and a judge in the modern sense. The Ten Commandments
still hold a central position today in the teaching of both the Hebrew and the Christian faiths. As well,
the Mosaic Law forms an important part of the laws of many countries today.
На відміну від комерційного кодексу Хаммурапі, Мойсеєвий закон відображає аграрну
спільноту, якою керував Мойсей. Як головний законодавець і суддя, Мойсей був і законодавцем,
і суддею в сучасному розумінні. Десять заповідей і сьогодні займають центральне місце у вченні
як єврейської, так і християнської віри. Крім того, Мойсеєвий закон сьогодні є важливою
частиною законів багатьох країн.
Note. the Promised Land of Canaan [΄keinən] – земля обітована Ханаанка (стародавня назва
Палестини, Сирії та Фінікії)
2. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
частина людського життя; осілі групи; мав справу головним чином з; компенсація за тілесні
ушкодження; покарання за чаклунство; біглі раби; карбувати на кам’яному стовпі; стосуватися
злочину, розлучення, шлюбу; майнові контракти; податки; дотримуватися принципу помсти;
наносити ушкодження та збитки; погрожувати смертною карою; наносити удар; поставити поза
законом кровну ворожнечу; головувати; заборонити традицію; до того ж / крім того; обставини
правопорушення; Мойсеєві Закони; програти цивільну справу; нижчий за рангом громадянин;
Старий Завіт; Десять Заповідей
3. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.
revenge, thief, blood feud, victim, tax, debt, the Ten Commandments, inheritance, outlawed,
kidnapping, deals with, circumstance
1. ________ are a list of religious and moral imperatives that are given to Moses on the mountain
referred to as "Mount Sinai" in the form of two stone tablets. 2. Her offensive conduct is a _______ to
be taken into consideration. 3. The farmer and his family have had _______ with their neighbours on the
other side of the valley for thirty years. 4. All societies have _______ murderers and robbers. 5. A
_______ of a crime in criminal law is the person who has been harmed individually and directly by the
 8

defendant, rather than merely society as a whole. 6. In criminal law, _______ is the taking away of a
person against the person’s will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment without legal
authority. 7. Although many aspects of _______ resemble or echo the concept of justice, it usually has a
more injurious than harmonious goal. 8. A ________ is a financial charge imposed on an individual or a
legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state. 9. _______ is the practice of passing on
property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. 10. He is heavily in ________
after losing the lawsuit. 11. In criminal law, the ________ is a person who illegally takes another
person’s property without that person’s freely-given consent. 12. Head Office ________ all complaints.
B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb.
1. Laws and rules are descended ____ the customs and conventions. 2. This is the first question which
I propose to deal ____. 3. In 1787 George Washington was called to preside ____ the Constitutional
Convention in Philadelphia. 4. The committee’s plans are set ____ in the report. 5. He had to pay the
compensation ____ termination of contract. 6. He had to pay medical bills ____ civil code and he was
charged with the crime of assault ____ criminal code. 7. The principle ____ revenge means an eye ____
an eye and a tooth ____ a tooth. 8. Her photograph corresponds ____ the description that he gave us. 9.
The accused inflicted bodily injury ____ his victim. 10. Hammurabi’s laws took account ____ the
circumstances of the offender as well ____ the offence. 11. The committee examined the case ____
detail. 12. ____ addition ____ a big fine, he faces imprisonment. 13. The Law was carved ____ twelve
bronze tablets, so it was called the Law of the Twelve Tablets.
4. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. We don’t know anything about earliest laws because … . a) they were not written; b) they didn’t
exist; c) they were not codified;
2. The Code of Hammurabi was drawn up in… . a) about 1400 B.C.; b) about 1728 to 1686 B.C.; c)
between 451 to 449 B.C.;
3. The principle of revenge means … a) you must inflict the same damages if you had been offended;
b) that if a person committed a crime, he faced the death penalty; c) the punishment must be equal to the
crime;
4. Hammurabi’s Code outlawed … . a) murder; b) private blood feuds; c) theft;
5. One of the most known collections of laws is ….. called the Torah. a) Ur-Nammu-code; b) the laws
of Babylon; c) the law of the Tablets;
6. The Old Testament which is called the Torah means … . a) the sacred; b) the book; c) law;
7. The Code of Hebraic Laws…. . a) was commercially-oriented; b) reflected the agrarian community;
c) served the nobility interests.
8. Hammurabi’s code regulated both …. and civil matters. a) criminal; b) international; c) tribal

5. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.
1. outlaw a. a person guilty of unlawful killing of someone on purpose;
2. victim b. to pay attention to rules, laws, etc.;
3. observe c. to place a person outside the protection of law;
4. Old Testament d. a person, who does wrong, commits an offence;
 9

5. murderer e. one of the division of the Bible;

6. revenge f. deliberate infliction of injury upon the person who has inflicted injury;
7. offender g. a civil officer acting as a judge in the lowest court;
8. magistrate h. a person suffering injury, pain, loss etc. because of circumstances,
events, the ill-will, etc.
6. Find a word in the text that means:
1) the use of magic power, especially with the aid of evil spirits; 2) a punishment imposed for a
violation of law or rule; 3) an accepted social custom or practice; 4) not clearly or explicitly stated or
expressed; 5) payment for damage or loss, restitution; 6) harm or damage done or suffered; 7) carry
away somebody by force and unlawfully in order to obtain ransom (викуп); 8) person who steals
secretly and without violence; 9) belief in divine truth, religion; 10) people living in one place, district
or country, considered as a whole.
7. Look through the text again and decide whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. The law was born in the primitive times. 2. Ur-Nammu was a Babylonian lawgiver. 3. The first
known legal text banned slave-trade. 4. Moses drew up the most ancient law code. 5. Hammurabi’s
Code only dealt with serious crimes. 6. The Babylonians observed the principle of an eye for an eye, a
tooth for a tooth. 7. All the Babylonian citizens were treated equally. 8. Mosaic Law is set out in the
Bible. 9. The Ten Commandments were given to Moses by God. 10. Ancient people believed that laws
were made by gods.
8. Speaking Work in pairs and answer the questions.
1. Why is it difficult to judge about the earliest laws? 2. Where and why did the first laws appear? 3.
What issues did the early laws emphasize? 4. Why do you think Hammurabi decided to have his laws
carved into the pillars? 5. What spheres of human life were covered by Hammurabi’s code? Explain the
choice. 6. How do you understand the principle ‘an eye for eye, a tooth for a tooth’? 7. Were
punishments always fair? Why? 8. Were people of different ranks treated differently by Hammurabi’s
code? 9. What legend is the Mosaic Law based on? 10. What does the Old Testament mean?

Reading 3: The Legal Heritage of Greece and Rome

A) Read words. Mind the stress.
΄ measure be΄lief satis΄factory
΄ ultimately dic΄tatorship mode΄ration
΄culminate a΄ssembly elimi΄nation
΄ subsequent se΄vere aris΄tocracy
΄ tyranny e΄liminate civili΄zation
΄ homicide pro΄hibit prohi΄bition

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun Verb Verb Noun
belief to culminate
Dictatorship to prohibit
Solution to eliminate
enslavement to separate
Moderation to revise
 10

Decision to compile
Corruption to attribute

C) Read words. Mind the stress.

Noun Verb Noun Verb
΄attribute – to a΄ttribute ΄present – to pre΄sent
΄conduct – to con΄duct ΄record – to re΄cord

Read and translate the text.

The ancient Greeks were among the first to develop a concept of law that separated everyday laws and
religious beliefs. Before Greeks most civilizations attributed their laws to gods and goddesses. Instead
напротивагу цьому, the Greeks believed that laws were made by the people and for the people. In the
seventh century B.C., Draco drew up Greece’s first written code of laws. Draco’s laws were shockingly
severe, so severe that people say that they were written not in ink but in blood. On the civil side they
permitted enslavement for debt, and death was the penalty for almost all criminal offences. Thus, the
term draconian usually applies to extremely harsh measures.
Античні греки були одним з перших народів, які розвинули концепцію права,
що відмежовувала побутові закони та релігійні вірування. До греків більшість
цивілізацій приписували свої закони богам і богиням. На противагу цьому греки
вважали, що закони творяться людьми і для людей. У сьомому століттті до н.е.
Драко створив перший грецький писаний кодекс законів. Закони Драко були
приголомшливо суворі і настільки суворі, що кажуть про те, що вони написані не
чорнилами, а кров'ю. З боку цивільного права закони дозволяли позбавлення
особистої свободи за заборгованність, а також смерть була покаранням для
більшості кримінальних правопорушень. Таким чином, поняття "драконовий"
часто використовують стосовно надзвичайно жорстокої міри покарання.

Several decades passed before Solon – poet, military hero, and ultimately Athens’s lawgiver – devised a
new code of laws. The early 6th century was a troubled time for the Athenians. The aristocracy of birth
owned the best land, monopolized the government, and they were themselves split into rival factions.
The social, economic and political evils might have culminated in a revolution and subsequent tyranny
(dictatorship), had it not been for Solon, to whom Athenians turned зверталися in the hope of generally
satisfactory solution of their problems. Because he believed in moderation and in an ordered society in
which each class had its proper place and function, his solution was not revolution but reform. He
retained trial by jury, an ancient Greek tradition, but prohibited enslavement of debtors. Under Solon’s
law citizens of Athens were eligible to serve служити in the Assembly, and courts were established in
which they could appeal government decisions. Solon revised переглянув every statute except that on
homicide and made Athenian law altogether more humane. What the Greeks contributed to the Roman
law was the concept of ‘natural law’. In essence, natural law was based on the belief that certain basic
principles are above the laws of nature. These principles arise from the nature of people. The concept
had a profound effect on the modern world.
За кілька десятиліть після цього, Солон, який був поетом, героїчним воїном, і, врешті-решт,
афінським законодвцем, створив новий кодекс законів. Початок шостого століття був неспокійним
часом для Афін. Аристоркрати, які з народження отримували накращу землю, монополізовували
державний уряд, а також самі відокремлювалися один від одного в конкуруючі фракції. Соціальні,
економічні і політичні проблеми могли спричинити революцію з подальшою тиранією (диктаторським
 11

режимом), якби не Солон, до якого афиняни зверталися в надії вирішити свої проблеми. Оскільки він
вірив у поміркованість та впорядкованість суспільства, у якому кожен соціальний стан буде мати
належне місце та функцію, його рішення було не підняття революції, а впровадити реформи. Він
зберігав суд присяжних, але заборонив поневолення боржників. Згідно з законами Солона, громадяни
Афін мали право служити в Асамблеї, а також були створені суди, у яких вони могли оскарджувати
рішення уряду. Солон переглянув кожен закон, окрім закону про вбивство та зробив афінське право в
цілому більш гуманним. Греки внесли в римське право поняття "природного права". Загалом,
природне право грунтувалося на переконанні про те, що певні фундаментальні принципи стоять вище
законів природи. Ці принципи випливають із природи людей. Дана концепція має глибокий вплив на
сучасний світ.

Another earliest code of laws, the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was written between 451 B.C. and 449
B.C. The Law was carved into twelve bronze tablets set up in the Forum for everyone to see. It
remained in use for over 1000 years. The second great set of Roman laws, the Justinian Code was
compiled under the direction під керівництвом of Justinian, Emperor of Rome. Justinian was
concerned with elimination of corruption and making justice available to everyone. The Code consisted
of four works: a) all the imperial edicts укази; b) the Digest, the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c)
the Institutes, which served as a hand-book for law students; d) the Novels, or ‘new laws’, passed by
Justinian himself.

By 100 A. D., the Roman Empire had spread over much of Europe. It remained intact until the fifth
century A.D. As a result, the two Roman codes greatly influenced the laws of all European countries,
including France and England.

Інший найдавніший кодекс законів - Закон Двадцяти Таблиць - був написаний у період з 451 по 449 роки до
н.е. Закон вирізбленний на двадцятьох бронзових табличках, які встановлені на Форумі, щоб всі могли їх бачити.
Його використовували протягом більше 1000 років. Друга визначна збірка римських законів - Кодекс Юстиніана,
складений під керівництвом римського імператора Юстиніана. Він турбувався про ліквідацію корупції та
забезпеченням доступного для всіх правосуддя. Кодекс складався з чотирьох творів: a) усіх імператорських
указів; b) Дайджесту - рішенням великих римських юристів; c) Інститутів, які служили довідником для студентів-
правників; d)Романів, або "нових законів", прийнятих самим Юстініаном.

До 100 року н.е. Римська імперія охопила більшу частину Європи. Вона залишалася незмінною до 5 століття
н.е. У результаті два римські кодекси значно вплинули на закони всіх європейських країн, включно з Францією та
Англією.

2. Find the English equivalents to the following words and expressions in the text.
розвинути концепцію права; приписувати закони богам; скласти кодекс законів; стосуватися
надзвичайно жорстоких мір; повністю афінський законодавець; поневолення боржників; розбити
на ворожі фракції; соціальні, політичні та економічні негаразди; тиранія, що настала; загально
задовільне рішення; впорядковане суспільство; належне місце та функція; шокуючи суворий;
написані кров’ю; прийняти закони; під керівництвом; переглянути; вбивство; більш людяний;
знищення корупції; зробити правосуддя доступним кожному; залишитися незмінним;
імператорські укази

3. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.

homicide(s) - 2, rival, eliminate, prohibited, ultimately, dictatorship, established, drawn up, split,
appeal, subsequent, Assembly, solution, measures, apply, passes
1. The lawyer has _______ a plan to win the case. 2. We took _______ to insure their safety. 3. Every
kingdom _______ depends on moral influence and not on physical force. 4. He will go on _______ later
 12

this month charged with murder. 5. The coalition is _______ into _______ factions. 6. The Act of Union
and the _______ acts united the territory of the country. 7. The Soviet power established the _______ of
the proletariat. 8. I’m sure the police will find the _______ to this case. 9. Smoking is strictly _______.
10. The General ________ is composed of representatives of nearly all the nations of the world. 11. To
help the Court of Justice cope with the large number of cases brought before it, a ‘ Court of First Instance’
was _______ in 1989. 12. The universities have to _______ to the government for more money. 13.
_______ do not always involve a crime; sometimes the law allows ________, for example, in self defence.
14. One of the urgent tasks of modern societies is to ________ corruption. 15. When parliament ________
a bill, it becomes a law.

B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb where necessary.

1. We attribute trial ____ jury ____ ancient Greeks. 2. She gave evidence ____ his trial. 3. Children are
prohibited ____ buying cigarettes. 4. Draco’s laws were so severe that people said that they were written
_____ blood. 5. This law does not apply ____ this case. 6. The economic and political crisis culminated
____ the revolution. 7. The Greeks contributed the concept of ‘natural law’ ____ the Roman law. 8.
____ Solon’s law Athenians could appeal government decisions _____ court. 9. Justinian tried to make
justice available ____ everyone. 10. Justinian’s Code consisted ____ the edicts, the Digest, the Institutes
and the Novels. 11. The Roman codes greatly influenced ____ the laws of all Europe.

4. Match the definition in the right column to the word in the left.
1. to appeal a. discontented, often self-interested group of persons within a party;
2. measure b. kind of government existing when a ruler has complete power, esp.
when this power has been obtained by force;
3. to contribute c. to join with others in giving help, money, ideas, suggestion for a
common purpose;
4. trial d. to examine and accept;
5. jury e. body of persons who swear to give a decision (verdicts) on issues;
6. faction f. killing of a human being;
7. rival g. size, quantity, degree, weight, etc., found by a standard or unit;
8. tyranny h. a person who competes with another because he wants the same
thing or to be or to do better than the other;
9. to pass i. examination in a law court before a judge (or a judge and a jury);
10. homicide j. to take a question to a higher court for rehearing and a new decision;

5. Read and say whether these statements are true or false.

1. People began to draw up laws only after paper had been invented. 2. Most civilizations believed that
gods made laws. 3. Solon’s code was the first written Greek code. 4. Draco’s code provided for death
for all criminal offences. 5. The ancient Greeks had a tradition of trial by jury. 6. All Greeks were
eligible to serve in the Assembly. 7. Romans devised the concept of natural law. 8. Solon’s laws
prevented the revolution in Greece. 9. Roman laws influenced laws of all European countries. 10. The
English legal system has Roman roots as well.

6. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, c) which best suits the sentence.

1. The Law carved into twelve bronze tablets was set up … .
a) in the Assembly; b) in the Forum; c) in the temple;
2. Draco’s laws were … .
a) humane; b) fair; c) severe;
3. Solon …… almost all Draco’s laws.
a) revised; b) retained; c) permitted;
4. Courts in Athens were established by……
 13

a) Draco; b) Solon; c)Justinian;

5. The Digest was ….
a) a hand-book for law students; b) the decisions of the great Roman jurists; c) laws passed by
Justinian;
6. The English law system has …. as part of its hereditary roots.
a) the Hebraic Code; b) the law of Babylon; c) the Roman law;
7. The Roman Empire remained intact until … .
a) the 10th century A.D.; b) the 5th century A.D.; c) the first century B.C.

7. Speaking Speak on the following items:

1. The Greek laws.
2. The Roman laws.
3. The influence of ancient laws on the modern world.

8. Writing Write a mini-composition for or against the following statement ‘There is some internal law.
It is good for all times and places.’

Reading 4: The History of English Law and Napoleon’s Code

A) Read words. Mind the stress.

΄ charter pro΄vide repre΄sentative
΄ liberty con΄sent guaran΄tee
΄ monarchy re΄garded une΄quivocally
΄ stipulate no΄torious authori΄zation
΄ justice a΄cquit inter΄ference
΄ warrant suc΄cession evo΄lution
B) Complete the word building table.
Noun Verb Verb Noun
succession to sign
representation to treat
maintenance to provide
authorization to stipulate
interference to acquit
threat to declare
protection to proscribe
prison to prevent
C)
Verb Adjective Verb Adjective
to represent to declare
to authorize to proscribe
to prevent to provide
D)
Noun / verb Person Noun / verb Person
to represent Monarchy
to guarantee protection
to provide succession
abuse to eliminate
 14

appeal Murder
moderation to apply

Read and translate the text.

At the heart of the English system there are two principles of government – limited government and
representative government. The idea that government was not all-powerful first appeared in the Magna
Carta, or Great Charter, that King John signed in 1215 under the threat of civil war. The Magna Carta
established the principle of limited government, in which the power of the monarch, or government, was
limited, not absolute. This document provided for protection against unjust punishment and loss of life,
liberty, and property except according to law. It stipulated that no citizen could be punished or kept in
prison without a fair trial. Under the Magna Carta, the king agreed that certain taxes could not be levied
without popular consent згоди. The Magna Carta came in time to be regarded as a cornerstone of British
liberties. It is one of the oldest written constitutional papers.
In Britain, the United States, and many other English-speaking countries, the law of Habeas Corpus
guarantees that nobody can be held in prison without trial. Habeas Corpus became a law because of a
wild party held in 1621 at the London home of a notoriously rowdy woman, Alice Robinson. When a
constable [΄kΛnstəbl] appeared and asked her and her guests to quiet down, Mrs. Robinson swore at him
so violently that he arrested her, and a local justice of the peace committed her to jail. When she was
brought to trial, Mrs. Robinson’s story of her treatment in prison caused an outcry. Such treatment was
barbaric even by the harsh standards of the time. Public anger was so great that she was acquitted, the
constable who had arrested her without the warrant was himself sent to prison, and the justice of the
peace was severely reprimanded. And the case led to the passing of the Habeas Corpus Act in Britain in
1679. The law is still on the British statute books. Habeas Corpus is part of a Latin phrase – Habeas
Corpus ad subjiciendum представлений - that means ‘Let the body be brought before the judge,’ In
effect, a writ of Habeas Corpus наказ про представлення заарештованого в суді is an order in the
name of the people (or, in Britain, of the sovereign) to produce an imprisoned person in court at once.
The Bill of Rights (1689) is one of the basic instruments документів of the British constitution, the
result of the long 17th century struggle бороться between the Stuart kings and the English people and
Parliament. The revolution settlement це революційне урегулювання made monarchy conditional
поставило в залежніть on the will of Parliament and provided a freedom from arbitrary government of
which most Englishmen were notably особливо proud during the 18th century. The main purpose of the
act was unequivocally однозначно to declare illegal various practices діяльніть of James II. Among
such practices proscribed were the royal prerogatives of dispensing with the law in certain cases, the
complete повне suspension припинення дії законів of laws without the consent of Parliament, and the
levying of taxes and the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime without specific parliamentary
authorization дозволу. A number of clauses sought вимагають to eliminate royal interference in
parliamentary matters, stressing that elections must be free and that members of Parliament must have
complete freedom of speech. Certain forms of interference of the course of justice were also proscribed.
The act also dealt with proximate з наступним succession спадкоємця to the throne, provided the heirs
were Protestants. It is the constitutional paper of great importance, which prevented the sovereign from
abusing his authority.
«Білль про права» (1689) - один з основних документів британської конституції, результат
тривалої боротьби 17 -го століття між королями Стюарта та англійським народом та
парламентом. Урегулювання революції поставило монархію в залежність від волі парламенту і
забезпечило свободу від свавільного уряду, яким більшість англійців особливо пишалися
протягом 18 століття. Головною метою цього акту було однозначно проголосити незаконною
різну практику Якова II. Серед таких звичаїв, які були заборонені, були королівські прерогативи
відмови від закону у деяких випадках, повне припинення дії законів без згоди парламенту,
стягнення податків та утримання постійної армії у мирний час без спеціального дозволу
парламенту. Ряд пунктів вимагали вимагати усунення втручання королівства у парламентські
 15

питання, підкреслюючи, що вибори мають бути вільними, а депутати парламенту повинні мати
повну свободу слова. Також були заборонені певні форми втручання у хід правосуддя. Акт також
стосувався наближеного спадкування престолу за умови, що спадкоємці були протестантами. Це
конституційний документ великого значення, який не дозволив суверену зловживати своїми
повноваженнями.
The laws of much continental Europe (particularly France) owe завдячують their modern form largely
to a man who never studied law. Napoleon Bonaparte established in 1800 five commissions to refine
and organize the diverse legal systems of France. The resulting Code was a triumphant attempt to create
a legal system that treated all citizens as equals without regard to урахування their rank or previous
privileges. It was also so clearly written that it could be read and understood by ordinary people. The
code was adopted intact in most of the areas of Europe and spread from there across the Atlantic. Many
of its principles are still in force.
Закони значної частини континентальної Європи (зокрема Франції) багато в чому зобов'язані
своєю сучасною формою людині, яка ніколи не вивчала право. Наполеон Бонапарт створив у
1800 р. П’ять комісій для вдосконалення та організації різноманітних правових систем Франції.
Отриманий Кодекс став тріумфальною спробою створити правову систему, яка розглядала б усіх
громадян як рівних без урахування їх рангу чи попередніх привілеїв. Він також був настільки
чітко написаний, що його могли читати і розуміти звичайні люди. Кодекс був прийнятий
неушкодженим у більшості областей Європи і поширився звідти по Атлантиці. Багато його
принципів досі діють.

2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following words and expressions.
обмежений уряд; представницький уряд; всемогутній уряд; загроза громадянської війни;
передбачати захист; втрата життя, свободи та власності; утримувати у в’язниці; збирати податки;
народна згода; сумнозвісна; мировий суддя; ордер на арешт; варварське ставлення; повстання;
вторгнення; заточити до в’язниці; викликати гнівний протест; привести до прийняття закону;
отримати сувору догану; предстати перед судом; бути виправданим; бути призупиненим; від
імені народу; особливо пишатися; свобода слова; автократія; наступний спадкоємець трону; хід
здійснення правосуддя; утримання діючої армії; позбутися королівського втручання у
парламентські страви; конституційний документ; зловживати владою; прийняти без змін;
незважаючи на статус; удосконалити та організувати різноманітні правові системи; ставитися до
громадян як до рівних; зрозумілий простим людям

3. A: Fill in the appropriate word from the list below.

warrants, proscribed, justices of the peace, provided for, threat, writ, monarchy, abuse,
representatives, charter, liberty, representative, succession, notorious
1. _______ refers to the use or treatment of something (a person, item, substance, concept, or
vocabulary) that is harmful. 2. _______ democracy is a form of government founded on the principles
of the people’s _______. 3. Under the Law of Treaties (1969, Vienna) both the _______ and the use of
force are prohibited. 4. A _______ is the grant of authority or rights. 5. _______ are typically issued by
courts and are directed to the sheriff, constable or a police officer. 6. The _______ of habeas corpus is
usually used to test the legality of a prisoner’s detention. 7. _______ is the freedom to act or believe
without being stopped by unnecessary force. 8. In politics, order of _______ is the ascension to power
by one politician or monarch after another, usually in a clearly defined order. 9. A _______ is a form of
government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual, who is the head
of state, often for life or until abdication. 10. Solon’s laws ________ death penalty for homicides. 11.
Bonnie and Clyde were _______ outlaws, robbers, and criminals who made headlines across the country
during the Great Depression. 12. A magistrates’ court in England and Wales is composed of a bench of
(usually three) _______ or magistrates, who dispense summary justice. 13. Such practices were
considered immoral and were _______ by law.
 16

B: Fill in the appropriate preposition or adverb where necessary.

1. The Bill of Rights prevented the monarch ____ abusing his power. 2. England withdrew from any
active interference ____ the struggles of the Continent. 3. The new Criminal Code provides ____ the
replacement of the death penalty ____ the serious crimes ____ the life imprisonment. 4. His client
dispensed ____ much help of his lawyer. 5. At the trial they were acquitted ____ the offence. 6. The
employee was severely reprimanded ____ interfering ____ his employer’s business. 7. He gave false
evidence ____ the threat of force. 8. No person can be imprisoned ____ a fair trial. 9. The Bill of Rights
is regarded ____ a cornerstone of American liberties. 10. The justice ____ the peace committed Alice
Robinson ____ jail and then she was brought ____ trial. 11. The constable was sent ____ prison because
he had arrested her ____ the warrant. 12. The Miranda v. Arizona case led ____ the United States
Supreme Court decision ____ the Miranda warning. 13. ____ Napoleon’s Code all citizens are treated
as equals ____ regard ____ their rank.

4. Match the definitions in the right column to the words given in the left.
1. representative а. to rebuke smb severely and officially (for a fault, etc.);
2. warrant b. to stipulate;
3. writ c. a person elected or appointed to represent or act for others;
4. reprimand d. to examine and accept;
5. pass e. a written order issued in the name of a ruler to an official to do
or not to do smth;
6. provide for f. a written order giving official authority for smth;
7. equal g. forbid, esp. by law
8. heir h. a person entitled to property or rank as a legal successor of its
former owner;
9. proscribe i. having the same rights;

5. Find in the text a word or a phrase that means:

1. to make a bad or wrong use of something; 2. power or right to give orders and make others obey; 3. to
do without; 4. to collect by authority or force; 5. Complete повний paragraph in an agreement, contract,
law; 6. to make promise with legal obligations; 7. ultimate, having complete or despotic power; 8. state
of being free from captivity, slavery, imprisonment, despotic control, government by others; 9. breaking
in other people’s affairs without right or invitation

6. Look through the text once more and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The principles of limited and representative government were first set out in Habeas Corpus Act. 2.
The Magna Carta provided for protection against unreasonable arrest. 3. The Great Charter is a
cornerstone of British freedoms. 4. The Magna Carta was the first document to restrict the Monarch’s
power. 5. The Habeas Corpus Act provided for prohibition of levying taxes without popular consent. 6.
The Habeas Corpus Act is still in force in Great Britain and the USA. 7. To commit a person to jail an
official must produce a writ of Habeas Corpus. 8. The Bill of Rights was passed as a result of
constitutional confrontation between the Monarch and Parliament. 9. The Bill of Rights provided for
prohibition of traditional rights of the English. 10. Napoleon’s Code provided for equality to all citizens.

7. Choose a word or a phrase (a, b, c or d) which best completes unfinished sentence.

1. Two of the main principles of the Magna Carta are ……
a) presidential and democratic government; b) provisional and authoritarian government; c) limited
and representative government;
2. The Magna Carta protected the rights of …….
a) aristocracy; b) ordinary citizens; c) all classes of the society;
 17

3. Habeas Corpus means that ……..

a) nobody can be arrested; b) everybody must be brought before the judge; c) taxes must be levied
with popular consent;
4. The monarchy was made dependent on the will of Parliament under …….
a) the Magna Carta; b) the Habeas Corpus; c) the Bill of Rights;
5. The Bill of Rights provided for elimination of …….. in parliamentary matters.
a) royal interference; b) church interference; c) people’s interference.
6. The Napoleonic Code is the French….., established under Napoleon I.
a) criminal code; b) administrative code; c) civil code.

8. Complete the text using the words from the list.

royal request; Stuart succession; more resistance; raising taxes; prevent; restricted; forced;
financial control
The Petition of Rights
Parliament began to show 1) __________ to the monarchy under the 2) ________ from 1603 by using
its gradually acquired weapon of _____________ . It was influenced by the gentry and began to refuse
___________ for money. It eventually __________ Charles I to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628,
which further __________ the monarch’s powers and was intended to ___________ him from
__________ without Parliament’s Consent.

9. Speaking Work in pairs and discuss the following questions.

1. What were the two basic principles of the English system of government at the beginning of the 13 th
century? How do you understand these principles? 2. What political situation made it necessary to grant
the Magna Carta? 3. What provisions did the Magna Carta include? 4. Who did the Magna Carta
protect? 5. What case caused the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act? 6. What did the Habeas Corpus
provide for? 7. What document has been regulating succession since 1688? 8. What civil rights were
protected by the Bill of Rights? 9. What was the influence of the Habeas Corpus and the Bill of Rights
on political thinking in America?

Reading 5: Civil Law. Common Law and Equity. Religious Law.

Civil law
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources
recognized яке визнається as authoritative are, primarily в першу чергу, legislation—especially
codifications in constitutions or statutes passed by government—and custom. Codifications date back
датуються millennia, with one early example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi. Modern civil
law systems essentially в основному derive from витікає the legal practice of the 6th-century Eastern
Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval Western Europe. Roman law in the days
of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural, and lacked a professional legal class
кваліфікації. Instead a lay magistrate, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate для винесеня рішень
ухвалення вироків . Precedents were not reported про преценденти не повідомлялося, so any case
law справа that developed was disguised замаскована непомітна and almost unrecognized
невизнаною. Each case was to be decided вирішуватися afresh знову from the laws of the State,
which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems
today. From 529-534 AD the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up
until that point, so that what remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This
became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously свідомо
looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three
centuries before." The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine
Empire. Western Europe, meanwhile тим часом, relied on спиралася a mix of the Theodosian Code
 18

and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century, and scholars
at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own laws. Civil law codifications based closely on
Roman law, alongside some influences from religious laws such as Canon law, continued to spread
throughout Europe until the Enlightenment; then, in the 19th century, both France, with the Code Civil,
and Germany, with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, modernised their legal codes. Both these codes
influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe (e.g. Greece), but
also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions. Today, countries that have civil law systems range from
Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America. The United States follows the common law
system described below.
Common law and equity
Common law and equity are legal systems where decisions рішення by courts are explicitly напряму
acknowledged визнається to be legal sources. The "doctrine of precedent", or stare decisis (Latin for
"to stand by decisions") means that decisions by higher courts bind пов’язуються lower courts.
Common law systems also rely on statutes, passed by the legislature, but may make less of a systematic
attempt to codify their laws than in a "civil law" system. Common law originated from England and has
been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire (except Malta, Scotland, the U.S.
state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec). In medieval England, the Norman conquest
led to a unification of various tribal customs and hence таким чином a law "common" to the whole
country. The common law developed when the English monarchy had been weakened by the enormous
cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. King John had been forced by his barons to sign a
document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or Magna Carta of 1215 also required
that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than
dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country. A concentrated and elite group
of judges acquired отримали a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its
European counterparts колегами the English judiciary became highly centralised. In 1297, for instance,
while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas had five.
This powerful and tight-knit згуртована judiciary судова система gave rise призвела to a rigid стійкої
and inflexible system of common law. As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens
petitioned the King to override скасування the common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord
Chancellor gave judgment to do what was equitable справедливо in a case у данному випадку. From
the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed назначений as Lord Chancellor, a
systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid стійкої common law, and developed its own
Court of Chancery. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic непостійна, that it varied according to
the length of the Chancellor's foot. But over time it developed solid principles, especially under Lord
Eldon. In the 19th century the two systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law
and equity, academic authors have always played an important part. William Blackstone, from around
1760, was the first scholar to describe and teach it. But merely просто in describing, scholars who
sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.
Religious law
Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts приписах. Examples include the Jewish Halakha
and Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also
survives in some church communities. Often the implication вплив of religion for law is unalterability
незмінним, because the word of God cannot be amended змінюватися or legislated вводитися в
законодавство against by judges or governments. However a thorough ретельна and detailed legal
system generally requires human elaboration. For instance, the Quran has some law, and it acts as a
source of further подальшого law through interpretation шляхом тлумачення, Qiyas кияс (reasoning
by analogy міркування за аналогією), Ijma іджма (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained
in a body of law and jurisprudence known as Sharia and Fiqh respectively. Another example is the
Torah or Old Testament, in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of
Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use. The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which
summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations. Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use
 19

religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the Catholic Church, the
Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion.
Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim world in a non-codified form,
with the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code in the 19th century being first attempt at codifying elements of
Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law
more into line with modern conditions and conceptions. In modern times, the legal systems of many
Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom.
The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the
religion of the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia. Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its
constitution, and is governed on the basis of Islamic law. Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic
law into its legal system after 1979. During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the
movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast
amount of literature and affected world politics.

UNIT 2.
LEGAL ENGLISH

Reading 1: Legalese

Pre-reading task. Read words. Mind the stress. A):

΄prejudice re΄ciprocal sub,sidi΄arity
΄triplet e΄rect ,here΄after
΄liable a΄llege ,notwith΄standing
΄justice im΄ply ,bene΄ficiary
΄technical spe΄cific ,characte΄ristic
΄jargon re΄lationship ,punctu΄ation

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun Verb Verb Noun
justice to erect
characteristic to allege
prejudice to imply
obligation to develop
movement to construct
to encourage to avoid
to argue to impose

1. Read the text about Legal English and answer the questions.
1. What way legal writing in English is characterized by?
2. What do characteristics of legal writing include?
3. What has encouraged the use of English rather than Latin in the English justice system?
4. What do a number of linking terms used in older written legal texts refer to?

Legalese
Lawyers use Latin words and expressions when writing legal texts of every kind, from statutes to
emails.
Legal Language
Legal writing in English has developed over hundreds of years and is characterised by specific features,
some of which can make it difficult for the non-lawyers to understand. Characteristics of legal writing
include: using Latin terms; using technical terms (“subsidiarity”); using old-fashioned words not much
in general use; using pair of words with reciprocal relationship (‘lessor’/’lessee’); using legal jargon
 20

(‘without prejudice to’) including the use of pairs of words (‘terms and conditions’), or triplets (‘build,
erect or construct’); having special meanings for words in ordinary use (‘the judge determined the fact
of the case’), where ‘determined’ means ‘decided’; using vague words (‘provide a sufficient service’);
using long sentences with little punctuation; inverting word order (‘title absolute’); using capital letters
to signal important or defined terms (‘the terms of the Lease…’) avoiding personal pronouns (‘you’,
‘we’, ‘I’); the specific use of the modal verb ‘shall’ to impose an obligation or duty on someone (‘The
tenant shall not sub-let the whole or part of the premises.’); the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense
(‘Notice of an appeal shall be filed within 28 days.’)
There is a movement to draft legal text in standard, modern, ‘plain’ English but any change will be slow.
Note: Some legal drafters argue that the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense is to be avoided because of
confusion. Note also the general English use of ‘shall’ to refer to future intentions (‘I shall write to
him’), although this use is increasingly uncommon.
Latin terms
There are many legal terms in written English legal texts, although recent reforms in the English justice
system have encouraged the use of English rather than Latin. Some Latin terms are used so frequently
that they are in general English use (e.g. ad hoc, bona fide, pro rata, etc.). It is useful to be able to
recognize their meaning and a dictionary or online glossary will help. Forms of pronunciation vary.
ad hoc – for this purpose in situ – in its original situation
affidavit – witnessed, signed inter alia – among other things
statement
bona fide – in good faith ipso facto – by the fact
caveat – warning per pro – on behalf of another
de facto – in fact per se – by itself
de jure – by right prima facie – at first sight
et cetera (etc.) – and so on pro rata – in proportion
exempli gratia for example quasi – as if it were
(e.g.) –
ex parte (ex p.) – by a party without notice sub judice – In the course of trial
id est (i.e.) – that is ultra vires – beyond the power
in camera – hearing a case in private videlicet (viz) – namely
in curia – in open court

Older words and modern equivalents

A number of linking terms are used in older written legal texts (case reports, legislations, court
documentations, contracts, etc.) to refer to other parts of the same text, to different legal documents, or
to related contexts.
the aforementioned / set out above / written notwithstanding – despite
the foregoing – above
the undermentioned set out below / written thereafter – after that
below
hereafter – after this – thereby – in that way / by that
hereby – in this way / by this therein – in that (document)
herein – in this (document) thereof – of that
hereof – of this thereto – to that
hereto – to this therewith – with that
herewith – with this

2. The following excerpt is from the legal document known as an 'answer'. It was submitted to the court
by the defendant. Underline the common Latin words and phrases in the text. Do you know what they
mean?
 21

The claim for breach of contract fails inter alia to state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of
action, is uncertain as to what contract plaintiffs are suing on, and is uncertain in that it cannot be
determined whether the contract sued on is written, oral or implied by conduct.

The complaint иск alleges стверджує breach of contract as follows: ‘At all times herein
mentioned, plaintiffs were a part [sic] to the Construction Contract, as well as intended
beneficiaries to each subcontract for the construction of the house. In light of the facts set out
above, defendants, and each of them, have breached the Construction Contract.’

On its face, the claim alleges only that defendants ‘breached the Construction Contract’. But
LongCo is not a party to the Construction Contract. Therefore LongCo cannot be liable for its
breach. See e.g. GSI Enterprises, Inc. v. Warner (1993).

3. Match each Latin word or expression (1-8) with its English equivalent and the explanation of its use
(a-h).
1. ad hoc a thus (used after a word to indicate the original, usually incorrect, spelling
or grammar in a text)
2. et alii (et al.) b for example (used before one or more examples are given)
3. et cetera (etc.) c for this purpose (often used as an adjective before a noun)
4. exempli d against (versus is abbreviated to ‘v.’ in case citations, but to 'vs.’ in all
gratia (e.g.) other instances)
5. id est (i.e.) e and others (usually used to shorten a list of people, often a list of authors,
appellants or defendants)
6. perse f and other things of the same kind (used to shorten a list of similar items)
7. sic g by itself (often used after a noun to indicate the thing itself)
8. versus (vs. or h that is (used to signal an explanation or paraphrase of a word preceding
v.) it)

4. Match each Latin term (1-10) with its English equivalent (a-j).
1 de facto a among other things
2 ipso facto b per year
3 inter alia c number of shareholders or directors who have to be present at
a board meeting so that it can be validly conducted
4 per annum d in fact
5 pro forma e of one’s own right; able to exercise one’s own legal rights
6 pro rata f proportionally
7 quorum g by that very fact itself
8 sui juris h as a matter of form
9 ultra vires i as follows
10 videlicet (viz.) j beyond the legal powers of a person or a body

Reading 2: The Language of the Law

Pre-reading task. Read words. Mind the stress. A):

΄separate so΄licitor em΄ploy
΄barrister de΄scend ,prose΄cution
΄notary a΄ttorney a΄ccomplice
΄counsel re΄tain for΄bid
΄summarise be΄yond su΄ggest
΄verdict con΄duct ,summing-΄up
΄evidence per΄mit pro΄fession
 22

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun/Verb Adjective Verb Noun
proud to descend
boast to employ
notary prosecution
separate to conduct
guilty to suggest
evidence summing-up

1. Read the text about Legal English and answer the questions.
1. Why are the English proud of their legal system?
2. What is the difference between solicitor and barrister?
3. What are the Bar and the Bench, and why are they called so?
4. What is a jury, and what is their function in court?
5. Explain the following legal terms: beyond reasonable doubt, to turn the King/Queen’s evidence,
leading question, cross-examination and summing-up.

One of the proudest boasts of the Englishman is of the British justice and the English legal system. In
their pride they follow the tradition of Rome, but in their law they owe less to the Romans than almost
any country in Europe. Much less, for instance, than Scotland, which has a quite different system of law
from England. This peculiar English system has its own peculiar terms: to understand them you must
understand a little of the system itself.
In England the legal profession is really two separate professions: solicitors and barristers. The
solicitor is probably the more ancient profession. He descends from the notaries and attorneys of
Elizabethan times and indeed even earlier. Only on the introduction of a solicitor can a client employ a
barrister, who is referred to as a counsel. The solicitor summarises his client’s case for counsel, and the
document on which he does so is called a brief. A barrister retained by a solicitor for a client is said to
be briefed for him.
It is from the ranks of the Bar, as barristers corporately are called, that judges are chosen. The Bar
referred to is a physical bar (it is actually a barrier [ ]) in the Courts, beyond which no one may
pass except the privileged Queen’s Counsel who have been called within the bar. Judges, thus, are not
themselves a separate profession; they are barristers who have been elevated to the Bench, itself name
derived from the part of the Court where they sit.
The judge decides the interpretation of the law, but, in serious criminal cases, all questions of fact are
decided by a jury. Juries may also be found in civil cases, that is disputes other than criminal trials. By
means of the jury, the man in the street enters upon the legal scene. In England a jury in a criminal case
can return only one of two verdicts: Guilty or Not Guilty.
In order to prove its case beyond reasonable doubt the prosecution calls evidence. Since the
prosecution is conducted in the name of the Queen / King, a criminal who decides to give evidence
against his accomplices is to turn the King/Queen’s evidence.
In examining his witnesses counsel is forbidden to ask questions which suggest the answers he
wants. Such questions are called leading questions and are permitted only in cross-examinations, that is,
the procedure by which, after he/she has given his/her evidence-in-chief, a witness is further questioned
by counsel for the other side. In this way the full meaning and value of the evidence is tested.
After all the evidence has been given the judge summarises the case, both law and facts, for the
benefit of the jury. This is called the summing-up.

2. Match the words with their definitions.

1. counsel a. the decision of a jury at the end of a trial
2. the Bench b. information etc that gives reason for believing something;
proof (e.g. in a law case)
3. verdict c. a)  the institution and conduct of legal proceedings against a
 23

person; b)  the proceedings brought in the name of the Crown to

put an accused on trial
4. guilty d. a)  a judge or magistrate sitting in court in a judicial capacity;
b)  judges or magistrates collectively
5. prosecution e. someone who sees an event and reports what happened
6. accomplice f. responsible for an offence or misdeed
7. witness g. a barrister or group of barristers engaged in conducting cases
in court and advising on legal matters
8. evidence h. a person who helps another in committing a crime

UNIT 3
A CAREER IN LAW. LEGAL PROFESSIONS

Reading 1: Types of legal profession in England and Wales

Pre-reading task. Read the words. Mind the stress. A):
΄rapidly prac΄titioner ,matri΄monial
΄prosecute ad΄mit con,sideration
΄voluntarily de΄fend a΄ccuse
΄register pre΄side re΄move
΄innocent ju΄diciary pro΄ceeding
΄coroner in΄quire in΄dictable
΄deputy con΄cern ,super΄visory

B) Complete the word building table.

Noun/Verb Adjective Verb Noun
to defend to admit
to preside to defend
judiciary to prosecute
election to accuse
innocent to preside
indictable to remove
supervisory consideration
crime election
to admit to inquire

C)
Noun / verb Person Noun / verb Person
to defend to accuse
to preside jury
to prosecute practice
crime to vote
election to inquire

1. Read the text and translate the text into Ukrainian.

Solicitors
There are about 50,000 solicitors who are general practitioners, the number which is rapidly
increasing, and they make up by far the largest branch of the legal profession in England and Wales.
They are found in every town, where they deal with all the day-to-day work of preparing legal
documents for buying and selling houses, making wills, etc. Solicitors also work on court cases for their
 24

clients, prepare cases for barristers to present in the higher courts and may represent their client in a
Magistrates’ court. In a civil action solicitors have a right to speak in the County Court, when the case is
one of divorce or recovering some debts, and they deal with petty crimes and some matrimonial matters
in Magistrates Courts, the lowest Courts.
To become a solicitor a young man joins a solicitor as a «clerk» and works for him while
studying part time for the Law Society exams. When you have passed all the necessary exams, you may
apply to the Law Society Юридичне товариство to be «admitted»допущеним. After that you can
practise, which means you can start business on your own.

Barristers
There are about 9,000 barristers who defend or prosecute in the higher courts. Although
solicitors and barristers work together on cases, barristers specialise in presenting clients in court and the
training and career structures for the two types of lawyers are quite separate. In court, barristers wear
wigs and gowns in keeping with extreme formality of the proceedings. The barristers of the highest level
have the title QC (Queen’s Counsel). A barrister’s main work is to provide representation in the courts,
where they are referred to as counsel, to draft documents associated with court procedure, and give
opinions, that is specialist advice. They are normally instructed by solicitors or other recognised
professionals on behalf of lay clients. A barrister must be capable of prosecuting in a criminal case one
day, and defending an accused person the next, or of preparing the pleadings готувати захист
(спеціальну заяву) and taking the case for a plaintiff взять дело істецавід in a civil action one day, and
doing the same for a defendant the next. As the law has become more complex, barristers increasingly
specialise in particular areas, such as personal injury, crime, family or commercial law. Barristers are
experts in the interpretation of the law. They are called in to advise on really difficult points.
Unlike solicitors, barristers can’t form partnerships but must act as sole traders with unlimited
liability. Some barristers are in employed practice and may only represent their employer, for example
as in-house counsel or in government departments like the Crown Prosecution Service. Many work
independently in self-employed practice in groups called chambers or sets and practise at the Bar as a
barrister. Chambers are traditionally located in the four Inns of Court in London and are also located in
the UK regions, known as circuits. The Inns are principally non-academic societies which provide
collegiate and educational resources for barristers and trainees. Members of the chambers, known as
tenants, share common expenses and support services, which are administrated by the administrative
manager as the Clerk.
A would-be barrister must first register as a student member of one of the four Inns of Court. A
student must pass a group of examinations to obtain a law degree and then proceed to a vocational
course (Bar Vocational Course, or BVC), the passing of which will result in his being called to the
Bar. All practising barristers are junior counsels unless they have been designated Queen’s Counsels
(QC). QС is expected to appear only in the most important cases.

Judges
There are a few hundred judges trained as barristers, who preside in more serious cases. There is no
separate training for judges; they are barristers who have been elevated to the bench itself, a name
derived from the part of the Court where they sit. The professional judges, ‘High Court Judges’, deal
with the most serious crimes. They are paid salaries by the state. The judge decides the interpretation of
the law. After all the evidence has been given the judge summarizes the case, both law and facts, for the
jury. This is called his summing up.
Judges cannot be removed from office on account of political considerations — the independence of
the judiciary is, at least theoretically guaranteed.
There are following types of judges in England and Wales:
Judicial Office Court
Justices of the Supreme Court the Supreme Court
Lord Justice of Appeal Court of Appeal
High Court Judges High Court of Justice
Circuit Judges Crown Court and County Court
 25

Recorders Crown Court and County Court

District Judges County Court
Deputy District Judges (Civil) County Court
District Judges (also known as Stipendiary Magistrates’ Court
Magistrates)
Deputy District Judges Magistrates’ Court

Judicial Appointments
The appointment of judges has always been considered one of the most important responsibilities of the
Lord Chancellor. “One of my priorities as Lord Chancellor is to modernise the judicial appointments
process. I am committed to creating an open, effective and accessible system where everyone who is
eligible for appointment and who wants appointment shall have a fair chance to secure appointment.
This is an exciting and challenging time for the judiciary with the changes brought about by civil justice
reforms and the incorporation of the European Convention of Нuman Rights into United Kingdom law.
More than ever there is a need for the best cndidates to be appointed to all the different judicial posts for
which I have responsibility. I am on record as saying that I want every vacancy on the Bench to be filled
by the best person available but I can only appoint the judiciary from those who are ready and willing to
do the job. I therefore want all eligible practitioners to bit the confidence to apply. Appointments must
and will be made on merit – irrespective of ethnic origin, gender, marital status, political affiliation,
sexual orientation, religion or disability. These are not mere words. They are firm priciples. I will not
tolerate any form of discrimination.
А modern judicial appointments system needs to draw on the best recruitment practices available. That
is why more emphasis has been placed in recent years on open competition giving all eligible candidates
an equal chance to demonstrate that they meet the criteria for appointment. Open selection procedures,
on the basis of applications, can only strengthen the principle of appointment on the merit and enhance
public confidence in the appointments process.”
(The right Honourable the Lord Irvine Lairg)
The administration of appointments
The administration of the judicial appointments system is carried out on the Lord Chancellor's behalf by
staff of the Judicial Group in the Lord Chancellor's Department. The appointments procedures are
administered by two of the Divisions in the Group. These are: Judicial Division 1, which provides
support to the Lord Chancellor on the appointment of High Court Judges and above, Circuit Judges,
Recorders and Assistant Recorders: and Judicial Division 2, which supports the Lord Chancellor on the
appointment of Masters and Registrars of the Supreme Court, District Judges, Stipendiary Magistrates
and a wide range of tribunal and other appointments.
A principal function of the Judicial Group is to supply all the information and advice which the Lord
Chancellor requires to enable him to fulfil his responsibilities in this field, and to provide him with the
material on which to make a fair and informed judgment about every appointment. This includes
corresponding with, informing and interviewing those who are, or may become, candidates for
appointment; consulting judges, senior members of the profession and others as required; filing and
recording the results; administering the selection procedures; and following and executing the Lord
Chancellor’s instructions and guidance, both on individual appointments and candidates and on his
general policy.
Career Advice
The Lord Chancellor regards it as an important function of his Department to advise members of the
legal profession about judicial appointments. Anyone who would like information about appointments
or a discussion with a senior member of staff is welcome to contact the Judicial Group. Statutory
provisions specify minimum eligibility qualifications for each judicial office. The provisions governing
the qualifications for judicial appointment were revised by the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990.
 26

Guiding Principles
Three fundamental principles underpin the Lord Chancellor's policies in selecting candidates for
judicial appointment:
a) appointment is strictly on merit. The Lord Chancellor appoints those who appear to him to be
the best qualified regardless of gender, ethnic origin, marital status, sexual orientation, political
affiliation, religion or disability, except where the disability prevents the fulfilment of the
physical requirements of the office.
b) part-time service is normally a pre-requisite of appointment to full-time office. Before being
considered for any full-time judicial post, a candidate must usually have served in that or a
similar post in a part-time capacity for long enough to establish his or her competence and
suitability for full-time appointment: and
c) significant weight is attached to the independent views of members of the professional
community (and others) as to suitability for judicial appointment. The Lord Chancellor regards
the knowledge, experience, and judgment of the professional community (judges and members
of the legal profession) as the best available source of informed opinion on relative merits of
applicants for judicial appointment. Before and during judicial service, views and opinions
about applicants and their work are collected on a structured and systematic basis, in terms of
the criteria for appointment, from a wide range of judges, senior practitioners from both
branches of the profession and others who are in a position to assess the candidate's work and
abilities. The Lord Chancellor regards it as an important principle that no one person's view
about a candidate, whether negative or positive, and however eminent that person, is decisive in
itself.
All senior judicial appointments are made by The Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister,
who receives advice from the Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor will normally consider for
appointment properly qualified applicants who have gained sufficient experience and are aged between
40 and 60. A full statement of the criteria to which the Lord Chancellor has regard in selecting
individuals for recommendation for appointment is available from the Judicial Group. In summary, the
criteria are:
 legal knowledge and experience  integrity
 intellectual and analytical ability  fairness
 sound judgment  understanding of people and society
 decisiveness  maturity and sound temperament
 communication skills  courtesy and humanity
 authority  commitment to public service

Jury
A jury consists of twelve people (jurors), who are ordinary people chosen at random from the Electoral
Register (the list of people who can vote in elections). The jury listen to the evidence given in court in
certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. If a person is found guilty,
the punishment is passed by the presiding judge. Its verdict must be unanimous (it is essentially one of
«guilty» or «not guilty») and, in the event of failure to reach agreement, the case is retried before
another jury. Only 6 - 7% of jury decisions are by a majority verdict. Juries are rarely used in civil
cases.

Magistrates
There are about 30,000 magistrates (Justices of the Peace or JPs), who judge cases in lower courts. They
are usually unpaid and have no formal legal qualifications, but they are respectable people who are
 27

given some training. They are ordinary citizens who are selected not because they have any legal
training but because they have ‘sound common sense’ and understanding of their fellow human beings.
They give up their time voluntarily.
Coroners
Coroners have medical or legal training (or both), and inquire into violent or unnatural death.
Clerks of the court
Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.
Attorney-General and Director of Public Prosecutions
The Attorney-General is the Government’s chief Law Officer and his deputy is the Solicitor-General.
They are primarily concerned with representing the Crown in Courts. The Attorney-General advises the
Government on legislative proposals and on criminal proceedings which have a political or public
element. He may take advice from his colleagues in the Government but he cannot be instructed by
them. The Attorney-General is a member of Government; he is not actually a member of the Cabinet
itself.
The Attorney-General has the power to stop proceedings for any indictable offence. He has certain
administrative functions of which the most important is the control of the Director of Public
Prosecutions. The DPP’s office was established under the Prosecution of Offences Act 1879. The
Director undertakes about 7,000 prosecutions a year himself and is constantly required to give advice to
the police, the main prosecuting agencies, as well as to central government departments and magistrates
clerks.
Lord Chief Justice
The Lord Chief Justice (LCJ) holds the senior judicial office in the country. He presides over the
Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court and the criminal division of the Court of Appeal. He has
supervisory and procedural duties relating to the administration of justice generally.

2. Match the words with their definitions.

1. Solicitor a. body of persons sworn to judge and give a verdict on a given matter,
especially a body of persons summoned by law and sworn to hear and
hand down a verdict upon a case presented in court.
2. Barrister b. a lay judge or civil authority who administers the law (especially one
who conducts a court dealing with minor offenses)
3. Judge c. a lawyer who advises clients on matters of law, draws up legal
documents, prepares cases for barristers, etc., and who may represent
clients in certain courts
4. Jury d. is an officer of the court whose responsibilities include maintaining
the records of a court. Another duty is to administer oaths to witnesses,
jurors, and grand jurors.
5. Magistrate e. or forensics examiner is an official chiefly responsible for
investigating deaths, particularly some of those happening under unusual
circumstances, and determining the cause of death.
6. Clerk of the court f. a public official with authority to hear cases in a court of law and
pronounce judgment upon them.
7. Coroner g. a British lawyer who speaks in the higher courts of law on behalf of
either the defence or prosecution

3. A potential foreign client is talking to an English solicitor. Complete the solicitor’s statements with
phrases from the list below.
advocacy; solicitor; draft; appear; barrister; conveyancing
1. I am looking for a lawyer to help me buy some land for a business. – My firm undertakes a lot of
________________. We could advise you and help to ____________ contracts.
2. We’ve had some trouble in the past with getting large invoices paid. – We can do _________. If your
case goes to court, I can ___________ in the lower courts.
 28

3. Can you appear in the Appeal Court? – No, I’m a _____________ but my firm would instruct a
____________ if a case were to go to the Appeal Court.

4. Match the two parts of the definitions.

1. Someone who works for his or herself is a. provide representation
2. If you speak on behalf of clients in court, you b. lay clients.
3. Non-professional clients are known as c. self-employed / a sole trader.
4. Barristers working solely for a company are called d. instructed.
5. The governing authority of barristers are e. in-house counsel.
6. When a solicitor gives a barrister the details of a f. the Bar Council and the Inns of
case, the barrister is Court.
7. When you work as a barrister you g. practise at the Bar.

5. Match the judicial offices in the box with the required qualifications below. Bear in mind the
hierarchical structure on the courts.
Justices of the Supreme Court Lord Justice of Appeal
Circuit Judges District Judges (Magistrates’ court)

1. must have been qualified as a lawyer for at least seven years.

2. must have been qualified for ten years, although three years’ service as a full-time District Judge is
allowed
3. must have been qualified as a lawyer for at least 15 years and is usually drawn from judges in the
Courts of Appeal in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and in the Court of Session in Scotland
4. the statutory qualification is at least ten years in the High Court as a lawyer and, in practice, to be a
High Court Judge

6. Speaking. What are responsibilities and legal education of

1. a solicitor?
2. a barrister?
3. a judge?
4. a magistrate?
5. a coroner?

7. Discuss these questions with a partner.

1. What legal education and training do Ukrainian lawyers have?
2. Explain the organisation of barristers in your country.
3. Explain the appointment and training of judges in your legal system.

Reading 2: Types of legal profession in the USA

Pre-reading task. Read the words. Mind the stress. A):

΄leeway e΄xecutive par΄ticipant
΄veto nomi΄nation ,perso΄nnel
΄bailiff dis΄pose ,evi΄dentiary
΄edit con΄viction ,misde΄meanor
΄motion con΄sent ,employ΄ee
΄docket main΄tain ,memo΄randum
΄adjunct a΄ppellate ,dispo΄sition
΄educator trun΄cated e,limi΄nation
΄license o΄pinion ste΄nographer
΄entity a΄rray ,inter΄mediate

B) Complete the word building table.

 29

Noun/Verb Adjective Verb Noun

executive nomination
appellate to dispose
evidentiary conviction
nomination to maintain
justice to edit
elimination to assign
C)
Noun / verb Person Noun / adjective Person
participant conviction
nomination educator
to assign commission
to edit stenographer
to type appellate

Judges
Judges in the USA initially come to the bench from other lines of legal work and after a substantial
number of years of professional experience. American judges differ from judges of the common-law
countries and civil-law systems in other parts of the world. Many judges have been legislators, but some
have been office lawyers or counsel to organizations such as corporations or private associations.
Numerous judges have been lawyers in government service as prosecuting attorneys or counsel to
government agencies, either state or federal. Some judges are former law professors, but their number is
small. Persons can enter the judicial system at any level. A lawyer can initially become a judge on the
highest court, the lowest court, or any court between. In other words, a lawyer who has never been a
judge can become a judge on a court of last resort or an intermediate appellate court or a trial court, in
either a state or the federal system. Lawyers who come on the bench at the trial or intermediate appellate
levels have no real promise of moving to a higher court.
Federal magistrate judges perform two kinds of functions. First, they hold hearings on variety of
motions, such as motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of discovery in civil cases, and make
recommendations to the district judge as to the disposition. Assistance of this sort enables district judges
to dispose of these matters without having to sit to conduct hearings themselves; they can simply accept
the magistrates’ recommendations. Magistrate judges also hold evidentiary hearing on prisoner’s
petitions challenging the legality of their convictions, and they recommend factual findings to the judge.
Second, magistrate judges are authorized to conduct trials in civil cases and in criminal misdemeanor
cases if the parties consent. In other words, the parties can choose to go to trial before a magistrate judge
instead of a district judge. If the parties exercise this opinion, the magistrate judge is empowered to
decide the case and enter final judgment in the name of the district court.
The Attorney General
The federal system is the best known example of executive nomination with legislative confirmation.
The Attorney General of the United States and the Department of Justice, which he heads, are key
executive branch participants in the selection process, along with the White House staff. In selecting
Supreme Court nominees, the President has even more leeway, but he still must take into account
sentiment in the Senate, as that body has in effect a veto over the nomination.
Law Clerks
In the common-law tradition and in American practice prior to the twentieth century, judges functioned
without assistance in judicial decision making. There has always been a clerk of the court, a court
 30

employee who handles the papers and maintains case files. Judges also have long had secretarial help
for typing and other clerical chores.
A law clerk is usually a recent law school graduate. Most clerks have strong academic records in law
school. Many appellate judges require experience on a student-edited law school journal. Typically a
clerk serves one year, although some serve two. There are few career clerks. The law clerks, sometimes
called ‘elbow clerks’, is a personal assistant to the judge. In general clerks do legal research, prepare
memoranda on the cases, summarizing facts and issues and giving the clerk’s analysis, edit drafts of
opinions written by the judge, and serve as a sounding board and discussion partner for the judge. Work
as a clerk is considered an excellent professional experience for a new law school graduate, a year long
transition from the academic to the ‘real’ world, with an opportunity to see the workings of the judicial
process from the inside.
The work of law clerks in trial courts differ somewhat from that of law clerks in appellate courts.
Appellate clerks spend much time in editing, and sometimes drafting, opinions that their judges are
assigned to prepare for the court. Trial clerks also draft some memoranda and short opinions, but in
addition they assist the judge with motions of all sorts and in pretrial conferences and hearings. They
often deal with parties’ lawyers to assist the judge in managing his docket. To a considerable extent
these different duties reflect the difference between the work of a trial court and that of appellate court.

Staff attorneys
The distinction between staff attorneys and law clerks in that the latter work for an individual judge in
that judge’s chambers; the relationship is direct and personal, with the clerk responsible to no one except
that judge. Central staff attorneys, on the other hand, work for the court as a whole. Central staff in
appellate courts writes memoranda on cases for the use of the judges to whom those cases are assigned.
In some courts they also draft proposed dispositions, usually short opinions in cases with issues that are
not especially difficult or novel. Central staff attorneys often do the screening, a process of identifying
those appeals that can appropriately be decided through truncated processes, usually involving the
elimination of oral argument.
Adjuncts
In many state trail courts there are adjuncts variously entitled commissioners, referees, and part-time
judges. In some state appellate courts there are commissioners who assist the court much as staff
attorneys do.
Clerks of the court
Every court, whether trial or appellate, state or federal, has a clerk of the court who has a staff. The
clerk’s office is the place where lawyers and litigants file pleadings, motions, and other papers in the
cases brought in the court. The clerk’s office keeps a file on each case and maintains the docket book
and the official record of the court’s actions in all of its cases. All matters that come before the judges
flow first through the clerk’s office.
There is a type of judicial adjunct much older than law clerks and central staff attorneys. This is the
“master” or “special master.” This quasi-judicial position has long been used in various ways by
American trial courts, state and federal. A master's position is typically part time, filled by court
appointment on an ad hoc basis for a specific purpose. For example, in a civil action involving an
elaborate financial accounting the trial judge might designate a lawyer as a master to conduct the
accounting and report the result to the court. In cases requiring the testimony of numerous widely
scattered witnesses, the court could appoint a master to preside over the taking of the testimony and
transmit that testimony to the court with recommendations for factual findings. Courts have also used
masters in some complex cases; in public law litigation they assist in supervising implementations of
decrees. Their actions are in the form of recommendations to the judges, who exercise the final decision-
making authority.
 31

Every state has a state court administrator. This is the top administrative official in the statewide
system, usually responsible directly to the chief justice of the state. The administrator assists the chief
justice in a wide array of matters such as developing the annual budget for the state's court system,
supervising non-judicial personnel, maintaining statistics on the state's judicial business, overseeing
court buildings, and supplying equipment for the courts.
In addition, each of the federal judicial circuits has a circuit executive who serves as an administrative
assistant to the chief judge of the circuit in managing the circuit's business. Secretaries to judges are
essential for the handling of the paper in the judges' chambers.
Judicial educator
The newest type of administrative official, now found in every state judicial system, is the state judicial
educator. This officer, who usually works under the direction of the state chief justice or a judicial
council of some sort, is responsible for planning and carrying out programs of continuing education for
the state’s judges and other court personnel. In most states such educational undertakings are offered for
judges at all levels, most commonly for trail judges of the general and limited jurisdiction courts.
Administrative and supporting personnel
In addition to all of these administrative and supporting personnel, there are battalions [bə´tæljən] of
others who help keep the courts running. These include bailiffs, computer operators, court stenographers
[ ], typists, guards, and building maintenance staffs.
American Bar Association
In the United States admission to the practice of law is the matter of state concern. There is no such
thing as ‘the American bar’ in any official or formal sense. That expression is used loosely to refer to all
the lawyers in the United States, each of whom has been state-licensed. There is no national or federal
authority to admit persons to the legal profession. The entity known as the American Bar Association is
a private, voluntary, nationwide organization of some 370,000 lawyers from all states; it is the largest
organization of lawyers in the country, although there are many other private bar associations, often
based on areas of legal specialization.
Within в межах the legal profession there is no formal division розділення; there are no barristers or
solicitors. Anyone admitted to the bar отримав право адвокатської практики in a state is legally
authorized to engage in any kind of legal practice in that state. As a practical matter, though, there is an
increasing degree of specialization among lawyers. Typical area of specialization are litigation, taxation,
labor law, patent law, family law, trusts and estates, and various branches of administrative law.
Many lawyers are employed by government – federal, state, and local – in positions such as prosecuting
attorneys, counsel to agencies, and staff attorneys in innumerable government departments and offices.
Many other lawyers are ‘house counsel’ in private corporations and other nongovernmental
organizations; they work full-time exclusively for those employers. As all of this suggests, there is a
varied and rich array of career paths open to American lawyers.
As is evident, a huge number of American lawyers are not involved with the courts; they spend their
time in law offices, government bureaus, corporate buildings, conference rooms, and legislative halls.
Only a relatively small number of practicing lawyers are actively engaged in litigation. Civil litigation
today consists in large measure of pretrial activity such as drafting pleadings and motions, examining
documents, questioning witnesses, preparing and answering interrogatories, and participating in
negotiations with other lawyers and in pretrial conferences with judges. In criminal cases much time is
devoted to investigation, negotiation between prosecutors and defense counsel about charges and pleas,
and the sentencing process.

3. Match the following words and phrases with their Ukrainian equivalents: A):
1. law clerk a. секретар суду
 32

2. staff attorney b. суддя

3. trial adjunct c. міністр юстиції і генеральний прокурор в США
4. clerk of the court d. помічник на судовому процесі
5. justice e. юрист, який входить у штат суду
6. Attorney General f. судовий пристав, помічник шерифа
7. court administrator g. державний обвинувач, прокурор
8. bailiff h. помічник судді
9. prosecuting attorney i. адміністратор суду
B)
1. motion a. заява в суд, подання заяви в суд
2. pleading b. судове рішення, висновок спеціаліста
3. negotiation c. службова записка, меморандум, директива
4. memorandum d. книга записів по справі, досьє судочинства; виписка рішення
справи; список справ для слухання
5. docket e. клопотання, прохання; пропозиція
6. opinion f. 1. розміщення аргументів в логічному, розумному порядку; 2.
розпорядження, (pl.) плани
7. disposition g. переговори
C)
1. to come to the bench a. надати канцелярське дослідження
2. to handle the papers b. служити резонатором та партнером судді для
обговорення
3. to maintain case files c. призначати суддю для ведення справи
4. to do legal research d. готувати план розміщення аргументів в
логічному порядку
5. to prepare memoranda on the cases e. підсумовувати факти і питання, яке становить
предмет суперечки
6. to summarize facts and issues f. вести книгу записів по справі
7. to give the clerk’s analysis, g. займатися документами
8. to edit drafts of opinions h. вирішувати за допомогою спрощеного процесу
9. to serve as a sounding board and i. готувати доповідну записку по справі
discussion partner for the judge
10. to draft some memoranda j. стати суддею
11. to manage the docket k. не включати усне обговорення
12. to assign the judge to the case l. редагувати проект (начерк) судового рішення
13. to draft proposed dispositions m. вести записи по справам
14. to decide through truncated processes n. зробити начерк доповідної записки
15. to involve the elimination of oral o. проводити юридичні дослідження
argument
D)
1. to carry out programs of continuing a. ставити від сумнів законність засудження
education
2. to report the result to the court b. проводити судове слухання доказів
3. to draft pleadings and motions c. забезпечити повне та справедливе
представлення справ
4. to transmit the testimony to the court d. проводити подальшу освіту
5. to ensure забезпечити the full and fair e. подавати заяву в суд чи клопотання
presentation представлення of cases
6. to seek to control lawyers’ conduct of f. позбавлятися справ
discovery
7. to dispose of the matters g. складати заяви в суд чи клопотання
 33

8. to hold evidentiary hearing h. передавати покази свідків до суду

9. to challenge the legality of their
convictions
10. to file pleadings / motions
11. to keep a file on each case
12. to engage in any kind of legal practice
i. займатися всіма видами юридичної діяльності
j. повідомляти суд про результати
k. прагнути контролювати поведінку адвокатів,
що стосується знайдення документів для
підтримання доказів по страві
o. вести досьє по кожній справі

4. Give the English equivalent for the following words and phrases.
стати суддею; ключові посадовці; помічник судді; юрист, який входить у штат суду;
юрисконсульт організацій; державний обвинувач (прокурор); суддя у суді останньої інстанції;
проміжний апеляційний суд; суд першої інстанції; обирати кандидатів на посаду судді
Верховного суду; мати право накладати вето на призначення (висування) суддів; міністр юстиції
США; Міністерство юстиції; мати свободу вибору; займатися документами; досвід роботи
редагування юридичного журналу в юридичному інституті; проводити юридичні дослідження;
канцелярська робота; готувати доповідну записку по справі; готувати план розміщення
аргументів в логічному порядку; вести досьє по кожній справі та вести книгу записів справ;
вирішувати апеляцію за допомогою спрощеного процесу; подавати заяви до суду; подавати
клопотання; Американська колегія адвокатів

5. Match the words with their definitions.

1. bailiff a. formal (usually written) statements, replies to accusation,
made by the parties in a legal action;
2. clerk b. careful and thorough inquiry;
3. pleading c. a law officer who helps a sheriff;
4. investigation d. a person who acts for another in business or law; a lawyer
qualified to represent clients in legal proceedings
5. misdemeanor e. professional advice or estimate; judgment;
6. attorney f. an officer who is in charge of records;
7. opinion g. freedom to vary;
8. leeway h. an offence less serious than felony.

6. Fill in the appropriate word.

motion; American Bar Association; disposition; handles; drafting; Department of Justice;
prosecuting attorneys; docket; do legal research; bailiff; trial clerk
1. The …. is an official in a court of law who keeps order and looks after prisoners. 2. An application
made to a court or judge to obtain an order, ruling, or direction is a ….. . 3. The… is a formal record of
legal proceedings or o list of legal causes to be tried. 4. The clerk of the court …. the administrative
details in court. 5. The …… is responsible for faithful execution of laws under the president’s authority.
6. The ….. keeps track of all documents and exhibits and notes and all important events in the trial. 7.
Lawyers may have to …….. into relevant facts and law while drafting legal papers and preparing for
oral argument. 8. In many countries, only lawyers have the legal authority to do …. of wills, trusts, and
any other documents that ensure the efficient ….. of a person’s property after death. 9. In common law
countries, ….. are usually lawyers holding regular licenses who simply happen to work for the
government office that files criminal charges against suspects. 10. The largest voluntary professional
association of lawyers in the English-speaking world is the….. .

7. Choose a word or phrase (a, b, or c) which best completes the unfinished sentence:
1. A meeting between lawyers and their client is called a … .
a) negotiation; b) conference: c) interview
2. The clerk of the court … .
 34

a) develops the annual budget for the court; b) challenges the legality of their convictions; c) handles
the papers and maintains case.
3. The … is usually a recent law school graduate.
a) law clerk b) court administrator; c) magistrate
4. Editing and drafting opinions is the responsibility of … .
a) bailiffs; b) clerks of the court; c) appellate clerks
5. … work for the court as a whole.
a) Staff attorneys; b) Prosecuting attorneys; c) General attorneys
6. A …keeps a file on each case and maimtaims the docket book and the official record of the actions in
all of its cases.
a) court administrator; b) clerk of the court; c) master;
7. A … conducts an elaborate financial accounting.
a) court administrator; b) law clerk; c) master;
7. … hold hearings on variety of motions, such as motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of
discovery in civil cases, and make recommendations to the district judge as to the disposition and also
hold evidentiary hearing on prisoner’s petitions challenging the legality of their convictions.
a) Justices; b) Attorneys; c) Magistrates
8. Magistrate judges conduct trials in civil cases and in … cases if the parties consent.
a) felony; b) misdemeanor; c) homicide
9. The clerk’s office maintains the … .
a) opinion book: b) memorandum book; c) docket book

8. Read the text again and decide if the following statements are true and false. Correct those, which
are false.
1. Court clerks are the decision makers, the key officials around whom all else is arranged. 2. Law
clerks, staff attorneys, and trial adjuncts are intimately connected with the judges and assist them in the
process of deciding issues and cases. 3. Judges in the USA initially come to the bench from the ranks of
the American Bar Association. 4. Once on the bench they, in the main, follow a promotional pattern
through the ranks of the judiciary to the highest position of Chief Justice. 5. The federal system is the
best known example of executive nomination: the Attorney General of the United States and the
Department of Justice appoint and approve nominees. 6. A law clerk is usually career clerk. 7. The law
clerk is a personal assistant to the judge.8. The trial clerks are sometimes called ‘elbow clerks’. 9. The
work of law clerks in trial courts is similar to that of law clerks in appellate courts. 10. Trial clerks
spend much time in editing, and sometimes drafting, opinions that their judges are assigned to prepare
for the court. 11. Appellate clerks draft some memoranda and short opinions, in addition they assist the
judge with motions of all sorts and in pretrial conferences and hearings. 12. The distinction between
staff attorneys and law clerks in that the staff attorneys work for an individual judge in that judge’s
chambers; and law clerks work for the court as a whole. 13. Staff attorneys in appellate courts write
memoranda on cases for the use of the judges assigned to those cases. 14. Federal magistrate judges
perform two kinds of functions. 15. Federal magistrates hold hearings on variety of motions, such as
motions seeking to control lawyers’ conduct of discovery in civil cases, and make recommendations to
the district judge as to the disposition. 16. Magistrate judges conduct trials in criminal cases and in civil
misdemeanor cases if the parties can’t consent. 17. The clerk’s office is the place where the trials are
held. 18. The American Bar Association is a government, compulsory, nationwide organization of some
370,000 lawyers from all states.

9. Look through the text again and say:

1. What is the job of a) a judge; b) a law clerk; c) an appellate clerk; d) a trial clerk; e) a staff attorney; f)
a federal magistrate; g) a clerk of the court; h) a judicial administrator? 2. How are judges selected,
promoted and appointed? 3. What experience do law clerks have? 4. What is the distinction between
staff attorneys and law clerks? 5. In what cases do federal magistrate judges substitute district judges? 6.
Why is the position of the clerk of the court so important? 7. What are typical areas of American
lawyers specializations?
35
 36

GLOSSARY
UNIT 1
Reading 1: The Need for Law. Functions of Law. Kinds of Law
to devote (to) [di´vəut] присвячувати;
e.g. She devoted herself to serving people. Вона присвятила своє життя служінню людям.
to define [di´fain] визначати, давати визначення;
e.g. In the contract agreed between the За угодою між профспілками та роботодавцями
union and the employers, overtime is до над нормованих робіт входить робота після 6
defined as work after 6 p.m. on weekdays, вечора в робочі дні та робота у вихідна та
and anytime on Saturdays, Sundays, and національні свята.
public holidays.
definition [,defə´ni∫n] визначення;
e.g. to formulate, give, provide, write a дати визначення;
definition
to exist [ig´zist] існувати;
e.g. I exist by what I think... and I can't stop Я існую, тому що думаю …. І ніяк не можу
myself from thinking. перестати думати.
purpose [΄pə:pəs] ціль, мета;
e.g. to accomplish, achieve, fulfill a досягти мети;
purpose
for a purpose з метою;
regulation регулювання; наказ, розпорядження; статут,
інструкція (мн.)
e.g. regulation of prices регулювання цін;
to adopt, enact a regulation прийняти розпорядження (наказ);
to apply, enforce a regulation виконувати розпорядження;
to regulate регулювати, приводити в порядок;
e.g. to regulate the industries of a country стабілізувати різні галузі промисловості в країні;
set набір, склад;
e.g. to make up a set складати комплект;
conduct [´kondΛkt] = behaviour поведінка;
e.g. You will be called over the coals for Ви отримаєте за вашу поведінку.
your conduct.
society [sə´saiəti] суспільство;
e.g. to polarize a society розділити суспільство на два протилежних
табори;
to unite a society об’єднати суспільство;
civilized society цивілізоване суспільство;
primitive society первісне суспільство;
arise (arose, arisen) виникати; з’являтися;
e.g. A new difficulty has arisen. Виникло нове ускладнення.
immoral аморальний;
e.g. It's immoral to steal. Красти – аморально.
relationship відношення, співвідношення, зв'язок;
e.g. to bear, have a relationship мати відношення;
to break off a relationship розірвати відношення;
illegal [i´li:gl] незаконний;
e.g. It is illegal to drive while intoxicated. Заборонено вести машину у нетверезому стані.
thus [∂Λs] таким чином;
e.g. Thus we have man modifying nature, Таким чином, ми маємо людину, що змінює
and nature modifying man. природу, та природу, що змінює людину.
to condemn [kən´dem] осуджувати; піддавати осуду;
 37

e.g. The city was condemned for its high Високий рівень злочинності катастрофічно
crime rate. відбивається на репутації міста.
murder [´mə:də] вбивство;
e.g. cold-blooded murder холоднокровне вбивство;
to commit murder скоїти вбивство;
regardless (of) [ri´ga:dlis] в незалежності від;
e.g. regardless of danger незважаючи на небезпеку;
to recognize [´rekəgnaiz] визнавати, впізнавати; усвідомлювати;
e.g. to recognize smb. as guilty, lawful heir
визнати винним / законним спадкоємцем /
/ wife дружиною;
fear [fiə] страх, побоювання;
e.g. for fear зі страху;
in fear у страху;
confusion [kən´fju:Зn] замішання, збентеження, плутанина, безлад;
e.g. to put smb. to confusion збентежити, засоромити;
complete, general, utter confusion повне збентеження, зніяковіння, занепокоєння;
to cause, create confusion створити безлад;
to clear up confusion ліквідувати безлад; прояснити плутанину;
disorder [dis´o:də] безладдя, нелад, розгардіяш;
e.g. throw into disorder приводити до розгардіяшу;
to take advantage (of) скористатись, обманути, перехитрити;
e.g. to take advantage of the opportunity скористатися випадком;
to take advantage of smb's good nature зловживати чиєюсь добротою;
to take advantage of the customer обманювати клієнта;
fair [feə] справедливий, чесний;
e.g. scrupulously fair бездоганно чесний;
He’s fair to his employees. Він справедливий по відношенню до своїх
службовців.
by fair means чесним шляхом;
fair and square чесний, відкритий;
fair play гра за правилами, чесна гра, чесна поведінка;
imperfect недосконалий;
e.g. We are living in an imperfect world. Ми живимо в недосконалому світі.
to maintain підтримувати; утримувати;
e.g. to maintain one's health підтримувати здоров’я;
to maintain the army утримувати армію;
orderly організований; дисциплінований; спокійний;
e.g. an orderly mind методичний розум;
orderly demonstration мирна демонстрація;
relatively відносно;
e.g. relatively large відносно великий;
to contribute [kən´tribju:t] робити внесок;
e.g. Public opinion can contribute to Громадська думка може позитивно впливати на
government decisions. рішення уряду.
to resolve вирішувати; приймати рішення;
She resolved to work harder. Вона налаштувалась працювати старанніше.
to facilitate [fə΄siliteit] сприяти, просувати; полегшувати; допомагати;
e.g. Modern inventions have facilitated Сучасні відкриття полегшили роботу по
housework. господарству.
to provide [ ] забезпечити, надавати; постачати;
to provide testimony забезпечити дачу свідчень;
to provide smb with goods постачати комусь товари;
 38

provide housing for надати житло комусь;

to provide a family for утримувати сім’ю;
to inhibit [ ] перешкоджати; стримувати;
e.g. to inhibit smb. / smth. from doing стримувати когось від чогось;
smth.
to improve [im΄pruv:] покращити,поліпшити; удосконалити;
He improved his German. Він удосконалив німецьку.
welfare [ ] добробут;
e.g. work for welfare of the nation робота для процвітання (добробуту) нації
enabler той, хто дає можливість чи право; той, хто
допомагає іншому досягти бажаного;
to permit [ ] дозволити;
e.g. Children are not permitted in without Дітям не дозволено заходити без батьків.
their parents.
cornerstone [ ] наріжний камінь;
owe [əu] (to) завдячувати; бути в боргу;
e.g. He owes me $5. Він винен мені 5 доларів.
We owe this idea to Greek philosophy. Ми завдячуємо цю ідею грецькій філософії.
action позов, обвинувачення; судовий процес;
e.g. to bring, institute, take an action порушити справу проти когось;
against smb. for smth
to dismiss an action відхилити позов;
He brought legal action against his Він подав позов проти своїх сусідів.
neighbour.
lawsuit [´lo:sju:t] судовий процес, позов;
e.g. to bring, file, institute a lawsuit розпочати судовий процес;
to lose (win) a lawsuit
to settle a lawsuit програти (виграти) судовий процес;
улагодити суперечливу ситуацію;
to commit [kə´mit] скоїти, здійснити, вчиняти;
e.g. to commit a crime скоїти злочин;
to commit suicide покінчити життя самогубством;
to charge with обвинувачувати в (злочині);
e.g. The prisoner is charged with attempted В’язня обвинувачували у спробі пограбування.
robbery.
penalty [´penlti] покарання, кара;
e.g. to impose a penalty призначати покарання;
severe, stiff, strict penalty суворе покарання;
death penalty смертна кара;
to punish [´pΛni∫] покарати; карати;
e.g. to punish harshly, severely жорстоко покарати;
to punish lightly, mildly накладати м’яке покарання;
You can’t punish me for something I didn't Ви не можете покарати мене за те, чого я не
do. робив.
to require [ri´kwaiə] вимагати; наказувати;
e.g. You are required to obey. Ти повинен слухатися.
Hard work will be required of students in При вивчення цього курсу від студентів
this course. вимагається напружена робота.
offence [ə´fens] правопорушення, злочин;
e.g. to commit an offence скоїти правопорушення;
minor offence дрібне правопорушення; проступок;
 39

petty offence незначне правопорушення;

serious offence, capital offence тяжке правопорушення;
offender [ə´fendə] правопорушник; злочинець;
e.g. first offender злочинець, якого судять вперше;
old offender (= recidivist, repeater, chronic рецидивіст;
offender, habitual criminal)
prison [´prizn] в’язниця;
e.g. to be released from prison звільнитися з в’язниці;
to break out of prison, to escape from втікати з в’язниці;
prison сісти у в’язницю, бути засудженим до
to go to prison, to be sent to prison, to be тюремного ув’язнення;
sentenced to prison
to imprison [im´prizn] ув’язнити;
supervision нагляд, догляд;
e.g. under smb’s supervision під чиїмсь надзором (контролем);
to exercise supervision of / over здійснювати надзір;
police supervision поліцейський нагляд;
individual = private individual приватна особа;
to wrong [ ] образити, скривдити, скоїти правопорушення;
wrong несправедливість, образа, правопорушення;
e.g. civil wrong цивільне правопорушення; делікт;
criminal wrong кримінальне порушення, злочин;
to injure [´indЗə] поранити; ушкодити;
e.g. to injure badly, seriously, severely сильно поранити;
to injure slightly легко поранити;
marriage [ ] шлюб; одруження;
e.g. to announce a marriage оголосити про вступ у шлюб;
to annul a marriage анулювати шлюб;
to break up, dissolve a marriage розірвати шлюб;
divorce [ ] розлучення;
e.g. divorce decree рішення про розлучення;
no-fault divorce розлучення за взаємною згодою;
real estate нерухоме майно;
insurance [in´∫uərəns] страхування;
e.g. to effect insurance застрахувати, укласти договір про страхування;
to provide insurance for застрахувати когось;
to carry / take out insurance мати страховку, застрахуватися;
to cancel insurance анулювати страховий полюс;
Our firm carries fire insurance. Наша фірма має страховий поліс на випадок
пожежі.
consumer [kən´sju:mə] споживач;
e.g. consumer commodities споживчі товари;
negligence [´neglidЗəns] недбальство, халатність;
e.g. criminal negligence кримінальна халатність;
gross negligence гранична недбалість
 40

Reading 2: The History of Law

convention договір; угода; конвенція;
e.g. constitutional convention конституційна угода;
Geneva Conventions женевська угода;
to descend [di΄send] (from/of) походити, вести рід від когось;
to be descended from smb. походити від когось
We are descended of ancient families. Ми походимо від прадавніх родів.

ancestor [´ænsestə] пращур, предок;

e.g. common ancestor загальний предок;
remote ancestor віддалений предок;
vague [veig] нечіткий, неясний;
e.g. vague ideas неясні ідеї;
vague notions невизначені поняття;
I have not the vaguest notion what to do. Я не маю жодного уявлення, що робити.
to be in effect [i´fekt] діяти, бути чинними;
B.C. / A.D. до нашої ери; / нашої ери;
to deal [di:l] with (dealt , dealt [delt]) мати справу з, розглядати;
e.g. There are many difficulties to be dealt Коли починаєш нову справу, доводиться
with when starting a new business. стикатися з багатьма труднощами.
Головна контора розглядає всі скарги.
Head Office deals with all complaints.
to codify [´kəudifai] кодифікувати; систематизувати;
to carve [ka:v] вирізати, гравірувати; викарбувати;
pillar стовп;
to cover [´kΛvə] охоплювати; освітлювати; покривати;
e.g. The reporter covered the convention Журналіст освітив з‘їзд для місцевої газети.
for the local newspaper.
settlement of debts [det] виплата боргів;
inheritance [in´heritəns] спадщина;
tax податок;
e.g. free of tax, tax-free неоподаткований;
income / profits tax податок на прибуток;
to pay taxes сплачувати податки;
harsh суворий;
e.g. the harsh reality of life = harsh reality сувора дійсність;
cruel [kru:əl] жорстокий;
e.g. cruel punishment суворе покарання;
revenge [ri´vendЗ] помста;
e.g. to take (one’s) revenge on / upon smb помститися комусь;
in revenge у помсту;
to observe [əb´zə:v] дотримуватися;
e.g. to observe laws дотримуватися законів;
to correspond (to) відповідати; узгоджуватись;
This ideal model does not correspond to Цей ідеальний зразок не узгоджується з
the facts. фактами.
to inflict (upon / on) [in´flikt] наносити, причиняти (біль) комусь;
to inflict heavy losses on the enemy нанести великі втрати ворогу;
victim жертва, потерпілий;
e.g. to fall a victim to стати жертвою;
accident victim потерпілий від нещасного випадку;
 41

innocent victim невинна жертва;

thief (thieves) [θi:f] злодій, крадій;
e.g. petty thief дрібний злодій;
thieves' Latin злодійський жаргон;
false accuser [fo:ls ə´kju:zə] наклепник;
to strike the blow нанести удар;
e.g. to strike a blow against poverty нанести удар по бідності та злидням;
to outlaw [´autlo:] поставити поза законом;
e.g. to outlaw smoking in public заборонити куріння в громадських місцях;
blood feud [‘blΛd fju:d ] кровна помста; родова ворожнеча;
e.g. family feud сімейна ворожнеча;
personal feud особиста ворожнеча;
stir up a feud розпалювати ворожнечу;
sink a feud забути ворожнечу; помиритися;
to ban / ban забороняти / заборона;
e.g. under a ban під забороною;
to kidnap викрадати;
to take account of [ə´kaunt] враховувати;
to award присуджувати; нагороджувати;
e.g. The judges awarded the prize to her. Судді нагородили її призом.
Hebrew [´hi:bru:] єврей, іудей;
e.g. It is Hebrew to me. Це для мене китайська грамота.
Hebraic [hi´breik] староєврейський;
e.g. Hebraic laws староєврейські закони;
Mosaic [məu´zeik] Мойсеїв;
e.g. Mosaic law Мойсеїв закон;
Moses [´məuziz] Мойсей;
to set out викласти;
e.g. The committee's plans are set out in У доповіді викладені плани комісії.
the report.
the Old Testament [´testəmənt] Старий Завіт;
Ten Commandments [kə´ma:ndmənts] Десять Заповідей;
desert [´dezət] пустеля;
to summon [´sΛmən] викликати, скликати;
e.g. to be summoned before a judge бути викликаним у суд;
tablets [´tæblət] дощечка; табличка;
e.g. a bronze tablet
compiler [kəm´pailə] укладач;
to reflect відображати;
e.g. The election results do not always Результати виборів не завжди
reflect back the views of the voters. відображають погляди виборців.
to preside (over) [pri´zaid] головувати (над);
lawgiver/ legislator [´ledЗisleitə] законодавець;
magistrate [´mædЗistreit] (мировий) суддя;
judge [´dЗΛdЗ] суддя;
e.g. fair, impartial judge неупереджений (об’єктивний) суддя;
harsh, severe judge суворий суддя;
lenient judge поблажливий суддя;
faith [feiθ] віра; віросповідання;
e.g. the true faith істинна віра;
by faith за віросповіданням;
to practice a faith сповідувати віру
 42

Reading 3: The Legal Heritage of Greece and Rome

to attribute (to) [ə´tribju:t] приписувати, відносити;
They attributed their success to hard Вони приписували свій успіх напруженій праці.
work.
belief [bi΄l:f] віра; довіра;
to express a belief висловити довіру;
false / mistaken belief помилкове переконання;
to shake one’s belief похитнути чиїсь переконання;
to give up one’s belief припинити довіряти;
to draw up (drew, drawn) складати, укладати; розробляти;
Has your lawyer drawn up the Ви вже розробили угоду?
contract yet?
extremely [iks΄tri:mli] [eks΄tri:mli] надзвичайно;
measure [´meЗə] міра; захід;
draconian measure драконівська міра;
harsh/ drastic measure суворі міри;
compulsory measure примусові міри;
emergency /extreme/ radical крайні заходи; надзвичайні міри;
measure
to take measures against smuggling вживати заходів проти контрабанди;
to apply (to) [ə΄plai] 1. стосуватися, відноситися; 2. застосовувати,
вживати; 3. звертатися з проханням, заявою
What I am saying does not apply to (письмово)
you. Те, що я кажу, вас не стосується.
to apply the new method
We applied to the authorities for застосовувати новий метод
assistance. Ми звернулися до повноважних органів про
допомогу.
ultimately [´Λltimətli] остаточно, повністю; в основі; в решті решт;
These questions, however, cannot Проте ці питання не можна остаточно вирішити
be decided ultimately today. сьогодні.
to devise [di´vaiz] винайти; придумати; розробляти;
trial [´traiəl] судовий розгляд, судовий процес, суд;
at a trial на суді;
trial by jury [´dЗuəri] розгляд справи за участю присяжних;
to retain [ri´tein] зберігати;
The Bank of England has taken Національний банк Англії вдався до подальших
further steps to retain control over кроків, щоб зберегти контроль над вартістю фунта
the value of the pound. стерлінгів.
ancient [´ein∫ənt] стародавній; античний;
the remains of ancient art at Athens залишки античного мистецтва в Афінах;
to split (split, split) розбивати; ділити;
to split one’s vote голосувати одночасно за кандидатів різних партій;
They are easily split into parties by Їх легко розколоти на окремі групування за
intrigue. допомогою інтриг.
rival [´raivl] ворожий, конкуруючий;
rival firms конкуруючі фірми;
rival candidates конкуруючі кандидати;
faction фракція; групування;
extremist faction екстремістське групування;
 43

rebel faction угрупування повстанців;

white necktie faction «фрачна фракція» (іронічна назва політичної еліти)
to culminate [´kΛlmineit] кульмінувати, досягти апогею; привести до;
Years of waiting culminated in a Роки очікування закінчилися сльозливим
tearful reunion. примиренням.
The event culminates in a black tie Кульмінацією заходу буде офіційний обід.
dinner.
subsequent [´sΛbsikwənt] наступний, подальший;
subsequent chapter наступна глава;
It was subsequent to the death of Це було після смерті обох його батьків.
both his parents.
tyranny [´tirəni] тиранія;
to overthrow a tyranny скинути тиранію;
ruthless tyranny безжалісна тиранія;
dictatorship [dik´teitə∫ip] диктатура;
to establish, set up a dictatorship встановити диктатуру;
an absolute dictatorship абсолютна диктатура;
satisfactory задовільний;
satisfactory result задовільний результат;
solution [sə΄lu:∫(ə)n] рішення;
to apply a solution застосувати рішення;
to find a solution знайти рішення;
satisfactory solution задовільне рішення;
solution of case розкриття справи (поліцією);
to be eligible [΄elidЗəbl] мати право; мати право бути обраним; підходити;
to be eligible for an office підходити на посаду;
to be eligible for parole мати право на умовне-дострокове звільнення;
moderation урегулювання; стриманість; рівність; пом’якшення;
proper належний; характерний;
to prohibit [prəu´hibit] забороняти;
Visitors are prohibited from feeding Відвідувачам забороняється годувати тварин.
the animals.
humane [hju´mein] гуманний, людяний;
assembly [ə´sembli] асамблея; збори;
e.g. legislative assembly законодавчі збори;
United Nations General Assembly Генеральна асамблея ООН;
to establish [is΄tæbli∫] встановлювати; запровадити;
to establish a committee заснувати комітет;
to establish contact / relationship встановити контакт / відносини;
to establish the cause of death встановити причину смерті;
severe [si´viə] суворий;
severe discipline сувора дисципліна;
to appeal [ə´pi:l] подавати апеляцію; апелювати; звертатися;
to appeal to a higher court звернутися з апеляцією до вищого суду
homicide [´homisaid] вбивство;
homicide department відділ по розслідуванню вбивств;
in essence [´esns] в основному; по суті;
He was in essence an honest person. По суті він був чесною людиною.
to be based on [baist] бути заснованим на;
certain [´sə:tn] певний;
almost, nearly certain майже певний;
absolutely /completely certain повністю певний;

profound effect
have a profound effect on / upon
to compile [kəm´pail]
The French Academy took forty
years to compile their Dictionary.
elimination [i,limi´nei∫n] / to
eliminate [i´limineit]
the prohibition and elimination of
chemical weapons
elimination of nuclear weapons
the need to eliminate poverty
to pass
to pass a law
intact [in´tækt]
Reading 4: The History of English Law and Napoleon’s Code
representative [,repri´zentətiv]
elected representative
the House of Representatives
threat [Өret]
under threat of
to carry out, fulfill a threat
to issue, make a threat
to sign [sain]
to sign an agreement
treat [tri:t]/ treatment [΄tri:tmənt]
Treat his grey hairs with reverence.
treat as a joke
cruel, harsh treatment
brutal, inhumane treatment
equal treatment
uneven, unfair treatment
fair treatment
humane treatment
brutal treatment of prisoners
charter [t∫a:tə]
The Great Charter
United Nations Charter
liberty [´libəti]
to gain liberty
individual, personal liberty
civil liberties
political liberty
religious liberty
monarch [´monək]
absolute monarch
monarchy [´monəki]
to establish, set up a monarchy
to overthrow a monarchy
constitutional monarchy
44
глибокий вплив;
мати глибокий вплив на щось;
укладати;
Національна Академія наук Франції витратила 40
років, щоб укласти словник.
усунення, знищення; усунути, знищити;
заборона та знищення хімічної зброї;
заборона ядерної зброї;
потреба знищити бідність;
приймати (закони);
приймати закон;
недоторканий; неушкоджений, цілий
представник; представницький;
обраний представник;
палата представників;
загроза; погроза;
під загрозою;
виконати погрозу;
погрожувати;
підписувати; підписати;
підписувати угоду;
відноситися; поводитися; / відношення; поводження;
Відносьтесь з повагою до його старості.
відноситись як до жарту;
жорстоке поводження;
нелюдяне /жорстоке поводження;
рівне відношення;
несправедливе відношення;
справедливе відношення;
людяне поводження;
жорстоке поводження з в’язнями;
хартія; грамота;
Велика хартія вольностей;
Статут ООН;
свобода;
отримати свободу;
особиста свобода;
громадянська свобода;
політична свобода;
свобода віросповідання;
монарх;
абсолютний монарх;
монархія;
заснувати монархію;
скинути монархію;
конституційна монархія;
 45

hereditary monarchy спадкова монархія;

limited monarchy обмежена монархія;
unjust [Λn΄dЗΛst] несправедливий;
It was unjust of him to accuse you З його боку було несправедливим звинувачувати
without proof. тебе без підстав.
consent [kən´sent] згода;
to give one's consent to давати згоду на;
by mutual / common consent за взаємною згодою;
ineffective consent згода, яка не має юридичної сили;
lawful consent згода, яка має юридичну силу;
to stipulate [´stipjuleit] обумовлювати;
The contract stipulates that the work За умовами контракту роботу треба закінчити до
must be finished by the end of the кінця року.
year.
tax податок;
to levy[´levi] / to impose taxes обкладати податками, оподатковувати;
to collect taxes збирати податки;
to pay taxes платити податки;
free of tax, tax-free неоподаткований;
income / profits tax податок на прибуток;
to be regarded [ri΄ga:did] відноситися; вважатися;
The plan was regarded with До плану віднеслися зі значною долею підозри.
considerable suspicion.
to guarantee [,gærən´ti:] гарантувати;
to guarantee rights and freedoms гарантувати права та свободи;
I guarantee to pay back all the money. Я гарантую повернення всіх грошей.
notorious [nəu´to:riəs] той, що користується дурною славою, сумнозвісний;
notorious criminal запеклий злочинець;
rowdy [´raudi] хуліганський; шумний, бурхливий;
There were rowdy scenes at the На виборах були хуліганські випадки.
elections.
to swear (swore, sworn) [sweə] 1) лаятися; 2) клястися;
to swear on the Bible клястися на Біблії;
They swore allegiance to the Вони поклялися у вірності уряду.
government.
to swear like a trooper лаятися як візник;
Don't swear at me, if you please! Не лайся на мене, будь ласка!
violently [´vaiələntli] сильно;
She was violently afflicted with the Вона сильно страждала від морської хвороби.
seasickness.
justice of the peace [΄dЗΛstis] мировий суддя;
jail [dЗeil] в’язниця;
to commit to jail відправити до в’язниці;
to go to jail сісти у в’язницю;
to cause [ko:z] визвати; бути причиною; спричинити;
What caused his death? Що визвало його смерть?
The loss of freedom and the growth Втрата свободи та зміцнення деспотизму призвело
of despotism caused the ruin of the до краху імперії.
empire.
outcry [´autkrai] протест;
public outcry громадський протест;
to make, raise an outcry заявляти протест;

to acquit [ə´kwit] (of)
The jury acquitted her of all charges.
warrant [´worənt]
arrest warrant
commitment warrant
search warrant
to serve a warrant on
to reprimand [´reprima:nd] /
reprimand
to administer, issue a reprimand
to be severely reprimanded
to reprimand an employee for being
late
writ [rit]
to serve writ on smb.
writ of habeas corpus
writ of election
Habeas Corpus Act [΄heibiəs΄ko:pəs
΄ækt]
conditional
arbitrary [´a:bitrəri]
arbitrary government
unequivocally [,Λni´kwivəkli]
to declare [di΄klεə]
to declare war on
The court declared the law to be
unconstitutional.
to proscribe [prə´skraib]
the royal prerogatives
to dispense with [di΄spens]
to dispense with smb.'s services
maintenance [´meintənəns]
the maintenance of peace and
stability
the maintenance of army
standing army
authorization [o:θərai´zei∫n]
to give / grant authorization
to revoke smb.'s authorization
clause [klo:z]
under clause 3 of the agreement
contract clause
seek to (do something) (sought,
sought) [si:k] [so:t]
The European Commission seeks to
uphold the interests of the Union as a
whole
interference [,intə´fiərəns]
interference in smb’s business
course of justice [ko:s]
succession [sək΄se∫n]
46
виправдати;
Присяжні виправдали її від всіх звинувачень.
ордер;
ордер на арешт;
ордер на ув’язнення;
ордер на обшук;
видати ордер (на чиєсь ім’я)
винести догану; догана;
зробити зауваження;
отримати сувору догану;
винести догану службовцю за запізнення;
повістка; наказ;
відправити (судову) повістку комусь;
наказ про представлення заарештованого в суді;
наказ про додаткові вибори;
Хабеас Корпус (англійський закон 1679 про
недоторканість особи)
залежний; умовний;
деспотичний;
автократія; деспотичний уряд;
однозначно; чітко;
оголосити;
оголосити війну комусь;
Суд проголосив закон неконституційним.
оголосити поза законом; заборонити;
королівські привілеї;
обходитися без;
обходитися без чиїхось послуг;
утримання; підтримка;
підтримання миру та стабільності;
утримання армії;
діюча армія; регулярна армія;
уповноваження; санкція, дозвіл;
схвалити, дати санкцію (дозвіл);
анулювати чиїсь повноваження; відмінити дозвіл;
стаття, пункт (закону);
відповідно пункту 3 угоди;
стаття договору;
1. намагатися, прагнути (зробити); 2. шукати;
Європейська комісія прагне підтримувати інтереси
Союзу в цілому.
втручання;
втручання в чиїсь справи;
хід впровадження правосуддя; відправлення
правосуддя;
наслідування, порядок наслідування; право
 47

наслідування;
proximate succession [proksimət] наступний спадкоємець;
the succession to the throne порядок успадковування трону;
provided (that) при умові;
Provided that all is safe, you may go. При умові, що все в порядку, можеш йти.
heir [eə] (heiress [earəs]) спадкоємець;
the heir to the throne спадкоємець престолу;
rightful heir законний спадкоємець;
to prevent (from) [pri´vent] завадити;
Nothing shall prevent us from Ніщо не завадить нам досягти нашої мети.
reaching our aim.
to abuse [ə´bju:z]/ abuse [ə´bju:s] зловживати; зловживання; жорстоке поводження;
to abuse one’s authority зловживати своєю владою;
to abuse one’s rights зловживати своїми правами;
child abuse жорстоке поводження з дитиною;
abuse of authority зловживання владою;
drug abuse зловживання наркотиками;
diverse [dai´vəs] відмінний; несхожий;
equal [´i:kwəl] рівний;
equal rights рівні права; рівноправність;
to spread (spread) [spred] поширювати, розповсюджувати;
to spread the news розповсюджувати новину;
to spread to поширитися на
The epidemic spread to neighbouring Епідемія поширилась і на сусідні країни.
countries.
 48

UNIT 2
Reading 1: Legalese
feature [´fi:t∫ə] особливість, характерна риса; якість,
specific feature специфічна, особлива, характерна риса;
legal writing юридичний текст;
subsidiarity [səb,sidi´ærəti] делегування ініціативи нижчим підрозділам виконавчої
влади;
reciprocal [ri´siprək(ə)l] еквівалентний; відповідний;
prejudice [´predЗədis] упередженість, упереджена думка; забобон; шкода,
збитки; завдання збитків;
without prejudice неупереджено;
to arouse / stir up prejudice викликати упередженість, сформувати упереджену
to break down / eliminate думку;
prejudice подолати упередженість;
deep / deep-rooted / strong сильна, глибока упередженість;
prejudice расові забобони, расова упередженість;
race / racial prejudice релігійні забобони;
religious prejudice без обмеження свободи чи особистих прав (при
without prejudice to smth. відшкодуванні збитків)
triplet [´triplət] трійка, (три предмети, особи);
to erect [i´rekt] споруджувати, зводити, будувати, створювати;
legal drafter автор документа (законопроекту);
ad hoc для цього; спеціальний, для даної, конкретної мети;
ad hoc committee спеціальний комітет;
bona fide [,bəunə´faidi] чесно, сумлінно;
caveat [´kæviæt] / [´keiviæt] застереження; протест; заява про припинення судового
розгляду;
de facto [,dei´fæktəu] насправді, фактично, де-факто;
We had de facto declared war on Ми фактично оголосили їм війну.
them.
de jure [,dei´dЗuərei] юридично, де-юре;
de jure recognition визнання де-юре;
et cetera (etc.) [it´set(ə)rə] / [et і таке інше, тощо;
´set(ə)rə]
exempli gratia (e.g.) [ig,zemplai наприклад;
´gratia]
ex parte (ex p.) [,eks´pa:tei] на користь однієї сторони, з перевагою для однієї
сторони; односторонній, сприятливий для однієї
сторони;
id est (i.e.) (= that is) тобто; іншими словами;
in camera [´kæm(ə)rə] без сторонніх; не на судовому засіданні (про дії суду);
у суддівській кімнаті; за зачиненими дверима, на
закритому засіданні;
in curia [´kjuəriə] у суді; на відкритому судовому засіданні;
in situ [in´sitju:] /[in´saitju:] / [in на своєму місці;
´sit∫ju:]
inter alia [´intər´eiliə] до речі; крім того;
ipso facto [,ipsəu´fæktəu] в силу самого факту; тим самим;
per pro [,pə:´prəu] за дорученням; за посередництвом когось;
per se [,pə:sei] у чистому вигляді; безпосередньо; по суті;
prima facie [,praimə´fei∫i] / з першого погляду; судячи із зовнішнього вигляду;
[,praimə´feisi]
 49

pro rata [,prəu´ra:tə] відповідно, пропорційно; співмірно;

quasi [´kweizai] /[´kwa:zi] неначе, нібито, немовби; майже;
sub judice той, що є в роботі; що перебуває у розгляді суду;
ultra vires [altrə´vaiəri:z] поза компетенцією; з перевищенням повноважень;
videlicet (viz) [vi´diliset] а саме;
the aforementioned / the вищезгаданий; вищевказаний;
foregoing
the undermentioned нижчезгаданий;
hereafter [,hɪər΄ɑ:ftə] нижче; далі; у майбутньому;
hereby [,hiə´bai] отже, таким чином; при цьому; цим;
herein [,hiə(r)´in] у цьому; тут; при цьому;
hereof [,hiə(r)´ov] звідси; про це;
hereto [,hiə´tu:] до цього; до того;
herewith цим; при цьому; через це;
notwithstanding [,notwiӨ незважаючи на; незважаючи на це; проте, однак;
´stændiŋ]
thereafter після цього; згодом; відтак; відповідно до; згідно з;
thereby таким чином; у такий спосіб; у зв'язку з цим;
therein тут, там, у тому місці; в цьому;
thereof з цього, з того; того; цього;
thereto до того, до цього; туди; крім того, до того ж, на
додаток;
therewith із цим; разом з цим;
to imply [im΄plai] припускати, мати на увазі, містити в собі, означати
rights imply obligations Наявність прав припускає також наявність обов’язків.
to allege [ə΄ledЗ] стверджувати, заявляти про факт, приписувати,
посилатися, звинувачувати
to allege crime приписувати, звинувачувати у вчиненні злочину
beneficiary [,beni΄fi∫əri] особа, яка отримує користь; власник привілеїв чи
пільг; бенефіціарій
liable [΄laiəbl] відповідальний, що підлягає (контролю)
liable to check підконтрольний

Reading 2: The Language of the Law

proud [ ] гордий, який володіє почуттям власної гідності
He’s very proud of his daughter’s Він дуже пишається досягненнями своєї дочки.
achievements.
pride [ ] 1. гордість, почуття гордості;
(2. = proper pride) 2. почуття власної гідності або самоповаги;
to take great pride in one's children пишатися своїми дітьми
boast [ ] 1. хвастощі, похвальба; 2. предмет гордості;
empty / idle / vain boast марні хвастощі;
proud boast хвастощі
separate [ ],[ ] 1. окремий; ізольований; відособлений, відділений;
separate cell одиночна камера;
2. роздільний; сепаратний; 3. особливий,
спеціальний; самостійний
solicitor [ ] соліситор, повірник, повірений у справах; адвокат
(який готує справи для баристера е виступає лише в
судах нижчої інстанції)
barrister [ ] баристер, адвокат;
 50

briefless barrister адвокат без практики

to descend [ ] спускатися, сходити, іти вниз; знижуватися;
to descend the stairs походити;
to be descended from Vikings спускатися сходами;
походити від вікінгів
notary [ ] нотаріус;
notary public державний нотаріус
attorney [ ] повірений; юрист; (Am.) адвокат; чиновник органів
юстиції; прокурор, аторней;
district attorney; circuit attorney прокурор округу (США);
pardon attorney аторней з питань помилувань
client [ ] 1. клієнт; 2. постійний покупець, замовник; 3.
постоялець, гість (у готелі)
lawyer’s clients клієнти адвоката
to employ [ ] надавати роботу; наймати; тримати на службі,
роботі; користуватися послугами;
to be employed by smb працювати, служити у когось
counsel [ ] ( = legal (pl. без змін) представник захисту або
counsel) обвинувачення; юрисконсульт;
to be heard by counsel вести справу через адвоката
to summarise [ ] підсумовувати, резюмувати, підбивати підсумок
brief / to brief [ ] (n.) 1. короткий письмовий виклад справи (складене
соліситором для баристера); 2. справа, клієнт; (v.)
давати інструкції адвокатові; доручати ведення
справи;
to have plenty of briefs мати велику практику (про адвокату);
to take a brief взяти на себе ведення справи;
to hold a brief вести справу в суді (як адвокат);
to throw down one's brief відмовитися від подальшого ведення справи
to retain [ ] 1. запрошувати, наймати (про адвоката); 2.
утримувати; стримувати; підтримувати; 3. зберігати;
to retain an attorney наймати адвоката;
to retain in custody утримувати під вартою;
rank [ ] звання; чин; достоїнство; посада, службове
становище; ранг (дипломатичний)
rank badge військовий знак розрізнення;
persons of rank аристократія; високопоставлені особи
pride of rank зарозумілість
the Bar [ ] адвокатура, колегія адвокатів; стан адвокатів;
баристери (у Великій Британії);
to be at the Bar бути адвокатом;
to be called to the Bar (= to call отримати право адвокатської практики
within the bar)
bar брусок; планка; рейка; поперечина
beyond [ ] 1. поза, за межами; 2. удалині; далеко від, далі;
beyond the ocean по той бік океану;
it is beyond me це за межами мого розуміння;
beyond reach за межами досяжності
the Bench місце суддів (у залі суду); суд; суддівська посада;
судді, суддівська колегія
to elevate to the Bench призначити на посаду судді
 51

jury [ ] присяжні (засідателі); суд присяжних;

to charge / instruct a jury наставляти, давати інструкції присяжним;
to dismiss a jury розпустити суд присяжних;
to empanel, swear in a jury привести присяжних до присяги;
to serve on a jury виступати у ролі присяжних
by means of за допомоги (чогось), через (щось)
verdict [ ] вердикт, рішення присяжних
verdict of acquittal виправдання підсудного вердиктом присяжних
to bring in /to return a verdict of винести вердикт про винність (невинності)
guilty (not guilty)
guilty [ ] (of) винний, винуватий;
guilty of murder винний у вбивстві;
verdict of guilty обвинувальний вирок
beyond reasonable doubt [ ] поза всякими обґрунтованими сумнівами
prosecution [ ] судове переслідування; пред'явлення позову;
обвинувачення (як сторона в карному процесі);
to conduct [ ] вести, керувати; проводити;
to conduct a campaign проводити кампанію
accomplice [ ] спільник, співучасник (злочину);
accomplice in crime співучасник злочину
to turn the King/Queen’s evidence стати свідком обвинувачення
witness [ ] свідок, очевидець
to forbid (forbad(e) – forbidden) забороняти, не давати дозволу
to suggest [ ] пропонувати, радити; висувати; припускати
The architect suggested restoring the Архітектор запропонував реконструкцію будівлі.
building.
leading question навідне запитання
evidence [ ] свідчення; доказ; показання свідка або
hearsay evidence обвинувачуваного; показання з чужих слів;
evidence-in-chief свідчення, які отримані на головному допиті
summing-up [ ] заключна промова судді; резюме
 52

UNIT 3
Reading 1: Types of legal profession in England and Wales
rapidly [ ] швидко
will (last will and testament) заповіт, остання воля;
to make a will скласти заповіт
magistrates’ court магістратський суд; мировий суд
petty [ ] crime дрібний злочин
matrimonial [ ] подружній, шлюбний, матримоніальний
debt [ ] борг, боргове зобов'язання; заборгованість
to recover debts повернути борги
to admit [ ] 1. приймати, допускати; 2. визнавати, допускати; 3.
визнаватися, зізнаватися (у злочині);
to be admitted to the bar отримати право адвокатської практики;
to admit to визнавати (провину)
The boy admitted to stealing the apples. Хлопчик зізнався в крадіжці яблук.
representation [ ] представництво; парл. делегація; група депутатів
від якого-небудь виборчого округу
on behalf of [ ] від імені (кого-небудь)
lay [ ] світський, мирський; не духовний; непрофесійний
in-house counsel юрисконсульт /радник / рада, що працює в
компанії
Crown Prosecution Service Служба кримінального переслідування
to defend [ ] захищати на суді, виступати як захисник;
захищатися, заперечувати свою провину або
причетність до злочину;
to defend a case захищатися на суді; оспорювати позов;
to defend an action відповідати за позовом;
to defend a suit відповідcати за позовом, виступати в якості
відповідача
defendant [ ] відповідач; підсудний, обвинувачуваний
to prosecute [ ] переслідувати в судовому або кримінальному
порядку; пред'явити позов; порушити справу;
вести справу, процес; виступати як обвинувач
to prosecute a criminal переслідувати злочинця в кримінальному порядку;
вести судову справу; підтримувати позов,
to prosecute an action обвинувачення;
to prosecute on indictment підтримувати обвинувачення за обвинувальним
[ ] актом;
He was prosecuted for fraud. Його переслідували за шахрайство.
wig перука
gown [ ] мантія (судді, викладача університету)
proceeding [ ](= legal судовий розгляд, судова справа; судочинство;
proceedings, proceedings at law) судова процедура

capable (of) [ ] здібний, обдарований; умілий; знаючий

He was capable of stealing. Він був здатний на крадіжку.
to accuse (of) [ ] обвинувачувати, звинувачувати; висувати
обвинувачення (проти кого-небудь);
to accuse smb of telling lies обвинувачувати когось у брехні;
He was accused of murder. Його звинуватили в вбивстві.
 53

Inns of Court «Судові інни» (чотири англійські школи

підготовки баристерів)
self-employed який обслуговує власне підприємство; який
належить до вільної професії (про письменника,
художника)
circuit [ ] округ (судовий, церковний); виїзна сесія суду
collegiate [ ] університетський; студентський; корпораційний;
колегіальний
trainee [ ] стажист, практикант;
trainee programmer програміст-стажист
tenant [ ] власник (переваж. нерухомістю); наймач, орендар,
наймач; тимчасовий власник; житель, мешканець
tenant for life довічний власник нерухомості
tenant at will безстроковий орендар
to preside [ ] 1. головувати, бути головою; займати місце
голови, сидіти на чолі стола; 2. здійснювати
контроль, керівництво
The prime minister presided at/over the Прем’єр-міністр головував на зборах.
meeting.
on account of через, внаслідок
to remove [ ] зміщати з посади; забирати (звідки-небудь);
to removed from office зміщати з посади
consideration [ ] 1. розгляд; обговорення; 2. міркування;
to take into consideration взяти до уваги;
to leave out of consideration не брати до уваги, не врахувати
in consideration of... беручи до уваги..., з огляду на...
office служба, місце, посада, пост; знаходження при
владі, на посаді;
term of office термін повноважень
judiciary [ ] судова влада; судоустрій; суд, суди; судді

juror [ ] присяжний засідатель

grand juror член великого журі
random [ ] зроблений або сказаний навмання; випадковий;
at random навмання
register [ ] журнал (записів; бортовий, шкільний,
реєстраційний, будь-який журнал, куди заносяться
будь-які факти в формальному порядку)
electoral register список виборців
to vote [ ] голосувати, балотувати;
without the right to vote з дорадчим голосом;
to vote for (against) a proposal (a голосувати за (проти) пропозиції (кандидата);
candidate) голосувати за (проти);
to vote in the affirmative (in the балотуватися, вирішувати таємним голосуванням;
negative) подати голос шляхом виборчого бюлетеню;
to vote by ballot голосувати підняттям рук

to vote by (a) show of hands

election [ ] вибори;
to win an election виграти на виборах;
 54

to concede / lose an election програти на виборах;

to hold an election проводити вибори
innocent [ ] невинний, чистий; непорочний;
innocent in fact фактично невинний;
innocent in law невинний за законом;
innocent of crime невинний у вчиненні злочину
to find smb guilty визнати когось винним
coroner [ ] коронер (слідчий, спеціальною функцією якого є
розслідування випадків насильницької або
раптової смерті)
to inquire (into) [ ] розслідувати, з'ясовувати;
to inquire into the disappearance of the розслідувати зникнення старої жінки
rich old lady
clerk [ ] конторський службовець, клерк; канцелярист;
clerk of the court секретар суду
sound common sense здоровий глузд
voluntarily [ ] добровільно; за своїм (власним) бажанням або
вибором
Attorney-General Генеральний аторней (Eng. приблизно відповідає
Генеральному прокурору; Am. Міністр юстиції)
deputy [ ] заступник, помічник; представник; депутат;
deputy director заступник директора
Solicitor-General Генеральний соліситор (заступник генерального
прокурора)
to concern [ ] (with) цікавитися, займатися (чимось)
indictable [ ] який підлягає переслідуванню на підставі
звинувачувального акту;
indictable offence злочин, який переслідується на підставі
звинувачувального акту
Lord Chief Justice Лорд-головний суддя
supervisory [ ] контролюючий; наглядовий;
supervisory body контролюючий орган

Reading 2: Types of legal profession in the USA

executive [ ] виконавчий
executive power виконавча влада; Am. урядовий; президентський;
executive discretion компетенція президента
executive department міністерство, відомство; відділ адміністрації окремих
штатів
the executive head of the nation глава виконавчої влади, глава уряду; глава держави
nomination [ ] 1. виставляння, висування кандидатів (на виборах, для
призначення на посаду); 2. призначення (на посаду);
to place / put smb in nomination призначити когось на посаду;
to accept a nomination прийняти пропозицію про вступ на посаду;
to reject a nomination відмовитися від посади;
a nomination to a committee призначення в комітет
leeway [ ] свобода дій; додатковий час; відстрочка;
participant [ ] учасник
veto [ ] 1. вето; 2. заборона;
to put / set a veto on smth. накладати вето на щось;
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to sustain a veto підтвердити заборону;

to override a veto подолати вето
court of last resort суд останньої інстанції;
justice [ ] 1. суддя; 2. справедливість; 3. правосуддя
Chief Justice голова суду
appellate [ ] апеляційний;
appellate court апеляційний суд
trial court суд першої інстанції
to dispose (of) [ ] розглядати, вирішувати (справи)
evidentiary [ ] доказовий, який має значення доказу
to challenge [ ] заперечувати (проти чого-небудь у процесі)
conviction [ ] визнання підсудного винним; судимість; засудження;
conviction on a charge засудження за звинуваченням в злочині;
conviction on indictment засудження за злочин на підставі обвинувального
to seek conviction акту;
to suffer conviction домагатися засудження;
to support conviction бути засудженим; отримати чи мати судимість;
to sustain conviction 1. обґрунтувати засудження; 2. підтримати
засудження;
підтримати засудження (в апеляційній інстанції)
misdemeanor [ ] проступок, незначний злочин;
to consent [ ] погоджуватися, давати згоду; дозволяти, давати
to consent to a proposal дозвіл;
прийняти пропозицію
law clerk помічник судді;
employee [ ] робітник; службовець; той, хто працює по найму
prior [ ] 1. колишній; попередній; 2. більш важливий;
першочерговий
prior to до, перед, раніше
to maintain [ ] зберігати, утримувати; підтримувати, захищати;
to maintain order підтримувати порядок
chore [ ] рутинна робота, повсякденна робота;
to edit [ ] редагувати; готувати до друку; бути редактором
elbow [ ] лікоть;
at one’s elbow під рукою, поруч
opinion [ ] судове рішення, висновок спеціаліста; оцінка; думка;
dissenting opinion особлива думка (судді)
sounding board відбивач звуку, резонатор;
motion [ ] клопотання, прохання; пропозиція;

docket [ ] книга записів по справі, досьє судочинства; виписка

рішення справи; список справ для слухання;
trial adjunct [ ] судовий помічник;
judge’s chamber [ ] кабінет судді;
to handle [ ] керувати, справлятися; займатися; розбирати,
обговорювати; вести (справу); мати справу (з чимось);
to handle legal matter розбирати, розглядати судову справу
staff attorneys юристи, які входять в штат суду
memorandum (pl. memoranda) службова записка, меморандум, директива;
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[ ]
to assign [ ] 1. призначати (строк); визначати, встановлювати
(межу); 2. призначати на посаду, штатну; 3.
to assign counsel to the defendant приписувати
призначати адвоката обвинуваченому
disposition [ ] 1. розміщення аргументів в правильному, логічному,
розумному порядку; 2. розпорядження, (pl.) плани,
приготування; 3. відмова від майна;
screening [ ] відсів, фільтрація, (ретельна) перевірка;
to do the screening робити перевірку
truncated [ ] скорочений, спрощений;
elimination [ ] 1. видалення; виключення; викидання; відсівання; 2.
усунення; знищення, ліквідація
pleading [ ] 1. захист, виступати в суді в ролі адвоката; 2. заява,
яка подається в суд (якими обмінюються сторони під
час процесу); 3. судові дебати (формальна сторона
судового процесу); 4. подання заяви в суд;
to file pleadings надати підстави позову чи заперечення проти позову
educator [ ] викладач, педагог;
personnel [ ] персонал, штат; кадри
bailiff [ ] бейліф, судовий пристав; заступник шерифа; судовий
виконавець
loosely [ ] широко; вільно
to license [ ] давати дозвіл, право, патент;
entity [ ] суб'єкт, особа; організм
international entity суб'єкт міжнародних відносин
legal entity юридична особа
prosecuting attorney державний обвинувач, прокурор;
house counsel юрисконсульт /радник / рада, що працює в компанії
array [ ] сукупність, маса;
array of problems маса проблем