CHAPTER 1:

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SURVEYING

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 1

 1.1. Surveying
Surveying defined as the art,
science and technology of making
feature measurements as are
necessary to determine the relative
position of points above, on or
beneath the surface of the earth, or
to establish such points in a
specified position.
Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 2
 Surveying (cont’d)
As science due to the laws of
mathematics and physics used
in making measurements
As technology due to the
instrumentation, calculation
devices, and mapping
technologies
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 Surveying (cont’d)
O As art due to judgment gained through
experience (skills) , that allows surveyors to
choose the technologies and procedures to do
a project correctly and efficiently
O Survey measurements carried out in
topographic surveying are position, distance,
direction and elevation

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 4

 Application of surveying in
civil engineering

✓The planning and design of all civil

engineering projects need surveying
measurements
✓The execution of any CE project is
based on lines and points established
by surveying

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 Application of surveying in
civil engineering (ct’d)
• To prepare a contour map for fixing sites for
projects (reservoirs, dams, etc)
• To fix alignment of roads, irrigation
canals,…
• To determine altitudes of different
important points on a hill or on below the
surface of the earth

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 6

 Application of surveying in
civil engineering (ct’d)
• To prepare project profiles (longitudinal and
cross sections) in order to determine the
volume of work.
• To determine a layout map for projects and set
out them (water supply, sanitary, and drainage
schemes, etc)
• To demarcate property boundaries
Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 7
 Quiz 1
1. Define surveying (5 marks)
2. Give three components of a
topographic survey (3
marks)
3. List any two instruments of
surveying (2 marks)
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 1.2. Branches of surveying
They are of two kind:
O Geodetic surveying which takes into account
the true shape of the earth (all lines in the
surface are curved lines and the resulting
triangles are spherical triangles)
O Plane surveying which encompasses
surveying in limited areas (the mean surface
of the earth is considered as a plane or its
spheroidal shape is neglected)
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Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 10
 Classification of surveying
Surveying may be classified
based on:
O The nature of the field survey
O The object of survey
O The instrument used
O The method used
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 Classification of surveying (ct’d)
based on the nature of the field survey

Topographical survey which consists of

horizontal and vertical location of certain
points by linear and angular measurements
and which is made to determine the natural
features of a country such as rivers, streams,
lakes, woods, hills, etc and such artificial
features as roads, railways, canals, buildings,
etc.
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 Classification of surveying (ct’d)

Key components of topographic survey

1. Man-made features
2. Natural features
3. Contour lines

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 Classification of surveying (ct’d)

Cadastral surveying which are made to fix

property boundaries, determine areas and
rights associated with such properties.

Hydrographic surveying which deals with

bodies of water for purpose of navigation,
water supply, harbour works or for the
determination of mean sea level.
Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 14
 Classification of surveying
based on the object of survey
(i) Engineering survey undertaken to determine
quantities or to afford sufficient data for the designing
of engineering works or sewage disposal.
(ii) Military survey used for determining points of
strategic importance in terms of security of a country.
(iii) Mine survey made to control, locate and map
underground and surface works related to mining
operations.
(iv) Geological survey used for determining different
strata in earth’s crust.

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 15

 Classification of surveying (ct’d)
based on instrument or method
➢ Chain survey
➢ Theodolite survey
➢ Traverse survey
➢ Triangulation survey
➢ Tacheometric survey
➢ Plane table survey

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 16

 Tape
Measuring tapes are made of steel, coated linen,
or synthetic material. They are available in
various lengths but there are commonly tapes of
20; 30 and 50 m lenght.
Centimetres, decimetres and
metres are usually indicated
on the tape.
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 Plumb Bob
A plumb bob is used to check if
objects are vertical. A plumb
bob consists of a piece of metal
(called a bob) pointing
downwards, which is attached
to a cord. When the plumb bob
is hanging free and not moving,
the cord is vertical
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 Ranging Poles
Ranging poles are used to mark areas and to set out
straight lines on the field. They are also used to
mark points which must be seen from a distance, in
which case a flag may be attached to improve the
visibility.
Ranging poles may never be curved and they are
usually painted with alternate red-white or black-
white bands. If possible, wooden ranging poles are
reinforced at the bottom end by metal points
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 Pegs
Pegs are used when certain points on the
field require more permanent marking.
Pegs are generally made of wood;
sometimes pieces of tree-branches,
properly sharpened, are good enough. The
size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) depends on
the type of survey work they are used for
and the type of soil they have to be driven
in. The pegs should be driven vertically into
the soil
Eng. Léonidas and(Msc)
HABIYAKARE the top should be clearly04/10/2018
visible 20
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 Angular measurement
instruments
The Square: used to set out
right angles
Two types:
✓ Optical square
✓ Prismatic square

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 22

 Modern surveying instruments

1- Theodolite: Establish straight or curved lines, horizontal

and vertical angles.

2- The level and rod: measure difference in elevations.

3- Total station: Theodolite +EDM

4- GPS (global positioning system) receivers.

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Steel tape Level

Total station

Theodolite

GPS

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 1.3. Measurement units

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 Possible measurements in
three dimensions

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 Possible measurements in
three dimensions (ct’d)
There are distance, direction and elevation:
• Linear measurement (Horizontal, vertical
and slope distance)
• Angular measurement (horizontal angle
and vertical angle)
• Position (X, Y, Z)
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 Quiz 2: Fill in the missing information
from figure of slide 26
Type of measurement Measurements
? A, B,C, D, O
? OA
? OB
? OC
? AoB
? AoC
? AB
? AC
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 Measurement units
O In linear measurement ( km,m, cm and mm)
O In area measurement (sq. m, ha and sq. km)
O In volume measurement ( cu. m)
O In angular measurement( either one of three
systems):
O Sexagesimal system
O Centesimal system
O Hours system

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 29

 Measurement units (ct’d)
Sexagesimal system is a system by which the
angle is defined between two radii of a circle
bordering 1/360 (degrees) of the circumference.
The unit is subdivided as follows:
1 circumference = 360o (degrees of arc)
1 degree = 60' (minutes of arc)
1 minute = 60'' (seconds of arc)
1 degree = 60'= 3600''

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 30

 Measurement units (ct’d)
Centesimal system is a system by which a
circle circumference is divided into 400
grades:
➢1 circumference = 400g (grades)
➢1 grade = 100c (centigrades)
➢1 centigrade = 100cc (centicentigrades)
➢1g = 100c = 10000cc
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 Measurement units (ct’d)
Hours system is a measure of time equal to
the 24th part of a circle circumference:
➢ 1 circumference = 24h (hours)
➢ 1 hour = 60m (minutes of time)
➢ 1 minute = 60s (seconds of time)

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 32

 Measurement units (ct’d)
The conversion between the
two systems:
1o= 1.111g 1g = 0.9o
1'= 1.852c 1c = 0.54'
1''= 3.086cc 1cc= 0.324''
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 1.4. Plan, map and scale

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 34

 Plan vs Map (ct’d)
A plan or a map is the graphical
representation, to some scale, of the
features as projected on a
horizontal plane (two dimensions).
➢A map is a small scale
representation of features
➢A plan is a large scale
representation of features
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 Scale
A Scale is the ratio of the distance
between two points on the earth and
the distance between the two
corresponding points on the map.

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 Scale (ct,d)
Methods of scale representation:
1) Written / Verbal Scale: scale expressed in words
e.g.: 1 cm = 1 kilometer
2) Line or graphical scale: it uses a ruler that is
divided into units of distance which shows
graphically the relationship between map distance
and ground distance.

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 37

 Scale (ct’d)
3) Representative Fraction: it
uses a fraction or a ration to
show the relationship between
units on a map and units on the
earth’s surface.
e.g.: 1/50,000 or 1:50,000
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 Office work
The representative fractions and scales recommended for various types of
maps are as follows:

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 Office work
ERROR DUE TO USE OF WRONG SCALE

If the length of a line existing on a plan or map is determined by means of

measurement with wrong scale, the length so obtained will be incorrect. The
true length of the line is given by the relation,

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 40

 Office work
SHRUNK SCALE
It is necessary to draw a scale on a map because as the map shrinks or
expends, the scale line also shrinks or expands with it and thus the
measurements made from the map are not affected.
The ratio of the shrunk length to the actual length is known as shrinkage ratio
(S.R) or the shrinkage factor (S.F).

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 41

 Scale (ct’d)
Effects of scale changes on maps: depending on the
scale, features seem "closer to" or "farther from" the
earth.
A large scale map means the larger the scale of a map,
the closer it approaches the actual size of features on
the earth's surface
➢ Characteristics: small area, high resolution, a large
amount of detail
A small scale map shows larger portions of the earth's
surface and have less detail than large-scale maps
➢ Characteristics: large area coverage, low resolution,
a small amount of detail.
Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 42
 A 1/200,000 map

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 A 1/50,000 map

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 Scale
Example 1.4: Convert the following representative fractions into scales
a) 1/100,000
b) 1/1,000,000
c) 1/20,000

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 45

 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Exercises

1. Complete this table:

Degrees-Minutes-Seconds Decimal degrees

1 23°12’18’’
2 42.885°
3 63.545°
4 87°58’48’’
Solution :
23° + (12´ ÷ 60) + (18˝ ÷ 3600) = 23.205°
42° + (0.885° x 60´) = 42° 53´ + (0.1´ x 60˝) = 42° 53´ 06˝
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1.5. Surveying character of work

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Surveying character of work (ct’d)
Surveying needs the doer to observe high
professionalism and ability in order to deal well
with both field and offices challenges and
deliver a high quality work.
This poses as conditions to:
✓ Be guided by surveying principles
✓ Follow carefully surveying procedures

→ High quality job

Eng. Léonidas HABIYAKARE (Msc) 04/10/2018 48

Principles of surveying (ct’d)
They are:
(i) Location of a point from two control points
(ii) Working from whole to part
(iii) Economy of accuracy
(iv) Consistency
(v) The Independent check
(vi) Safeguarding
(i) Location of a point from
two control points
The relative positions of points to
be surveyed should be located by
measurement of at least two
points of reference, the positions
of which have already precisely
determined and are often
considered definitive.
(ii) Working from whole to
part
It is based on establishing first a system
of control points and to fix them with
higher degree of precision. If it
becomes necessary to work outside the
control framework then it must be
extended to cover the increased area of
operations but with less precise
methods.
E.g.: INES ground control points
 Advantages
The idea of working in
this way is to prevent
the accumulation of
errors and to control
and localize those
errors
 (iii) Economy of accuracy
Surveys are only ever undertaken for a
specific purpose and so should be as
accurate as they need to be, but not more
accurate.
Its working principle is from ‘the part to
the whole’ which means the expected
quality of the output comes from the level
by which the work specifications are
defined.
 (iv) Consistency
Any ‘product’ is only as good as the
most poorly executed part of it.
For example, say the majority of control
on a construction site is established to a
certain designed precision. Later on or
two further control points are less well
established, but all the control is
assumed to be of the same quality.
(v) The Independent check
The independent check is a technique of
quality assurance. It is a means of
guarding against a blunder or gross error
and the principle must be applied at all
stages of a survey.

Wherever there is an opportunity for an

error, there must be a system for checking
that no error exists. If an error exists,
there must be a means of finding it.
 (vi) Safeguarding
Every sensible precaution should be taken to
ensure that the work is not compromised so
as if something unexpected happens to the
original work, the information is not lost.

This can be achieved by protecting the work

and data, establishing and protecting ground
marks that may help, if required, to
recuperate the lost information.
SURVEYING PROCEDURES
Need for surveying procedures

Working in hostile or dangerous

environments needs the respect of:
➢Safety precautions
➢Proven principles
➢Safety standards

This before, during and after a work

 Survey reconnaissance
Survey reconnaissance is a preliminary inspection of
an area to gather information prior to a detailed
survey.
Such an information incudes:
➢ Reference sketch of the ground
➢ General arrangements of lines
➢ Location of main features

Aim: Organize the work in terms of techniques,

instrumentation, logistics and staffs
 Surveying procedure-
Survey operations
Surveying procedures :
➢Fieldwork
➢Office work
➢Care and adjustments
Surveying procedure- Fieldwork

Survey fieldwork consists of making

observations and measurements over a
project area, recording data and returning the
data to the computer or draftsman for
computation, compilation and dissemination.

Prior to fieldwork, some factors should be

considered.
 Surveying procedure
- Fieldwork
- Weather and Terrain: Adverse field conditions may
affect field surveys (accessibility, accuracy, etc)

Assessing weather and terrain can alert the field

parties of the best times, appropriate methods to use
and help prevent or overturn hazardous conditions.
Surveying procedure- Fieldwork
- Personnel: the rate of survey progress often varies in direct
proportion to the training and experience level of the assigned
personnel.

- Equipment: equipment reliability must be considered when

establishing completion dates:
➢ Modern and well-maintained equipment :
↗rate of progress
➢ Older equipment, if properly maintained or adjusted:
↗ accuracy
➢ Failure to repair instruments: ↘ rate of survey

Check and calibration are key

 Surveying procedure
- Fieldwork
- Survey Purpose: the purpose and the type of
survey determine the accuracy requirements and
the accuracy requirements dictate both the
equipment and the techniques used:
✓ Rough techniques → minor survey
✓ More precise and expensive equipment → high accuracy
work
- Errors: all measurements contain errors
- Progress: rates of progress vary depending on
personnel experience and repetition
Fieldwork- Field notes
Field notes: written records of fieldwork which
show what happened in the field

Three general forms:

➢ Tabulation: recording numerical data in tables
➢ Sketching: features in the form of drawings
➢ Description: narrative explanation of features
 Surveying procedure
- Fieldwork
Office work: converting field
measurements to a more usable form.
It is at least a three-fold phase:
1) Computing: mathematical calculations
2) Drafting: maps, plans, charts, reports
3) Designing: design wrt engineering work
Surveying procedure- Care and
adjustments of instruments
Surveying instruments are very delicate and
must be handled with great care esp:
• handling equipment used in field and office
work
• maintenance of the surveying instruments
• Understanding of their limitations
 Group Assignment
Having INES boundary:
➢ Make a field reconnaissance to know all
whereabouts within INES RUHENGERI
➢ Categorize them into manmade and natural
features
➢ Present them on a hand-drawn map
➢ Make a report on features identified during
such a field reconnaissance
➢ Deadline: 08/10/2018 at 8:00 (reports)
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