FACTORS AFFECTING SOUND PROPAGATION

Propagation depends on

Density

elastic properties

type of wave

Factors that affect propagation are

Grain size

Attenuation

Acoustic Impedance

Diffraction

Discontinuity

Anisotropic materials(Grains are at random and different elastic properties in different directions)

ATTENUATION

The loss in intensity of the beam as it passes through a material

Depends upon the physical properties of the material.

Expressed as dB /mm or dB / m

Three main causes

Absorption

Scatter

Loss due to coupling and surface roughness

ABSORPTION

conversion of part of the sound energy into heat.

Due to the temp, the particles in a material are in random motion

As the temperature increases, there will be an increase in particle activity.

As ultrasound propagates it excites the particles.

These particles collide with unexcited particles

Energy is transmitted causing them to oscillate faster and through larger distances.

This motion persists after the sound wave has passed on,
so energy of the passing wave has been converted to heat in the material.

Rate of absorption varies from material to material

Very high in Perspex, Nylon & Lead

Very low in Aluminium

Magnetic hysteresis loss is also a cause for absorption

SCATTERING

For a perfect homogeneous medium , scattering is nil

But material in which the ultrasonic wave travelling is not homogeneous

different acoustic impedance between the material and discontinuities like inclusion or pores and
possibly grain boundaries.

Hence Reflection in random directions

(Eg) cast iron which is composed of a matrix of grains and graphite particles

It is an Anisotropic materials (different properties in different directions)

Each grain has radically different acoustic impedance and produces severe scattering

Materials exhibiting these qualities not only decrease the returned ultrasonic signal due to
scattering

Also produce many small echoes which may mask real indications

SCATTERING

The attenuation coefficient (α) is related to mean grain size D and frequency f

α = K f 4 D3
Where K is a constant for that material and depends on velocity, density and elastic properties

For high frequencies attenuation is mainly due to the energy loss by scattering by individual
grains.

If average grain size D is < 20 λ then α is a function of f4

Attenuation of L wave is less than S wave

When λ = D the scattering is called Stochastic scattering.(random processes that seem to change
in a random way.)

In this type, the loss is directly proportional to grain size.

Unit for attenuation coefficient is Nepers (Np).

1 dB= 8.686Np
 SCATTERING

Larger the size more is the scattering

Gross echo at the bottom of CRT is caused by the reflections from grain boundaries

High in Cast iron, Brass, SS

Larger the wavelength lesser the scattering

Attenuation a function of frequency and grain size

Scatter

The bigger the grain size the worse the problem

The higher the frequency of the probe the worse the problem
 1 MHz
5 MHz

1 MHz 5 MHz

A third cause of attenuation is transmission loss due to the coupling medium and the surface
roughness.

When a probe placed over the smooth surface using a couplant like oil, the amplitude of the
reflected signal varies with the thickness of the couplant.

Intensity of sound also decreases due to surface roughness

To have a better couplant effect for high surface roughness , viscous liquids are to be used

the surface roughness should preferably be less than 25 µm

It is difficult to measure the attenuation level due to all the above losses.

But by measuring the amplitudes of multiple reflections

The attenuation in a solid medium depends on

Heat treatment

Grain size

Viscous friction

Crystal size,

elastic properties

Discontinuities

Hardness

Young’s modulus

COUPLANT

Acoustic Impedance ratio is high between air and solid

100 % reflected due to the air present

To make more sound energy to enter the material the air has to be removed

Air is substituted with a material which got Z ratio value closer to the probe and test material

This is called COUPLANT

the primary purpose of a couplant is to provide a suitable sound path between the transducer and
the test surface

a couplant must wet or totally contact both surfaces of the transducer and test part

the couplant must exclude all air from between the surfaces as air is a very poor conductor of
sound.

the couplant fills in and smooths out irregularities on the surface of the test part – more contact
area.

the couplant aids in the movement of the transudcer over the surface in contact testing.

a practical couplant must be easy to apply and easy to remove. it must be also be harmless to the
part surface.

Barium Titanate to air to steel

0.005% of sound is transmitted into steel

Barium titanate to water to steel

16% of sound is transmitted into steel

This is 1000 times better than air couplant

Z of Barium titanate =35x105 Gm/cm2sec

Z of air =0.0004x105 Gm/cm2sec

Z of Water=1.5x105 Gm/cm2sec

Z of steel=46.5x105 Gm/cm2sec

Couplants used are

Water

Oil

Grease

Glycerine

Oil & Grease mix

Polycell

Plastic material

Swarfega (a brand of heavy-duty hand cleaner)

Water may cause rusting or corrosion

Easy to clean

Oil or grease may protect from corrosion

High viscous couplants are good for rough surfaces

Effectively fill the air gap

Couplant thickness ¼ of Wavelength

 ASME SECTION V ARTICLE 4 - T-433 Couplant

T-433.1 General.

The couplant, including additives, shall not be detrimental to the material being examined.

T-433.2 Control of Contaminants

(a) Couplants used on nickel base alloys < 250 ppm of sulfur.

(b) Couplants used on austenitic stainless steel or titanium < 250 ppm of halides

Contact testing

One part of Glycerin and 2 parts of water with wetting agent is used for smooth surfaces

Light oil for slightly rough suraces

Heavy oil or grease for rough / hot / vertical surfaces

Immersion Testing

Water

Temp should be 20 deg C

Wetting agents are added to avoid air bubbles

 DECIBEL

Logarithmic base unit to compare sound intensities

Actual energy transmitted and received by probe are not known

Comparison between the transmitted and received intensity values

Expressed as ratio

Change in intensity / Amplitude /signal height is expressed as dB

dB = 20 log10 H0/H1
The advantages of the decibel unit are that :-

Large echo height ratios can be given in small figures

1000 : 1 = 60 dB

1000000 : 1 = 120 dB

A reversal of the echo height ratio only requires a change of sign e.g.

10000 : 1 = 80 dB

1 : 10000 = - 80 dB
Multiplication of the echo height ratios corresponds

to the simple addition of a dB value, e.g.

gain factor 2 = + 6 dB

gain factor 10 = +20 dB

gain factor 100 = + 40 dB

Amplitude Ratios in deciBELLS

2:1 = 6dB

4:1 = 12dB

5:1 = 14dB
10:1 = 20dB

100:1 = 40dB

dB H1 H1:H2
H2 Drop
ratio

20 100 10% 90% 10:1

14 100 20% 80% 5:1

12 100 25% 75% 4:1

10 100 33% 67% 3:1

6 100 50% 50% 2:1

2 100 80% 20% 5:4

 Defect Echo

Gain = 20 log ---------------------

Reference echo

Given : FSH 80 %

Find -2 db Value of 80%

Reference echo =H1=80% Defect Echo =H2=?

-2 ÷ 20 = - 0.1 =log

To take antilog use Shift log of - 0.1 = 0.794

80 X 0.79 = 63.5 %

2 db of 80 % = 64%

Given : FSH 50 %

Find -3 db Value of 50%

-3 dB =20 log H2/H1

-3dB =20 log H2 / 50

3 ÷ 20 = - 0.15

Anti log of(-0.15)= H2 / 50

To take antilog use Shift log of - 0.15 = 0.708

0.708 = H2/50

50 X 0.708 = 35.39 %

3 db of 50 % = 35 %