Module 4: WATER RESOURCES

Water Surface Water

o It is part of the hydrosphere, and it makes up o Streams

about 71 % of the Earth’s surface. o Rivers
 As an Earth’s Subsystem o Wetlands
 A Life Essential
 A Resource Purposes of Surface Water Reservoir

- Hydropower
Salinity
- Flood Control
o Saltiness of the water - Agriculture Irrigation
- Water Supply
Distinct Regions where Saltwater Reservoir
could be found near land

 Seas and Bays  Stream

 Gulfs - Body of water that flow downslope
 Straits toward sea level because of gravity

Freshwater Reservoir Components of a Stream Network

o Ice  Interfluve
o Surface Water - Narrow, elongated landform
o Ground Water separating individual stream within a
basin
ICE  Drainage Basin
- The land area in which the water
 Glaciers
flows into a particular stream
- Permanent body of ice
 Drainage divide
- Consists of recrystallized snow
- The line that separate individual
 Ice sheets
drainage basin
- Mass of glacial land ice extending
Amazon River – Longest River in the world
more than 50,000 square kilometers
Cagayan River
- Antarctica
- Greenland
 River
 Permafrost
- A stream with considerable volume
- A soil, rock or sediment frozen for
and a well-defined channel
more than two consecutive years.
 Lakes
- The upper portion thaws during
- A large inland bodies of fresh or
summer and refreezes during winter.
saline water
- Comprises 0.8% of the total
 Ponds are smaller shallow
freshwater resource
lakes
 Dams are barriers constructed
along streams to contain the
flow of water
  Wetlands
- A land areas where water covers the
surface for significant periods
Types of Wetlands
1. Marsh
2. Estuary
3. Swamps
 Marsh
- A shallow wetland around lakes,
streams, and oceans where grasses
and reeds are the dominant
vegetation
 Estuaries
- Estuaries are commonly described as
semi-enclosed bodies of water
- situated at the interface between land
and ocean, where sea water is
measurably diluted by the inflow of
freshwater
 Swamp
- A wetland often partially or
intermittently covered with water;
especially one dominated by woody
vegetation
Floods
 Fluvial or Riverine
 Flash Floods
 Coastal Flooding
 Pluvial or Surface Water
Ground Water
o Is fresh water found in the rock and soil
layers beneath the surface
o Largest reservoir of freshwater
o Aquifers, Artesian Wells, and Springs
o Aquifers are water bearing rocks that act as
sponge that holds groundwater in tiny
cracks, cavities and pores between minerals
and grains
Porosity
 total amount of empty pore spaces in the
rock
Permeability
 ability of the rock or sediments to allow
water to pass through
Human Activities Affecting Water Resources
 Increase in Population
 Migration from Rural to Urban Area
 Demand For Food
 Competition for water resources
 Distribution of population and water resources
 Pollution
Module 5: SOIL AND MAN
Vermicomposting
 Process by which worms are used to convert
organic materials (usually wastes) into a
humus-like material known as vermin-
compost.
Eudrilus Eugeniae - African night crawlers
What is soil?
o According to Natural Resources
Conservation Services (NRCS), soil is the
unconsolidated mineral or organic material
on the immediate surface of the earth that
serves natural medium for the growth of
land parts.
o It forms PEDOSPHERE
- Derived from the greek words pedon
which means “soil” and sfaira which
means “sphere”
o Water & Air
Soil Provides
 Water and nutrients to plants and microbes
 Physical support system in which terrestrial
vegetation is rooted
  Source and sink for biogeochemical cycles - Weathering and erosion of original
of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur rock
 Habitat for soil biota, mostly decomposers, - Transformation by heat and pressure
many still unknown Categories of Parent Rock Material
 Igneous Rocks
Proteus anguinus - Olm  Sedimentary Rocks
Dasypodidae – Armadillo  Metamorphic Rocks
 Types of Formation
Talpa europaea – Mole o Residual Parent Rock
- The soil develops in situ, or
in place, as the parent
Soil Formation material weathers. This is
often the source of soil along
o Formed by the combination of physical, mountain ridges. In the
chemical and biological factors tropics, the soil formed tends
to be highly leached and
oxidic
o Colluvial Parent Rock
- The soil develops from rock
fragments that fall from
greater heights due to gravity.
These soils tend to be coarse
and stony. This mode of
formation dominates along
mountain slopes.
o Alluvial Parent Rock
- The soil develops along a
stream or river systems in
floodplains, alluvial plains, or
delta deposits. Soils have a
Factors Affecting Soil Formation great degree of particle
sorting, as finer particles are
 Parent material kept in suspension by flowing
 Climate water.
 Topography o Loose Deposits
 Biological factors - The soil develops from
 Time deposits of particles by the
wind. Particles are highly
sorted because wind carries
 Parent Rock Materials finer particles the furthest.
What is Rocks? Since volcanic ash is carried
- materials composed of minerals and deposited by wind, this
How are rocks formed? method of formation is
- Cooling of magma particularly important for
volcanic ash soils.
  Climate
- exerts most influential control on
soil formation
- Temperature, moisture, CO2, O2
determine the production and
decomposition of organic matter in
the soil
- Soil carbon increases with
decreasing temp and increasing
precipitation / moisture
- Precipitation (& movement of
water) determine whether products
of weathering will accumulate or be
lost from the soil.
 Topography
- Influences soils through its effect on
climate, moisture availability and
differential transport of soil particles.
The past and present BIOTA at a site strongly
influences soil chemical and physical properties.
 Earthworms, termites, and invertebrate
shredders - stimulate decomposition
- Termites form large termitaria that
concentrate soil resources and
nutrients vertically
 Grazers, e.g. Africa rhinos generate large
dunghills that concentrate nutrients in
selected sites
 Microorganisms vary in their rate of
decomposition and type of organic
compounds being decomposed
Human Population strongly influenced soil
formation worldwide through their agricultural and
industrial activities
Direct influences
 Changes in nutrient inputs
 Irrigation
 Alteration of soil microenvironment
 Increased erosional loss of soils
Indirect influences
 Changes in atmospheric composition
 Additions/deletions of species
Module 6: HUMAN ACTIVITIES &
MANAGEMENT
Waste Management
Waste
 Any substances which is discarded after
primary use, or it is worthless, defective, and
of no use.
 These items are basically unusable or
unwanted materials.
Waste Generation
 Waste generation is closely linked to
population, urbanization, and affluence.
 In most developed, and developing countries
with increasing population , prosperity and
urbanization, it remains a major challenge
for municipalities to collect, recycle, treat,
and dispose of increasing quantities of solid
waste and wastewater.
Causes of Waste Generation
 It is produced as a by-product of production
process, or arise from domestic and
industrial sector when object or materials are
discarded after use.
 The natural environment is the recipient of
these materials
Solid Waste
 general term use to describe the objects or
particles that accumulate at the location
where they are produced
 Municipal Solid Waste
 Non-municipal solid waste
Municipal Solid Waste radioactive, poisonous, carcinogenic,
or infectious.
 Waste collected by municipalities or other  4 hazardous characteristics:
local authorities. o Ignitability
 Typically, MSW includes: o Corrosivity
 Household waste o Reactivity
 Garden waste o Toxicity
 Commercial waste/ institutional
waste

Non Municipal Solid Waste  Non-Hazardous

 Substances safe to use commercially,
 any non-liquid waste that is created due to industrially, agriculturally, or
the production of a product. economically
 a large category of waste that is often Waste Management System
divided into three types:
 mining waste  the strategy an organization uses to dispose,
 agricultural waste reduce, reuse, and prevent waste.
 industrial waste How should we deal with waste?
Sources of waste
1. Waste management
1. Domestic Waste 2. Waste reduction
2. Industrial Waste 3. Integrated waste management
3. Biomedical Waste Waste Management
4. Agricultural Waste
 reduce their environmental harm without
5. Animal Waste
reducing the amount of waste produced
6. Mining Waste
burying or shipping waste to another
7. Nuclear Waste
location.
Classification of Waste
Waste Reduction
(Based on Properties)
 Produce less waste by implementing formal
 Biodegradable policy
 Waste that can be degraded o Improve product design to use less
 Non-biodegradable materials
 Waste that can’t be degraded o Redesign packaging to eliminate
(Effect on Environment) excess material
Integrated Waste Management
 Hazardous
 Substances unsafe to use  a variety of coordinated strategies for both
commercially, industrially, waste disposal and waste reduction.
agriculturally, or economically  greater emphasis on waste prevention and
 substances that have hazardous reduction rather than waste disposal.
characteristics such as: flammable,
corrosive, reactive, toxic,
 Landfills

 Most traditional method of waste disposal

 Disposed waste is compacted and covered
with soil
 Generally used for domestic waste

 2 types:
 Sanitary landfills
Types of Waste Management
 Solid wastes are spread out in
 REUSING thin layers, compacted and
- Involves cleaning and using covered daily with a fresh
materials over and over, and thus layer of clay or plastic foam.
increasing the typical life span of a  Open Dump
product.  Essentially a field or large pit
 Use of durable towels, table  poorly designed and poorly
cloths, napkins, dishes, regulated landfills
dishes, and cups. Incineration
 Reuse furniture and office
 Waste treatment process that involves
supplies.
combustion of waste at 1000c
 RECYCLING
 Ash formed due to inorganic materials, and
- Process of converting waste
gases due to organic materials
materials into new materials and
 Heat generated can be used to generate
objects.
electric power
o Primary or Closed Loop
 Republic Act 9003
 Materials such as
- Also known as Ecological Solid
aluminum cans are
Waste Management Act of the
recycled into new
Philippines
products of the same
- Open burning of garbage is
type.
prohibited to ensure the elimination
o Secondary
of toxic emissions in the atmosphere.
 Waste materials are
This ensures the protection of public
converted into
health and the environment using
different products.
environmental
 For example, we can
 Republic Act 8749
shred used tires and
- Also known as Clean Air Act was
turn them into
mandated in the Philippines
rubberized road-
- Made the country the first in the
surfacing material
world to legally ban waste
Waste Disposal Methods
incineration.
 Reusing
 Recycling
 Combustion
 Dumping
Mulch & Compost
 Composts
- rich in nutrients
- usually come from organic material
that undergoes the process of
decomposition.
 Mulch
- a layer of material applied to the
surface of soil.
- It serves as a protective cover of the
soil.
Vermicomposting
 the process of using worms for the
degradation of organic matter into nutrient-
rich manure.
Grassroots Action
 In the US, individuals have organized
grassroots (bottoms-up) citizen movements
to prevent the construction of hundreds of
incinerators, landfills, treatment plants for
hazardous and radioactive wastes and
polluting chemical plants in or near their
communities.
International Treaties
 Basel Convention (1992)
- Bans participating countries from
shipping hazardous waste to or
through other countries without their
permission.
 2010
- signed by 175 countries and formally
approved and implemented by 172
countries
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs)
- Delegates from 122 countries
- Regulates the use of 12 widely
persistent organic pollutants that can
accumulate in the fatty tissue of
humans and other animals that
occupy high trophic levels in food
webs.
- POPs can also be transported to long
distances by wind and water.
Waste Management Hierarchy
 is used in order to execute waste
management in homes, schools,
communities, and industries
 It involves disposal, recovery, recycling,
reuse, minimization, and prevention.
Module 7: EXOGENIC PROCESS
 Occur at or near Earth’s surface and
powered by the energy from the sun
Weathering
 The physical breakdown (Disintegration)
and chemical alteration (Decomposition)
of rocks at or near Earth’s surface.
 Mechanical Weathering
- Accomplished by physical
forces that break rocks into
smaller pieces without
changing rock’s mineral
composition
- increases the amount surface
area available for chemical
weathering
1. Frost (Ice Wedging)
 Water (H₂O) seeps in rock, expands,
crack rocks into smaller pieces.
2. Salt Crystal Growth
 another expansive force that split
rocks, created by the growth of salt
crystals
 Sea spray and salty groundwater
penetrates crevices in rock. As water
evaporates, salt crystals form and
gradually grow larger.
3. Biological Activity
 Animals, activities such as
burrowing further break down and
push apart rocks
  Plant Roots, roots in search of
mineral and water grow into
fractures and wedge rocks apart
4. Abrasion
 Sand & rock carried by wind, water,
and ice wears away surface rocks
when rocks collide. As the mobile
agents move rock debris, particles
continue to be broken and abraded.
5. Insolation/ Thermal Stress
 expansion & contraction of rocks
caused by temperature change
through repeated heating and cooling
of rock over daily cycles,
progressively breaking apart the
grains of rock
 Chemical Weathering
- Involves a chemical
transformation of rock into
one or more new compounds.
a) Water
 the most important agent of chemical
weathering
 a small amount of dissolved material
activates it - oxygen dissolved in water
will oxidize some materials
b) Living Organisms
 plant roots, fungi, and lichens that
occupy fractures produce acids that
promote decomposition
c) Acids
 carbon dioxide (CO₂) dissolved in water
forms carbonic acid; rain dissolves CO₂
as it falls through the atmosphere
 Air pollution reacts with clouds and falls
on rock as acid rain
Rates of Weathering
 Rock Characteristics
- encompass all the chemical traits of
rocks: mineral composition &
solubility
 Climate
- climactic factors: temperature &
moisture are critical to the rate of
rock weathering
- e.g., Mechanical weathering =
frequency of freeze-thaw cycles
affects the amount of frost wedging
Temperature & moisture
 also exert a strong influence on rates of
chemical weathering and on the kind and
amount of vegetation.
 e.g., Regions with lush vegetation have thick
mantle of soil rich in decayed organic matter
from which carbonic acid and humic acids
are derived.
 Combination of warm temperature and
abundant moisture = optimal for chemical
weathering
Sedimentation
 Process of deposition of a solid material
from a state of suspension or solution in a
fluid (usually air or water).
Erosion
 The physical removal of material by mobile
agents such as water, wind or ice.
Agents of Erosion
 Water
 Glacial Ice
- Two main ways: plucking and
abrasion
- Types of Glaciers
 Alpine – Small glaciers that
form valleys
 Ice sheets – Enormous
glaciers that can cover entire
continents
  Wind Endogenic Processes
- Deflation
 the removal of loose, fine Magmatism
particles from the surface  Emplacement of magma within and at the
- Abrasion surface of the outer layers of a terrestrial
 grinding action & planet, which solidifies as Igneous Rocks.
sandblasting  Formation of magma under earth’s crust

Volcanism and Plutonism

Mass Wasting
 A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a
 The transfer of rock and soil downslope planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that
under the influence of gravity allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to
escape from a magma chamber below the
surface.
Module 8: ENDOGENIC PROCESS  Some volcanoes form over active hotspots.
Scientists count about 50 hotspots on the
 Geological processes that occur beneath the
Earth. Hotspots lie directly above a column
surface of the Earth.
of hot rock called a mantle plume.
 Internal processes resulting in reshaping of
earth landforms Difference between Magmatism and Plutonism

2 Categories of Heat in Earth’s Interior  Volcanism

 Primordial Heat
 Radioactive Heat
How does Endogenic Process works?
 When the ground moves, ROCK layers at
the surface of the Earth are broken, twisted
and shaken.
 Land is destroyed in many places and
created in other places.
 The land is shaped by ENDOGENIC forces.
- Volcanic Activity or igneous activity
- Surface expression of magmatism
 Plutonism
- Process in which magma rises
through the crust & crystallizes as an
intrusive igneous rock
- This allows magma to rise up along
lies of weakness and intrude into the
crust.
Two types of Volcanic Eruption
 Effusive Eruption
- occurs when hot, runny basalt
magmas reach the surface
- dissolved gases escape easily as the
magma erupts, forming lava that
flows downhill quite easily.
 Explosive Eruption
- sends ash high up into the
atmosphere forming a plume
- if a magma has a lot of gas it
becomes trapped in the magma, the
pressure will build and the magma
erupts explosively
Classification of volcanoes according to shape
 Composite Volcanoes
- also called stratovolcanoes or just
composite volcanoes, are cone-
shaped volcanoes containing layers
of ash, lava, and rock fragments.
- some of the largest volcanoes on the
Earth, reaching heights up to
approximately 2500 m, and are
typically steep-sloped
 Shield Volcanoes
- is a wide volcano with shallowly-
sloping sides that are formed by lava
flows of low viscosity - lava that
flows easily.
- The largest volcanoes in terms of the
volume , and in diameter can be tens
to hundreds of kilometers across, or
more
 Cinder Cone Volcanoes
- are extremely steep-sided volcanoes.
They are also the simplest of volcano
types. They are made from
congealed lava exiting a single vent.
- Most have a bowl-shaped crater, or
depression, and rarely reach more
than 400 m tall, making them among
the smallest volcanoes in the world.
Earthquakes
 Sudden shaking or vibration in the earth’s
crust.
 When plates suddenly move past each other,
the built up strain is released along the fault,
and rock fractures.
 It can also be triggered by molten rock
moving up into the chamber of a volcano
before eruption.
 The energy released from the focus during
an Earthquake is called seismic waves. They
are the energy that travels through the earth
and is recorded on seismographs.
 Magnitude refers to the number that
indicates the relative size of energy released
in an Earthquake.
 Intensity of an Earthquake describes the
severity of an earthquake in terms of its
effects on the earth's surface and on humans
and their structures.
Metamorphism
 Occurs when there is pressure and heat
applied to geologic structure which leads to
the formation of Metamorphic Rocks.
Two Types of Metamorphism
 Regional Metamorphism
- Is a type of metamorphism where the
formation of a metamorphic rock
occurs in a wide area
- Larger Area
- Involves a collision between
continental or oceanic plates.
 Contact Metamorphism
- Is a formation of a metamorphic rock
due to the contact of magma
- Smaller area
- Involves contact with magma
Deformation of Earth’s Crust

Deformation

 The process of changing in shape or

distorting, especially through the application
of pressure.

Structure Produced by Deformation:

1) Joints - natural cracks in the rocks produced

by brittle deformation.
2) Faults - planar structure resulting from
brittle deformation.
3) Folds - contortions of rock layers forming
wave-like curves
Causes of the Deformation of Earth’s Crust
 Plate Tectonics
- The outer core is the only liquid
layer, and is mainly made up of the
metals iron and nickel, as well as
small amounts of other substances
- The inner core is the very center of
the Earth, and the hottest part of the
planet. It is made of very dense, or
heavy, materials - like iron and
nickel.
- Mantle is located beneath the crust.
They then cool and sink back down
to the core.
- Crust:
1.) Oceanic crust is the uppermost
layer of the oceanic portion of a
tectonic plate.
2.) Continental crust is the layer of
granitic, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks which form the
continents and the areas of shallow
seabed close to their shores, known
as continental shelves.
Evidences of Continental Drift Theory
 Fit of the continents
 Paleoclimate indicators
 Fossil Correlation
 Geologic Features (Distribution of Glacial
Sediments and Rocks)
Plate Tectonic
 The earth's crust and upper mantle are
broken into section called plates
Plate Tectonic Theory
 The Earth's solid outer crust, the lithosphere,
is separated into plates that move over the
asthenosphere
Causes of Plate Tectonic Movements
 Force of Gravity
 Convection Current
 Thermal Plume or Mantle Plume
Convection Current
- Hot magma on earth moves toward the
surface cools then sinks again
 Plate Boundaries
 the edges where two plates meet

2 Types of Plate Boundaries

 Oceanic Plate
 Continental Plate
Divergent Boundaries
- Boundary between two plates that are
moving apart or rifting
- RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR
SPREADING
- Seafloor Spreading
 Harold Hammond Hess and Robert
Dietz
 The process that continually adds
new material to the ocean floor while
pushing older rocks away from the
ridge
 Continental-Continental
 A continental plate colliding with
another continental plate
 Have Collision Zones:
 a place where folded and
thrust faulted mountains
form.
Transform Boundaries
- Boundary between two plates that are
sliding past each other
- EARTHQUAKES along faults

Convergent Boundaries

- Boundary between two plates that are

colliding.

Three types of Convergent Boundaries

 Oceanic-Oceanic
 Ocean plate colliding with another
ocean plate
 The less dense plate slides under the
more dense plate creating a
subduction zone called a TRENCH
 Oceanic-Continental
 Ocean plate colliding with a less
dense continental plate
 Subduction Zone: where the less
dense plate slides under the more
dense plate
 VOLCANOES occur at subduction
zones