Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM AND BLOOD
Functions of the Cardiovascular System
1. generating blood pressure
2. routing blood
3. ensuring one-way blood flow
4. regulating blood supply
5. exchanges nutrients. waste products, and
gases with tissues
Anatomy of the Heart
➢ Adult Heart
o shaped like a blunt come and is
approximately the size of a closed fist
o positioned obliquely between the lungs in
the mediastinum
o APEX: blunt, rounded part of the heart
o directed anteriorly and slightly
interiorly
o located deep to the 5th intercostal
space to the left of the sternum and
medial to the midclavicular line
o BASE: larger, flat part at the opposite
end of the heart
o directed posteriorly and slightly
superiorly
o located deep to the sternum and
extends to the 2nd intercostal space
Pericardium
o also known as pericardial sac, is a double
layered, closed sac that surrounds the heart
o Fibrous pericardium - tough, fibrous
connective tissue outer layer
o prevent overdistention of the heart and
anchor, it within the mediastinum
o Serous pericardium - thin, transparent, inner
layer of simple squamous epithelium
o parietal pericardium: part of the serous
pericardium lining the
o visceral pericardium or epicardium: part
covering the heart surface
Layers of the Heart Wall
o Pericardial cavity: separate, epicardium and
serous pericardium
o Epicardium (visceral pericardium): outermost
layer
o Myocardium: middle muscular layer,
responsible for heart's contraction
o Endocardium: lives the heart and its valves
The Great Vessels of the Heart
o Superior vena cava (SVC) - receives blood
from upper body
o Interior vena cava (IVC) - receives blood from
lower body
o Coronary sinus - drains blood from heart
o Pulmonary trunk - right and left artery
o carries deoxygenated blood to lungs
o Pulmonary veins (four) - return oxygenated
blood to heart
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o Ascending aorta - carries oxygenated out to o Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve

body o between left atrium and left ventricle
o Branches: Brachiocephalic, (L) common o Cusps attach to ventricles by chordae
carotid, (L) subclavian tendineae
o Aortic arch, descending thoracic, o semilunar valves (SV valves)
abdominal o keeps blood from flowing back into the
ventricles
o Pulmonary semilunar valve
▪ Right ventricle
▪ Pulmonary trunk exits the heart
o Aortic semilunar valve
▪ Left ventricle
▪ Ascending aorta leaves the heart
Route of Blood Flow through the Heart
o Pulmonary Circulation (right)
o carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
and returns it to the left atrium of the heart
o In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses, from
the blood into the lungs, and oxygen
diffuses from the lungs into the blood.
o Systematic Circulation (left)
o Delivers oxygenated blood and its
nutrients to all the remaining tissues of the
body
o from those tissues, carbon dioxide and
other waste products are carried back to
the right side of the heart
Heart Chambers
(1) SVC and IVC → Right Atrium → Tricuspid
o The heart consists of four chambers: two
valve → (2) Right ventricle → Pulmonary
atria and two ventricles
semilunar valve → (3) Pulmonary trunk → (4)
o Right Atrium - has 3 major openings
Pulmonary arteries → lung tissue (pulmonary
o SVC and IVC: receive blood from the bully
circulation) → (5) Pulmonary veins →Left atrium
o Coronary sinus: receives blood from the
→ (6) Bicuspid valve → (7) Left ventricle → Aortic
heart itself
semilunar valve
o Left Atrium - receive blood from the four
→ (8) Aorta →Coronary Arteries → Heart
pulmonary veins
tissue → Coronary sinus + Cardiac veins
o Right Ventricle - opens into the pulmonary
→ (1)
trunk. Pumps blood into the lungs
→ (8) Aorta → Body tissues (systematic
o Left Ventricle - opens into the aorta. Pumps
circulation) → (1)
blood through the systemic circulation
Heart Valves
o Atrioventricular valves (AV valves)
o allow blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles but prevent blood from flowing
buck into the atria
o Tricuspid valve
o between right atrium and right ventricle

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
Conduction System of the Heart
o relays action potentials through the heart
o Sinoatrial (SA) node: Pacemaker of the
Heart; initiates impulse. Located medial to the
opening of the superior vena cava
o Atrioventricular (AV) node: sends impulse to
AV bundle
o AV Bundle of His: passes through the
interventricular septum and sends impulses
to both sides of system: the right and left
bundle branches
o Purkinje's fibers: send impulse to myocardial
cells
Action Potential
o Action potential in cardiac muscle last longer
than those in skeletal muscle
o Depolarization also causes voltage-gated
Ca²+ channels to begin to open
o Phases of Action Potential (cardiac)
o Phase 0 - depolarization
o Phase 1 - early repolarization
o Phase 2 - Plateau
o Phase 3 - late repolarization
o Phase 4 – latent
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
o The normal ECG consists of a P wave, a
QRS complex, and a T wave
o P wave - atrial depolarization
o QRS complex - ventricular depolarization
o also, atrial repolarization but it is
overlapped by the former
o T wave - ventricular repolarization
o PR interval
o QT interval
Cardiac Cycle
o refers to the repetitive pumping process that
begins with the onset of cardiac muscle
contraction and ends with the beginning of
the next contraction
o The normal cardiac cycle is 0.7 - 0.8 second
o Systole: contraction phase
o Diastole: relaxation phase
o Events:
1. Atrial systole: Period of active ventricular
filling
2. Ventricular systole: Period of
isovolumetric contraction
3. Ventricular systole: Period of ejection
4. Ventricular diastole: Period of
isovolumetric relaxation
5. Ventricular diastole: Period of passive
ventricular filling
Heart Sounds
o Sound produced by closure of valves
o Best heard by applying the stethoscope at
particular sites in relation to the heart valves
o S1 and S2 (primary heart sounds)
Blood Pressure and Hemodynamics
o Blood Pressure is measure of the force blood
exerts against blood vessel walls.
o Measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o Health professionals often use

sphygmomanometer
o Korotkoff sounds – sound that is produced
by blood flow vibrations in the blood and
surrounding tissues that can be heard
through the stethoscope.
o Systole: first distinct sound, Diastole: sound
disappears
o Normal BP is <120/80 mmHg
o Arteries and veins have three layers:
o Tunica intima: innermost layers
o Tunica media: middle layer
o Tunica adventitia/externa: outer layer
o Lumen: blood vessel cavity
o Anastomosis: junction of blood vessels

o Cardiac Output – the amount of blood that

leaves the ventricles per minute, expressed
in L/min–CO = HR × SV
o Stroke Volume –the volume of blood ejected
with each myocardial contraction
o Heart Rate – number of heart beats per
minute
o Venous return - the amount of blood
returning to the heart from the systemic
circulation
Anatomy of Blood Vessels
o Types of Blood Vessels:
o Arteries: carry blood away from the
heart. thicker and stronger than veins.
o Arterioles: small arteries attach to
capillaries
o Capillaries: the most common blood
vessel type. gas nutrient and waste
exchange
o Venules: connect capillaries to veins
o Veins: vessels that carry blood toward
the heart. less elastic than arteries,
contain valves
Functions of the Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste
products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation
Blood
o type of connective tissue consisting of a liquid
matrix containing cells and cell fragments
o PLASMA (55%): liquid matrix
o FORMED ELEMENTS (45%): cell fragments
o The total blood volume in the average adult is
about 4–5 L in females and 5–6 L in males
o makes up about 8% of the total weight of the
body

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
Composition of the Plasma
o Plasma is the liquid part of blood, pale yellow
fluid in nature
o It is a colloid which is a liquid containing
suspended substances that do not settle
out of solution
o Fluid portion of blood is 91% water
o Plasma proteins: 7%
o Albumin, globulin, fibrinogen
o Plasma solutes: 2%
o Ions, nutrients, waste products, gases,
enzymes, hormones
Formed Elements
o Erythrocytes (RBCs)
o 95% of the volume of blood cells
o Leukocytes (WBCs)
o Granular: neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils
o Agranular: monocytes, lymphocytes
o Thrombocytes: platelets
Production of Formed Elements
o Hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis
o the process of blood cell production
o occurs in tissues such as the yolk sac,
liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and
red bone marrow
o All the formed elements of the blood are
derived from a single population of stem
cells called hemocytoblasts
Red Blood Cells
o Males have about 5.4 million /μL RBCs
o Females have about 4.8 million/μL RBCs
o Biconcave disks: shape increases the cell’s
surface area No nucleus; can bend or fold
around its thin center
o Reticulocyte - immature red blood cells
o The primary functions of red blood cells are:
o to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
various body tissues
o to transport carbon dioxide from the
tissues to the lungs
o Hemoglobin - main component of the red
blood cell. pigmented protein which occupies
about one-third of the total cell volume and
accounts for its red color.
o Hemoglobin has two components:
▪ Heme: binds $O_2$
▪ Globin: binds $CO_2$
o RBCs normally stay in the circulation for
about 120 days
o Bilirubin – yellowish color, breakdown by-
product of heme.
White Blood Cells
o White blood cells lack hemoglobin but have a
nucleus
o Protect the body against invading
microorganisms and remove dead cells and
debris from the body
o Granular Leukocytes
o Neutrophils
▪ 60–70% of white blood cells
▪ the first line of defense of the body
▪ phagocytize bacteria, antigen-
antibody complexes (antigens and
antibodies bound together), and
other foreign matter.
o Eosinophils
▪ 2–4% of white blood cells
▪ important in the defense against
certain worm parasites
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
▪ releases chemicals that modulate
inflammation such as in allergic
reactions
o Basophils
▪ 0.5–1% of white blood cells
▪ Releases histamine, which promotes
inflammation, and heparin, which
prevents clot formation
o Agranular Leukocytes
o Lymphocyte
▪ 20–25% of white blood cells
▪ regulation of the immune system
and contributes to allergic reactions
▪ B lymphocytes: Produces antibodies
and other chemicals responsible for
destroying microorganisms
▪ T lymphocytes: graft rejection, tumor
control
o Monocyte
▪ 3–8% of white blood cells
▪ Phagocytic cell in the blood; leaves
the blood and becomes a
macrophage, which phagocytizes
bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments,
and other debris within tissues
Platelets
o Platelets or thrombocytes
o Disk-shaped cellular fragments with a
nucleus
o Prevent fluid loss when blood vessels
are damaged
o Produced from large megakaryocytes
o Forms platelet plugs and releases chemicals
necessary for blood clotting
o Performs a major role in hemostasis
The Clotting Mechanism: Hemostasis
o the stoppage of bleeding which is very
important to the maintenance of homeostasis.
o Three major events:
1. Vascular Spasm is the immediate but
temporary constriction of a blood vessel
that results when smooth muscle within
the wall of the vessel contracts
2. Platelet Plug Formation accumulation of
platelets that seal small breaks in blood
vessels
3. Coagulation: formation of a blood clot
which is a network of threadlike protein
fibers, called fibrin
Blood Grouping
o the surfaces of red blood cells have
molecules called antigens and the plasma
includes proteins called antibodies
o Agglutination: clumping of the cells occurs
when the antibodies in the plasma bind to the
antigens on the surfaces of the red blood
cells
o the antigens are often called agglutinogens
o the antibodies are called agglutinins
o ABO Blood Group
o Rh Blood Group
o D Antigen
o Rh-positive if they have a certain Rh
antigen
o Rh-negative if they do not have this Rh
antigen
o Antibodies against the Rh antigen do not
develop unless a Rh-negative person is
exposed to Rh-positive blood
o Hemolytic disease of the newborn
(HDN)/ erythroblastosis fetalis
▪ mother is Rh-negative and the fetus
is Rh-positive
▪ No problem in first pregnancy
▪ Dangerous in subsequent pregnancy
▪ Prevention by RhoGAM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
o Breathing or Respiration
o Respiration: exchange of $O_2/CO_2$
between atmosphere, blood, and cells
o External respiration: gas exchange
between the air in the lungs and the
blood
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o Internal respiration: gas exchange 1. Conducting Zone

between the blood and the tissues o exclusively for air movement and
o Ventilation: the movement of air into and out extends from the nose to the bronchioles
of the lungs o NOSE: consists of the external nose and
Functions of Respiratory System the nasal cavity
1. Regulation of blood pH o External nose - hyaline cartilage
2. Voice production plates, nasal bones, extensions of
3. Olfaction frontal and maxillary bone
4. Protection o Nasal cavity – passageway of air
Respiratory Tract o External Nares (nostrils) – external
1. Upper Respiratory Tract openings
o External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, o Internal Nares/Choanae – openings
larynx into the pharynx
2. Lower Respiratory Tract o Vestibule – ant. part of nasal cavity,
o trachea, the bronchi and smaller lined with stratified squamous with
bronchioles, and the lungs coarse hairs called vibrissae
o Hard palate- formed by maxilla and
palatine bone. separates the nasal
cavity from the oral cavity
o Nasal septum – partition dividing
the nasal cavity into right and left
parts
o Anterior: cartilage
o Posterior: Vomer and ethmoid
bone
o Conchae – three bony ridges that
modify the lateral walls of nasal
cavity
o Paranasal Sinuses – contribute to
the humidifying of the inspired air.
They also reduce the weight of the
Functional Division of Respiratory System skull
o PHARYNX: common opening of both the
digestive and the respiratory systems.
Divided into three regions
o Nasopharynx – located posterior to
the choanae and superior to the soft
palate
o Soft palate – an incomplete
muscle and connective tissue
partition separating the
nasopharynx from the
oropharynx.
▪ prevents swallowed
materials from entering the
nasopharynx and nasal
cavity
o Uvula – posterior extension of
soft palate
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
o Pharyngeal tonsils - helps
defend the body against
infection
o Oropharynx – extends from the soft
palate to the epiglottis
o palatine tonsils and the
lingual tonsils
o Laryngopharynx – extends from
the tip of the epiglottis to the
esophagus and passes posterior to
the larynx.
o LARYNX
o “Voice box”
o It is a passageway for air between
the pharynx and the trachea
o consists of an outer casing of nine
cartilages connected to one another
by muscles and ligaments
o Functions:
1. Provide a patent (open) airway
2. Act as a switching mechanism
to route air & food into proper
channels
3. Voice production
o 9 cartilages: 6 paired and 3 unpaired
▪ Paired: Arytenoid cartilage,
Corniculate cartilage, Cuneiform
cartilage
▪ Unpaired: Thyroid cartilage,
Epiglottis cartilage, Cricoid
cartilage
▪ Vestibular folds: false vocal
cords
▪ Vocal folds: true vocal cords
▪ Glottis: opening between the
vocal folds
o TRACHEA
o “Windpipe”
o It consists of dense regular
connective tissue and smooth
muscle reinforced with 15–20 C-
shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage.
o The posterior wall of the trachea is
devoid of cartilage
o Esophagus lies immediately
posterior to the cartilage free
posterior wall
o Trachealis muscle – contraction of
this smooth muscle narrows the
diameter of trachea
o Lined by pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium with numerous
goblet cells
o diameter of 12 mm and a length of
10–12 cm, descending from the
larynx to the level of the fifth thoracic
o The trachea divides to form two
smaller tubes called main bronchi,
or primary bronchi
o Carina – most inferior tracheal
cartilage. Bifurcates the openings
into the bronchi.
o Sensitive to mechanical
stimulation
o Can stimulate a powerful cough
reflex
o TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
o Trachea divided into (R) main
bronchus and (L) main bronchus
o Difference between two?
▪ Approximately 16 generations of
branching occur from the
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

trachea to the terminal

bronchioles
▪ Main bronchi (primary bronchi)
→ lobar bronchi (secondary
bronchi) → segmental bronchi
(tertiary bronchi) → bronchioles
→ terminal bronchioles

o LUNGS
o the principal organs of respiration
o small, air-filled chambers where gas
exchange between the air and blood
takes place
2. Respiratory Zone o conical in shape, with its base
o within the lungs and is where gas resting on the diaphragm and its
exchange between air and blood takes apex extending to a point
place approximately 2.5 cm superior to the
o ALVEOLI clavicle
o The terminal bronchioles divide to o Hilum – is a region on the medial
form respiratory bronchioles, surface of the lung
which give rise to alveolar ducts,
▪ main bronchus, blood vessels,
and end as two or three alveolar
sacs which are chambers connected nerves, and lymphatic vessels,
to two or more alveoli enter or exit the lung
o small, air-filled chambers where gas
exchange between the air and blood
takes place
o Approximately 300 million alveoli are
in the two lungs
o Two types of cells form the alveolar
wall
▪ Type I pneumocytes and Type II
pneumocytes
o RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
o It is where gas exchange between
the air and blood takes place.
o It is formed mainly by the
o alveolar walls and surrounding
pulmonary capillaries

Thoracic Wall and Respiration

o The thoracic cavity is the space enclosed by
the thoracic wall and the diaphragm

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o The diaphragm is dome-shaped, and the Mechanics of Ventilation

base of the dome attaches to the inner
circumference of the inferior thoracic cage.
Muscle of Respiration
1. Pump-handle motion – forward and upward
movement of the sternum and upper ribs
o Increase in AP dimension
2. Bucket handle motion – elevation and
outward turning of the lateral (midshaft)
portions of the ribs
o Increase in lateral dimension
3. Caliper motion – lower ribs (8-10) flare and
open outward
o Increase in subcostal angle
4. Piston action – central tendon of the
diaphragm descends as the muscle contracts
o Increase in vertical dimension

Regulation of Ventilation

Pleura and Pleural Pressure

o each lung is surrounded by a separate
pleural cavity formed by the pleural serous
membranes
o Parietal pleura: covers the inner thoracic
wall, the superior surface of the diaphragm,
and the mediastinum
o Visceral pleura: covers the surface of the
lung. At the hilum, the parietal pleura is
continuous with the visceral pleura
o Pleural fluid: acts as lubricant, holds the
parietal and visceral membranes together
o Pleural pressure – is the pressure in the
pleural cavity
o When pleural pressure is less than intra-
Respiratory Physiology
alveolar pressure, the alveoli tend to expand
o Lung recoil is the tendency for the lungs to
o In a normal individual, the alveoli are always
decrease in size as they are stretched,
expanded. This is because there is a
similar to the way a stretched rubber band
negative pleural pressure that is lower
snaps back to its original size when released
than intra-alveolar pressure
o Surfactant is a mixture of lipoprotein
o The difference between intra-alveolar
molecules produced by the type II
pressure and pleural pressure is called
pneumocytes of the alveolar epithelium
transpulmonary pressure
o greatly reduces the tendency of the lungs to
collapse

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
Hering-Breuer Reflex
o The Hering-Breuer reflex limits the degree
to which inspiration proceeds and prevents
over inflation of the lungs
o It depends on stretch receptors in the walls of
the bronchi and bronchioles of the lungs
Dead Space
o The part of the respiratory system where gas
exchange does not take place
o Anatomical dead space
o 150 ml
o Formed by the nasal cavity, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and
terminal bronchioles.
o Physiological dead space
o anatomical dead space plus the volume
of any alveoli in which gas exchange is
less than normal (under perfused or
malfunctioning)
Ventilation/Perfusion Ratio
o Equal amounts of air (ventilation) and blood
(perfusion) needs to be in the same place at
the same time for gas exchange to occur
o Normal value: O.8 mL
o V/Q MISMATCH:
o Dead space - well ventilated, decreased
perfusion (high V/Q)
o Shunt - well perfusion, decreased
ventilation (low V/Q)
Sneeze and Cough Reflex
o Both reflexes dislodge foreign matter or
irritating material from the respiratory
passages
o SNEEZE REFLEX: occurs in the nasal
passages
o Approximately 2.5 L of air are inspired
o the vestibular and vocal folds close
tightly to trap the inspired air in the lungs
→ the abdominal muscles contract to
force the abdominal contents up against
the diaphragm and the muscles of
expiration contract forcefully. → the
pressure in the lungs increases to 100
mm Hg or more. → the vestibular and
vocal folds open suddenly, the soft
palate is elevated → air rushes from the
lungs and out the oral cavity at a high
velocity, carrying foreign particles with it
o the soft palate is depressed, so that air is
directed primarily through the nasal
passages, although a considerable amount
passes through the oral cavity. The rapidly
flowing air dislodges particulate matter from
the nasal passages and can propel it a
considerable distance from the nose.
o Photic sneeze reflex - 17-25% of population
o stimulated by exposure to bright light,
such as the sun.
o ACHOO
Measurement of Lung Function
o Minute ventilation is the total amount of air
moved into and out of the respiratory system
each minute
o it is equal to the tidal volume times the
respiratory rate.
o minute ventilation averages
approximately 6 L/min
o Respiratory rate, or respiratory frequency, is
the number of breaths taken per minute.
o respiratory rate is approximately 12
breaths per minute
o Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
Pulmonary Volumes
1. TIDAL VOLUME is the volume of air inspired
or expired with each breath. At rest, quiet
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

breathing results in a tidal volume of NERVOUS SYSTEM

approximately 500 mL. Functions
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME is the 1. Maintaining homeostasis
amount of air that can be inspired forcefully 2. Receiving sensory input
after inspiration of the tidal volume 3. Integrating information
(approximately 3000 mL at rest). 4. Controlling muscles and glands
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME is the 5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
amount of air that can be forcefully expired Divisions
after expiration of the tidal volume o Central Nervous System (CNS)
(approximately 1100 mL at rest). o Brain
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME is the volume of air still o Spinal Cord
remaining in the respiratory passages and o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
lungs after the most forceful expiration o Spinal Nerves
(approximately 1200 mL). o Cranial Nerves
Pulmonary Capacities o Types:
1. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY is the tidal ▪ Somatic PNS
volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume, ▪ Autonomic PNS
which is the amount of air a person can Classification of Nerve Cells
inspire maximally after a normal expiration 1. Neuroglia
(approximately 3500 mL at rest). o major supporting cells of CNS
2. FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY is the o Types:
expiratory reserve volume plus the residual o Astrocytes
volume, which is the amount of air remaining ▪ cover the surfaces of neurons,
in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration blood vessels, and the pia mater
(approximately 2300 mL at rest). structural support
3. VITAL CAPACITY is the sum of the ▪ forms part of blood brain barrier
inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, o Oligodendrocytes - form part of the
and the expiratory reserve volume, which is myelin sheaths of several axons
the maximum volume of air a person can within the CNS
expel from the respiratory tract after a o Ependymal Cell
maximum inspiration (approximately 4600 ▪ lining the ventricles of the brain
mL). and the central canal of the
4. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY is the sum of the spinal cord
inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes ▪ secrete cerebrospinal fluid.
plus the tidal volume and the residual volume o Microglia - phagocytic cells within
(approximately 5800 mL). the CNS

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
o Schwann cells are neuroglia in the PNS
that wrap around axons. it forms a myelin
sheath
o Satellite cells surround neuron cell
bodies in sensory and autonomic ganglia
o protect neurons from heavy-metal
poisons
o Myelin sheath - protects and electrically
insulates axons from one another
o AP travels along myelinated axons
more rapidly
2. Neuron
o Neurons (nerve cells)
o receive stimuli and transmit action
potentials to other neurons or to
effector organs
o Parts:
o Cell body (soma)
o Dendrites
o Axons (nerve fiber)
o Nodes of Ranvier (neurofibril nodes) -
area where myelin sheaths of adjacent
cells dip toward the axon but do not
cover it
o Nissl bodies - The neurofilaments
separate abundant rough ER which are
located primarily in the cell body and
dendrites.
o Primary site of protein synthesis in
neurons.
o Axon hillock - a cone-shaped area of
the neuron cell body where a single axon
arises from
o (-) Nissl bodies
o Functional Classification of Neuron
o Sensory: Afferent neurons
▪ Conduct signals toward the CNS
o Motor: Efferent neurons
▪ Conduct signals away from the CNS
o Interneuron: conduct action potentials
from one neuron to another within the
CNS
o Types of Neurons
o Multipolar: several dendrites coming off
cell body
o Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon
o Unipolar: one process extending from
cell body
Organization of Nervous Tissue
o Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell
bodies and their dendrites, where there is
very little myelin.
o CNS: surface of the brain (cortex),
deeper within the brain (nuclei).
o PNS: cluster of neuron cell bodies
(ganglion)
o White matter consists of bundles of parallel
axons with their myelin sheaths, which are
whitish in color.
o CNS forms nerve tracts
o PNS forms nerves
Physiology of the Nerve Impulse
o Nerve cell fiber resting potential
o Na+ concentration higher on outside
o K+ concentration higher on inside
o Negative charge on inside
o Positive charge on outside
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

Permeability Characteristics of the Plasma o Unmyelinated axon

Membrane
o Neurons expand energy to maintain an
uneven distribution of ions across the plasma
membrane
o The sodium-potassium pump uses ATP to:
o pump 2 K+ against its concentration
gradient and keep it in high concentration
inside the cell
o pump 3 Na+ against its concentration
gradient and keep it in high concentration
outside the cell
o Ions must pass through the plasma
membrane through ion channels.
Action Potential
o Resting membrane potential of neuron is
approximately -70mV
o Action potential: Depolarization and
Repolarization
o Threshold: the membrane potential at which
voltage-gated Na+ channels open (-65mV)
o Hyperpolarization: membrane potential
becomes more negative and is the movement
of the membrane potential further away from
zero
o Continuous conduction
o Myelinated axon
o Saltatory conduction
o Action potentials are conducted more rapidly
in myelinated than unmyelinated axons
because they are formed quickly at each
successive node of Ranvier
Synapse
o Synapse: axon terminal branches close to
next dendrites
o Impulse reaches axon terminals
o Triggers neurotransmitter release into
synaptic cleft
Neurotrasmitters
o Any specific chemical agents released by a
presynaptic cell on excitation that cross the
synaptic cleft and stimulate or inhibit the
postsynaptic cell.
o Excitatory: propagate nerve impulses
o Acetylcholine, Glutamate, Epinephrine,
o Inhibitory: inhibit nerve impulses
o GABA, Glycine, Serotonin
o Excitatory and Inhibitory
o Dopamine (mainly inhibitory)
o Norepinephrine (mainly excitatory)

All-or-None Principle
o If a stimulus produces a depolarizing graded
potential that is large enough to reach
threshold action potential proceed without Spinal Cord
stopping and are constant in magnitude. o continuation of the medulla oblongata of the
o If a stimulus is so weak that the brainstem
depolarizing graded potential does not reach o from the foramen magnum to the level of the
threshold returns to its resting level after a second lumbar vertebra (L2)
brief period without producing an action o larger in diameter at its superior end, and it
potential gradually decreases in diameter toward its
Propagation of Action Potentials inferior end
o if an action potential is initiated at one end of o gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which
an axon, it is propagated in one direction exit the vertebral column
down the axon.
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o composed of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and o The basic functional unit of the nervous
sacral segments system is the REFLEX ARC because it is the
o 2 enlargements: smallest, simplest portion capable of
o Cervical enlargement receiving a stimulus and producing a
o Lumbosacral enlargement response
o Conus medullaris: a cone-like region with its o Five (5) basic components of a reflex arc:
tip as the inferior end of the spinal cord and 1. Sensory receptor
extends to the level of the second lumbar 2. Sensory neuron
vertebra 3. Interneuron
o Cauda equina: the numerous roots of spinal 4. Motor neuron
nerves extending inferiorly resemble a 5. Effector organ
horse’s tail
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
o The spinal cord and brain are surrounded by
connective tissue membranes called
meninges
o DURA MATER (outer, thicker)
o ARACHNOID MATER (middle, thin)
o PIA MATER (inner, thin)
o Subarachnoid space
o between the arachnoid mater and the pia
mater Spinal Nerves
o Where CSF flows
o Nerve is surrounded by 3 connective tissue
layers
o Epineurium, Perineurium, Endoneurium
o 31 pairs of spinal nerves
o Cervical (8)
o Thoracic (12)
o Lumbar (5)
o Sacral (5)
o Coccygeal (1)
o Plexus - organization produced by the
intermingling of the nerve

Reflex
o It is an automatic response to a stimulus
produced by a reflex arc.
o It occurs without conscious thought
o Maintains homeostasis
o Types: Monosynaptic and Polysynaptic
Reflex Arc
o The basic structural unit of the nervous
system is the NEURON
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

Brainstem
o connects the spinal cord to the remainder of
the brain
o responsible for many essential functions
o pathway for ascending and descending nerve
tracts
o Parts:
o Medulla Oblongata
o It is the most inferior part of the
brainstem and is continuous
inferiorly with the spinal cord
o Some tracts cross over in medulla
o Reflex centers: regulating heart
Brain rate, blood vessel diameter,
o Main parts: respiration, swallowing, vomiting,
o Brainstem: controls breathing, heartbeat hiccuping, coughing, and sneezing.
rates and reactions to auditory and visual o Nuclei of cranial nerves V
stimuli (trigeminal), VII (facial), IX
o Diencephalon: controls homeostasis (glossopharyngeal), X (vagus), XI
o Cerebrum: controls intellectual (accessory), and XII (hypoglossal)
processes and emotions o Pons
o Cerebellum: maintains body posture and o superior to the medulla oblongata
balance o initiates rapid eye movement sleep
Development of the CNS o help control respiratory movements
o Nuclei for cranial nerves V
(trigeminal), VI (abducens), VII
(facial), and VIII (vestibulocochlear)
o Midbrain
o smallest region of the brainstem
o serves as visual reflex center
▪ Controls movement of head
and eyeball (visual stimuli)
▪ Controls movement of head
and trunk (auditory stimuli)
o part of auditory pathway
o involved in maintaining muscle
tone and coordinating movements.
o nuclei of cranial nerves III
(oculomotor), IV (trochlear), and V
(trigeminal).
o Reticular formation
o It is a diffuse system consisting of
several loosely packed nuclei
scattered throughout the length of
the brainstem.
o controls consciousness, including
the sleepwake cycle
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

o coordinates the rhythmic activities o Relay station for sensory impulses

of swallowing, breathing, and the EXCEPT olfactory
heart rate o Medial geniculate body – auditory
Cerebellum information
o Also known as the little brain o Lateral geniculate body – visual
o It communicates with other regions of the information
CNS through three large tracts: the superior, o Interpretation center for pain,
middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles temperature, and touch
o Functions: 2. Hypothalamus
o Coordinating muscular movements o the most inferior portion of the
o Maintaining posture diencephalon
o Maintaining balance o Mammillary bodies - on the ventral
surface of the diencephalon.
▪ Olfactory reflexes
▪ Emotional responses to odors
o Infundibulum: extends from the
floor of the hypothalamus and
connects it to the pituitary gland
o “Central controller of the endocrine
system”
o Functions: CATEES
3. Subthalamus
4. Epithalamus

o Each lateral hemisphere is divided by a

primary fissure into an anterior lobe and a
posterior lobe
o Cerebellar cortex – gray matter outside
o Folia – ridges of cortex
Cerebrum
o Cerebellar medulla – white matter inside
o Cerebral cortex: gray matter surface
o The white matter of the medulla
o Longitudinal fissure separates two
resembles a branching tree and is called
hemispheres
the arbor vitae
o Gyri: folds
o Cerebellar Nuclei
o Sulci: grooves
1. Dentate
o Corpus callosum: bridge connecting two
2. Emboliform
hemispheres
3. Fastigial
o Cerebral hemispheres
4. Globose
o 4 lobes named for the skull bones
Diencephalon
overlying each of them:
o part of the brain between the brainstem and
▪ Frontal lobe: muscle movement,
the cerebrum
moods, aggression, smell,
o Main components:
motivation
1. Thalamus
▪ Parietal lobe: touch, pain, balance,
o largest part of the diencephalon,
taste, temperature
constituting about four-fifths of its
▪ Temporal lobe: hearing, smell,
weight
memory, abstract thought, judgment
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

▪ Occipital lobe: vision o Limbic System

o plays a central role in basic survival
functions, such as memory, reproduction,
and nutrition
o involved in interpreting sensory input and
emotions in general
▪ Hippocampus
▪ Amygdala
o Ventricular System
o The interior of the tube is lined with a
single layer of epithelial cells called
ependymal cells
o Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear
fluid similar to blood serum with most of
the proteins removed.
▪ It bathes the brain and the spinal
cord and provides a protective
cushion around the CNS
o Choroid plexus – produces CSF
o Arachnoid villi – absorbs CSF and
reabsorbed into blood stream
Cranial Nerves
o A given cranial nerve may have one or more
o Cerebral medulla of three functions:
1. Association fibers connect areas of the o sensory
cerebral cortex within the same o somatic motor
hemisphere. o parasympathetic
2. Commissural fibers connect one o 12 pairs of cranial nerves
cerebral hemisphere to the other (corpus o Olfactory: smell
callosum) o Optic: sight
3. Projection fibers connect the cerebrum o Oculomotor: movement of eyeball,
to other parts of the brain and spinal cord constriction of pupil
o Basal Ganglia o Trochlear: movement of eyeball (superior
o involved in controlling motor functions oblique)
o Trigeminal: chewing, sensations in teeth and
face
o Abducens: movement of eyeball (lateral
rectus)
o Subthalamic nucleus - diencephalon o Facial: facial expression, taste, tear and
o Substantia nigra – midbrain salivary glands
o Vestibulocochlear: equilibrium, hearing
o Glossopharyngeal: swallowing, taste,
salivary glands
o Vagus: certain muscle movements, sensory
impulses
o Accessory: swallowing, head movement
o Hypoglossal: swallowing, speech
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

Special Senses

o Sense of Smell (Olfaction)

o occurs in response to odors that
stimulate sensory receptors in the
extreme superior region of the nasal
cavity, called the olfactory region
o Olfactory pathway:
1. Molecules in air dissolve in nasal
mucus
2. Bipolar sensory neurons transfer
chemical impulse
3. Olfactory bulbs receive impulse
4. Impulse sent to olfactory cortex
5. Odor variety dependent on brain
interpretation

Classification of Senses

o Sense of Taste (Gustation)

o TASTE BUDS: The sensory structures
that detect taste
o Most taste buds are in papillae.
o also located on other areas of the
tongue, the palate, and even the lips
Somatic Sensation and throat
o Mechanoreceptors o taste cells are replaced
o Nociceptors continuously, each having a
o Thermoreceptors normal life span of about 10
o Chemoreceptors days
o Photoreceptors

Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.

Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)
o Substances called TASTANTS
dissolved in saliva, enter the
taste pores
o Five major tastants are
generally recognized: salt,
sour, sweet, bitter, and
umami.
o Anatomy of the Eye
o Sense of Sight (Vision)
o Eyes protected by eyelids and eyelashes
o TEARS: Lubricate the eyes
o Contain bacteriolytic lysozyme
enzyme
o Contain salt and gamma globulin
o Accessory Structures
o EYELIDS (palpebrae): protect the
eyes from foreign objects
o EYELASHES: attached as a double
or triple row of hairs to the free
edges of the eyelids.
o CILIARY GLANDS are modified
sweat glands that open into the
follicles of the eyelashes to keep
them lubricated.
o The CONJUNCTIVA is a thin,
transparent mucous membrane
o The lacrimal apparatus consists
of:
▪ LACRIMAL GLAND
situated in the superolateral
corner of the orbit.
Innervated by CN VII.
Produces tears
• NASOLACRIMAL DUCT
beginning in the
inferomedial corner of the
orbit. Passageway of tears
o SCLERA: the firm, opaque, white, outer
layer of the posterior five sixths of the
eyeball maintain the shape of the
eyeball, protects its internal structures
o CORNEA: avascular, transparent
structure that permits light to enter the
eye and bends, or refracts, that light as
part of the eye’s focusing system. Easy
to transplant
o RETINA is the nervous tunic of the
eyeball.
o It consists of the outer pigmented
layer, and the inner neural layer
▪ RODS - involved in noncolor
vision; night/dark vision
▪ CONES – color vision; visual
acuity; daylight vision
o LENS: is an unusual biological structure.
It is transparent and biconvex, with the
greatest convexity on its posterior side
o Chambers of the eye:
o Aqueous humor
▪ Anterior: between the cornea
and the iris
o Vitreous humor
▪ Posterior: between the iris and
the lens
▪ Vitreous: larger than the
anterior and posterior
chambers.
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe
 Angeles University Foundation – Integrated School
Human Anatomy & Physiology
A.Y. 2021-2022 (1ST SEM – FINALS)

membrane that separates the

external ear from the middle ear.
Aka “Eardrum”
o MIDDLE EAR
▪ AUDITORY OSSICLES: Malleus,
Incus, Stapes
▪ Tensor tympani muscle – CN
V
▪ Stapedius muscle – CN VII
▪ Sound attenuation reflex
o Myopia ▪ They transmit vibrations from
o Hyperopia the tympanic membrane to the
o Presbyopia oval window.
o Astigmatism ▪ Eustachian tube: equalizes
pressure
o INNER EAR
▪ Vestibule – static balance
▪ Semicircular canals – kinetic
balance
▪ Cochlea – hearing
▪ Organ of Corti – contains
supporting epithelial cells and
specialized sensory cells called
hair cells which have hair like
projections at their apical ends

o Sense of Hearing (Audition) and Balance

(Equilibrium)
o EXTERNAL EAR
▪ AURICLE/PINNA: the fleshy part of
the external ear on the outside of the
head
▪ AUDITORY CANAL is lined with
hairs and ceruminous glands, which
produce cerumen
▪ TYMPANIC MEMBRANE is a thin,
semitransparent, nearly oval
Berris, Samantha Jeanne M.
Grade 12 – St. Kolbe