1

THE FUNCTION OF A BUILBING

A shelter is basically a protection from the external environmental elements and the function
of a building is to enclose space so that a satisfactory internal environment may be created
relative to the purpose of the particular building. That is to say, the space within the building
must provide conditions appropriate to the activities to take place within it and satisfactory
for the comfort and safety of any occupants. Thus the space will be designed in terms of size
and shape and in terms of environmental factors such as ireether and ztoiae exclusion, and
the provision o/odequizfe Peel, fight end oir. The fabric of the building must be designed to
ensure that any standards in respect to these are attained.

Elements of a 6nildiag

A building consists of the following elements to satisfy the purpose of design.

uc ura yc em
The stiuctural system of a building is designed and constricted to support and transmit
applied gravity and lateral loads safely to the ground without exceeding the allowable
stresses in its members. Structural system of a building consist of the following elements;
• The superstnicture is the vertical extension of a building above the ground.
• Columns, beams, and loadbearing walls support fioor and roof strictures,
• The substructure is the underlying structure below the ground level forming the foundation
of a building.

Enclosure 52sfezti
The enclosure system is the shell or envelope of a building, consisting of the mo/ exterior
walls, windows, and doors.
• The roof and exterior walls shelter interior spaces from inclement weather and control
moisture, heat, and airflow.
• Exterior walls and roofs also dampen noise and provide security and privacy for the
occupants of a building.
• Doors provide physical access.
• Windows provide access to light, air, and views.
• Interior walls and partitions subdivide the interior of a building into spatial units.

Mechanal and Electrical Syctems

The mechanical and electrical systems o/a building provide essential services to a building.
• The water supply system provides potable water for human consumption and sanitation.
• The sewage disposal system removes fluid waste and organic matters from a building.
• I-heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems condition the interior spaces of a
building for the environmental comfort of the occupants.
• The electrical system controls, meters, and protects the electric power supply to a building,
and distributes it in a safe manner for power, lighting, security, and communication systems,
• Vertical transportation systems carry people and goods from one level to another in
medium- and high-rise buildings.
• Fire-fighting systems detect and extinguish fires.
• High-rise structures may also require waste disposal and recycling systems.
Moisture & thermal

Doœs&Wi bows

Well Sysłems

foundation 'îyslems
The building fabric must be of such a nature that it can withstand safely all the forces to
which the building will be subjected in use. In other words it must have a sleclorc,

This structure is a result of a fabrication and does not move in any appreciable manner under
its loads. Buildings vary widely in form and appearance but throughout history they have all
developed from three basic concepts of structure. These are known as skeletal, solid and

Sheletal structure
As the term implies this consists essentially of a skeleton or framework which supports all
the loads and resists all the forces acting on the building and through the skeletal system all
loads are transferred to the soil on which the building rests.
Simple examples are the North American Indian shelters and the mid-European wiga'oeas
in which a framework of poles or branches supports a skin or tree bark or leafs enclosing
membrane .
This elementary form of a building has developed throughout history into frameworks
which consist essentially of pairs of uprights supporting spaniiing member as shown in the
following figure as r$edJnme, eigid/ra ts and $uifdingj -rime structures. These are
spaced apart and tied together by longitudinal members to form the volume of the building.
In these frames the vertical supports are in compression .

Bui'ldiny
frame

F R AME D OR SKELE PAL CON STRU C T IO N

Skeletal structures in which the floors are suspended from the top of the building by verticai
elements in tension are generally called saspen •d er wspeasisa structures.

Other forms of the skeletal structure are known as grid rmtctiirrs, an example of which is
shown in the figures below.
By its nature the skeleton frame cannot enclose the space within it as an environmental
envelope and other enclosing, elements must be associated with it. The significance of this
olear distinction between the supporting element and the enclosing element is that the latter
can be made relatively light and thin and is not fixed in its position relative to the skeleton
frame — it may be placed outside or inside the frame or may fit into the panels of the frame
as may be seen in examples of contemporary steel or concrete frame structures. Skeletal
structures are suitable for high and low rise, and for long and short span buildings.

In this form of stnicture the wall acts as both the enclosing and supporting element. It tills,
therefore, within the category of fondbeariiig wolf structures, an inclusive term implying a
structure in which all loads are transferred to the soil through the walls. The characteristic of

transfer of loads

this particular form is a wall of substantial thickness due to the nature of the walling
materials and the manner in which they are used, such as in masonry and mass concrete
work.
The Eskimo igloo is an interesting example of this type of constriction (figure 1.2) although
for technical and economic reasons circular plan forms have been less used than rectangular
forms for buildings constructed in this way.
Solid construction in the form of briok and stone wall buildings has been used over the
centuries and, in certain circumstances, in its various modern forms it is still a valid and
economic type of construction for both high- and low-rise buildings. See the following
figure..

I o 0 d bed r ing
yo11s
SOLI D CONSTRUCTION
u s uo I I y I o bui I d in g s
st r u c I u r a I I ,/ I imit e d Con f in e d
I o‘w hg i §h T OF d •h r t sp an s
I qloo Cel/ulor struck ure
C,zo5$ mo/l s fracture

Surface stnictures fall into two broad groups

(i) those in which the elements are made of thin plates of solid material which are
given necessary stiffness by being curved or bent, and
(ii those in which the elements consist of very thin flexible sheet membranes
suspended or stretched in tension over supporting members.
A Zulu woven branch and mud hut ( shown in the following figure) and modem reinforced
concrete sâefl and/ef&d rfal strictures are typical of the first. In this form also the wall,
and the roof, may act as both the enclosing and supporting stricture but the manner in which
particular materials are used results in quite thin wall and roof elements.

to lded or b C K I 0b
Shell dome

Those in the second group are used for roofs and are \yowy gs tejgsi0ll 9lt'uCtttFe8. Ofle
form is typified by the traditional Bedouin tent (See the following figure ) of which
delightful modern applications are available.
Utilising suitably developed membranes this form can now be used for roofing permanent
structures. There are several examples of this type of stnictures in Bahrain.
Air $ gppor ted
Another form in this group, using compressed air as the supporting medium for similar
types of membrane. . In this the membrane is fixed and sealed at ground level and is
tensioned into shape and supported by air pumped into the interior and maintained under
slight pressure (see the following figure ).

Alternatively, inflated tubes may be incorporated which form supporting ribs to the
membrane stretched between them. These are called air-stnbiâsed orpiisu r rfoct res.

In a third form in this group the suspension rfrecntres where the membrane consists of steel
cables suspended from supports and carrying a thin applied cladding and weatherproof
COvering ..
 Introduction StruUnire is an important and integral part of nature and architecture. The
survival of animal and plant life found in nature depends upon their ability to develop a
structural system, through their growth patterns, which fulfills their functional
requirements. Structure in architecture must also be developed as an integral part of its total
design.
Animal and plant life constantly resist external pressures. and forces exerted upon them and
resolve these forces within their structural systems to survive.
Living forms are able to prevent stnictural failure in many instances by moving with the
force, while in architecture applied loads and forces must be resolved within an immovable
structure.
The ability of both nature and architecture to successfully resolve forces within their
systems is dependent to a large degree upon the materlal of the stnictural elements and the
geometry of the system.
The choice of an appropriate structural system in architecture is based on a knowledge of the
physical properties of materials and an understanding of forces and stresses. The validity of
this decision will be revealed in the total design.

JForces
A force can be defined as that which tends to exert mofioJt, compression or tension on a
body .A designer is concerned with the resolution of forces so that a stricture will remain in
equilibrium .
Figure 1 illustrates many of the forces which must be resisted by a building and resolved
within its stnictural system. These forces are can be classified as two types Gravity loads
and Lateral loads.

Gmvi ' foo& are caused by the gravitational pull of the earth and act in the vertical
direction. Therefore, they are also referred to as verticof loads. Gravity loads include the
materials and components that comprise the buildings, as well as people, rainwater, snow,
furniture, equipment, and all that is contained within the building. Gravity loads are further
classified as dead loads and live loads,.

on e i irer *ide

1.1 LIVE LOADS AND DEAD LOADS

 The two primary sources of fNrmf foeds on buildings are 'iB‹d and errtdquates. The
effect of each is to create loads in the lateral (other than vertically downward) direction. Y“or
example, wind creates horizontal forces on a wall as well as vertically upward forces
(suction) on a flat roof.
The main effect of earthquake ground motion is to create horizontal forces in buildings,
although a small amount of vertical force may also exist. Additional examples of lateral
r 4 cuffs, and loads caused
by bfosa aed moring vc6icfm or eq_uipment.
Another way of classifying the loads acting on a buildings is as ,static, dynamic and impac;
Static londi
Static loads are assumed to be applied slowly to a structure until it reaches its peak value
without fluctuating rapidly in magnitude or position. Under a static load , a structure
responds slowly and its deformation reaches a peak when the static force is maximum.

Dynamic loads are those which change rapidly. The rapid changing nature of these loads
can cause some unusual behavior in buildings, which can result in structural failure. Under a
dynamic load , a stricture develop inertial forces in relation to its mass. The two major type
of dynamic loads are wind loads and earthquake loads.

Impact loads
Impact loads are those which are applied m&fen/y. The dynamic effects of an impact load
are at least twice as large as the static effects of the same load applied slowly.
If a 1-lb weight is placed slowly on a spring scale, the scale hand will stop at the 1-lb maric.
If the weight is held just touching the scale and released suddenly, the hand will jump to 2
lb. oscillate, and eventually stop at the 1-1b mark.
If the weigh: is held about 3 inches (in) above the scale and dropped, the hand will reach the
4-1b mark before coming to rest at the 1-lb mark. The higher the drop height, the greater the
impact velocity, and the greater the impact load

The sudden sideways movement of the ground under a building caused by an earthquake is
an impact load of particular importance in building strictures. The effect is the same as that
created when a truck traveling at a constant speed is suddenly stopped by applying the
brakes. The wheels of the truck stop immediately, but the inertia (momentum) of the higher
and more massive tnick body tends to
These live and dead loads induce forces and stresses within the stricture which are
classified as either compression, tension, shear, torque, or bending.

Compression
A compressive force tends to com&use material. Figure 1.2 illustrates a block which has
been deformed by the application of opposing external forces. These external forces pushing
against the block cause the material to become more compact or dense.
Figure 1.3 shows an example of compressive forces in nature. The weight of the stones at
the top of the pile causes compression in the lower stones. The lower stones support the
weight of all the stones above and resist a greater compressive force than the top stones.
This same principle can be observed in architecture (Fig. 1.4). This column is composed of
stones which have been cut and laid to support a compressive force resulting from applied
loads.
 -2 COMPnFSSION

1.3 COM PRESSION IN NATURE

1.4 COMPRESSION IN ARCHITECTURE

Tension
A tensile force tends to stretch material. Figure 1.5 illustrates a bar which has been
deformed by t}ie application of opposing external forces.
These forces stretch the bar and cause tension within the material.
An example of a tensile force in nature is illustrated in Fig 1 6 The weight of the spider
exerts a pull upon its supporting thread causing this thread to be in tension A suspension
bridgee (Fig 1 7) illustrates tensile forces at work in a man-made stricture The main
curvilinear suspension cables and the vertical cables supporting the road bed are in tension.

1.7 TENSION IN A STRUCTURE

 Suspension cable Suspension oable
(in tension)

Hanger cable
(in tension)

Pylon (in compression

FIGURE 4.5 Tensile and compressive stresses in the members ofa su*
sion bridge.
L6 TENSION IN NATURE

eaaaa§• Compressive force Tensile force ea••a§'

- .. ‹ ' ;
:.“ '””‘ '-' ’,. <st*•• .
',

(a) A cable (or rope) preaen¢s no (b) A cable (or rope) would resist an
resistance ¢o an applied compressive applied tensile force. Hence, there would
force. Hence the stress in cable = zero. be a finite ¢eneile stress in the cable

FIGURE 4.3 Stresses in a cable under (a) an applied compressive force and (b) an applied tensile force.

Shear
A shearing force tends to ‹livid an object along a plane parallel with the opposing external
forces. Figure 1.8 illustrates a shearing action. The block shown in this figure has been
separated by the two opposing parallel forces.
Shearing action may be observed in nature. The cantilevered ledge shown in Fig. 1.9 must
resist tremendous shear forces. Shearing forces, in addition to tensile and compressive
forces, exist in practically all the members of a structural system.

1.8 SHEAR
1.9 SMEAR IN NATURE
 shearing force,

Figure 2.14: Shearing stress N —— shearing force P divided by area being

sheared A.

Torque in a shearing sttess.

forces w }lich tend to /wisf an object, resulting
Torque is the result of Fig. 1.to oppose one another and cause theproduces
block to deform,
torque.
of our body
The two testing forces in nature. Eve ry twisting motion
Torque is quite
adequately resisted will result in a Striferel failure. Figure 1.11 iS Tn
Torque which iS ROW failure caused by insufEcie nt resistanCe to torque.
example of struCttlfdl

).10 TORQUE
I.II TORQUE IN A BEAM
Bending
Bending is the result of forces which tend to deflect a member by inducing tension,
compression, and shear. The block in Fig. 1.12 is being deformed by forces which cause
bending.
Forces which cause bending are a common occurrence in nature, and the structures of nature
must resist these bending forces The stem of the flower shown in Fig 1 13 can be bent by
the wind. Internal tensile and compressive forces must resist bending or the stem will break.

Bending in a beam is caused by external forces as shown in Fag 1 14 The external load or
force will cause this simply supported beam to develop internal resistive forces of
compression in the top and tension in the bottom The beam will not fail if the material is
snfficiently strong to resist these internal forces.

1.12 BENDING
1.l4 BENDING IN A BEAM
 1.13 BENDING IN NATURE

(a) Deam bfore“L'ending ”“ ""”“”” (b)Beam after bending ”"” ”

FIGURE 4.15 Demonstration of bending in a beam. In a beam bent with a water•hoIding curvature, as shown in (b), the upper half of the
beam is in compression and the tower half of the beam is in tension.

Stress
Internal forces cause stresses within structural members A stress can be defined as a force
per unit area, and is indicated by the formula: f(stress) = P (force) - A (area).
An internal force in a structural member which causes a stress in a material greater than the
resistive capacity of the material will result in structural failure. Thereforo, sufficient area
must exist within a structural member to resist these internal forces.
Stress can be illustrated in the following examples. Figure 1.15 shows a 1 inch by 1 inch
block resisting an external load of 10 pounds. The tensile stress in this block can be found
by dividing the load (10 pounds) by the area (1 square inch) which is equal to 10 pounds per
10 50

20

1.15 A ONE SQUARE 1.17 SHEAR IN A FOUR SQUARE

INCH BLOCK INCH BLOCK
1.16 A FOUR SQUARE
INCH BLOCK
 square inch. Another example (Fig. 1.16) shows a block with a cross sectional area of 4
square inches resisting a load of 50 pounds The. compressive stress in this block can be
found by dividing the force by the area aad is equal to 12 1/2 pounds per square inch. A
shearing stress equal to 5 pounds per square inch is illustrated in Fig. 1.17. This shearing
stress is found by dividing the force (20 pounds) by the cross sectional area (4 square
inches).

The stress produced in a portion ofa building's stricture is illustrated in Fig. 1.18. In this
example the column has a cross sectional area of 144 square inches and supports a load of
36,000 pounds. The stress in the column is determined by dividing the load by the cross
sectional area and is equal to 250 pounds per square inch. To determine the stress per square
foot, divide 36,000 pounds by the cross sectional area of 1 square foot. This stress is 36,000
pounds per square foot.
The load supported by this column must be transferred to the ground. A stress of 36,000
pounds per square foot would probably be too great for the soil to support. To avoid
overstressing the soil, the base of the column (footing) has been enlarged to spread the load
over a greater area (f- P/A). ’this footing is 3 feet by 3 feet or equal to 9 square feet. The
load transferredJom the footing to the soil would be: 36,000 pounds divided by 9 square
feet or 4,000 pounds for each square/ooh.

36K

COLUMN AND FOOTING 1.19 CONCE NTRATED LOAD ON SNOW

1.18

1.20 SNOW SHOE ON SNOW

1.21 CONCENTRATED LOAD IN HEEk

Additional examples of stress may be observed in the following two illustrations. Figure
1.19 illustrates what might happen if a man tried to walk on snow without snow shoes. The
large stress in the snow is created by the man's weight distributed over the small area of his
foot. If the man weighs 200 pounds and the cross sectional area of his shoe is 30 square
inches, the stress in the snow under his foot is approximately 7 pounds per square inch. The
size of his foot is not sufficient to spread his weight over enough area to prevent the snow
from compressing under the load. When a snow shoe is used, as illustrated in Fig. 1.20, the
load will be distributed over a larger area, and the stress within the snow will be
considerably less. If the area of the •snow shoe is 10 times larger than the area of the man's
shoe, the stress on the snow is 1/10 of7 pounds or less than 1 pound per square inch.
 L.ibflt @atis Guntierrtrateu vvivinri a ver y sin‹tH ;trea qzttt pl•otjtj p tyg ;tp ppg;. j- g rq t .y t
shows that the stress in a woman's heel may be quite large if her weight (120 pounds) is
concentrated within the small area of the heel If the heel is '/‹ inch by '/‹ inch, the area will
be 1/16 of a square inch The stress within tlae heel is 120 pounds divided by 1/16 of a square
inch or 1,920 pounds per square inch. This stress is sufficiently large to crush many
materials.

A moment may be defined as a force acting on an element through a distance. This is

illustrated in Fig. 1.22. The force (P) times a lever arm (L) can be expressed by the formula:
M = P x L.
A moment is illustrated in Fig. 1.23. If a man extends his arm 1 foot and holds a brick
weighing 5 pounds, the moment created about the man's shoulder is relatively small: 5
pounds times I foot or 5 foot pounds. If he extends his arm 3 feet, then the moment is
greater and the load seems heavier. This moment is 5 pounds times 3 feet or 15 foot pounds,
plus some additional moment created by the weight of the arm.
Moments in a beam are found in the same manner. Figure 1.24 shows a 20 foot beam with a
load o f10,00tl pounds concentrated at the center. To find the moment at the center of the
beam, multiply the end reaction (5,000 pounds) by the lever arm (10 feet). The moment is
50,000 foot pounds, The beam must resist this moment internally just as the shoulder of the
man had to resist the moment caused by the brick.

1.22 MOMENT = FORCE x DISTANCE

1.23 MOMENT IN A MAN’S ARM

1.54 MOMENT IN A BEAM

Effect of span and depth of beam en strength

Figure 1.25 shows how the internal resisting forces within a beam can be illustrated. The
internal forces are larger at the center and gradually decrease toward the supports. The
internal resistive moment within the beam is also reduced as the external moment is
reduced; however, the internal moment must be equal to the external moment if the beam is
to resist the applied load.

The distance between the internal compressive and tensile forces is on important factor in
the design of a beam. Figure 1.26 shows the internal forces as they might appear in two
different beams one shallow and one deep In the shallow beam the forces are large because
the distance (lever arm) between these forces is small, while in the deep beam the forces are
considerably smaller because the lever arm is larger This would generally mean that less
material is required to resist internal forces in deep beams.
 1.25 FORCES IN A BEAM

1.26 FOBCES IN A SHALLBW

BEAM AND A DEEP BEAM

The importance of depth in beam design is illustrated in Fig. 1.27. When a flat piece of
paper is held at one end only, it will easily bend under its own weight because the internal
lever arm is extremely small If the paper is folded, as illustrated in Fig. 1.28, the lever arm
of the resisting moment is large, and the paper will not bend under its own weight.

This same principle can be observed in nature. A smallJa/ leaf supported at one end
deforms easily (Fig. 1.29). A corrugated palm leaf supported at one end could extend much
further without deformation (Fig. 1.30). Its increased depth provides the necessary
resistance to prevent bending.

I.27 BENDING IN A
1. S8 FOLDED PAPER
SHEP T OF PAPER 1.29 BENDINC IN A LEAF

1.30 FLUTED PALM LEAF

 The efficiency of a beam is increased by making the section deep with most of the material ’
at the extremities—farther from the neutral axis—where the maximum bending stresses
occur.

Beam depth is an important consideration fer reducing bending stresses and limiting
vertical deflection.
Deeper beams are subject to lateral buckling due to the stress caused by the external loading.
Lateral buckling can be induced in a stnictural member by compressive stresses acting on a
slender portion insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction.
Increasing the beam width increases the beams resistance to lateral buckling.

Columns
The geometrical shape of a structural member plays an important role in its ability to resist
bending forces and support loads. It is difficult to stand flat sheets of paper on edge. In this
condition the paper is unstable and will buckle and collapse under its own weight as shown
in Fig. 1.31. When the paper is rolled into a circular tube, as illustrated in Fig. 1.32, it can
support more than its own weight.
This same principle may also be observed in nature. A flat blade of grass bends under its
own weight, as shown in Fig 1. 33. Some grasses, however, are able to grow several feet
without bending because of their circular cross section This is illustrated in Fig 1. 34
These examples indicate that column sections can sustain heavier loads if they are round,
square, or have a large proportion of their material at the periphery (Fig. 1.35).
Less efficient column shapes are essentially flat and, therefore, easily bent under heavy
loads.
The length of a column influences its load carrying capacity. This can be illustrated with a
yardstick. When a man leans on a yardstick, shown in Fig. 1.36, it will easily bend under his
weight, but a short section of the same yardstick will be difficult to bend.

1.31 T'APER COLUMN “ 1.32 VERTICAL PAPER I.33 FLAT CRASS BLADE
 JL

.34 CIRCULAR GRASS 1.35 EFFICIENT COLUMN SECTIONS

STEM 1.36 YARDSTICK

kffeet of Materials on Strength

Applied loads cttuse internal resistive forces in stnictural members which in turn produce
stresses within these structural. members. If the types of stresses can be determined, then an
appropriate material can be ohosen to provide a stable and efficient structural system.
Some of the more common building materials used in structural systems are shown in Table
1.1. . This table shows that the ability of a material to resist forces vaties considerably.

Steel, for example, is extremely strong in tension while concrete and masonry are very
weak in tension. Wood is strong in tension although it has less than one tenth the tensile
strength of steel.
Steel is almost at efficient in compression as it is in tension. However, the shape and
unsupported length of a steel member affects its ability to resist compressive forces
effectively without bending.
capacity in compression is only one
whose basicg}l ÎtS designvirtue is compression, is 0ften limited in
Concrèteis strong in compressionalthou
tenth that of steel. Malt› efficient in
bearins capacity by thestrength of the mortar. wood, like steel, is »m y •*
load
compression as it '^ in te*s’o“

“ T:\b I e 1.
h- •e ‹›f des i 'n tre s es for t › I t

TENU ION COt'JPREs S10 4 SHEAR

10,OOO

50
i,›
i‹›‹› 8¢
 Stresses within a beam will vary from zero at the center of a symmetrical beam to a
maximum stress at the top and bottom edges. Since the stresses near the center are relatively
small, the area in the central section of the beam does not utilize the stress potential of the
material. Figure 1.37 shows a rectangular section and illustrates approximate distribution of
bending stresses within the section.
Rolled sections of steel are designed to place material at the top and bottom where it is most
effective. Figure 1.38 shows a wide flange steel section and illustrates the stress distribution
within this section. The stress diagram indicates that additional material near the center
would not appreciably increase the efficiency of the section. The small additional resistance
to bending, made possible by additional material near the center, would not sufficiently
increase the elficiency of the beam.

1.37 RECTANGULAR BEAM AND 1.38 WIDE FLANGE BEAM AND

STRESS DIAGRAM STRESS DIAGRAM

Concrete, as previously mentioned, is very weak in tension but strong in compression. When
only concrete is used in a beam, the lower portion of the concrete will easily pull apart and
beam will fail. However, when steel rods are placed in the lower portion of a concrete
beam, they effectively resist tensile forces in this area. This beam takes structural advantage
of the concrete in compression and the steel in tension. Figure 1.39 shows a section through
a portion of a concrete slab and illustrates how the stresses are distributed within this slab.
Note that the concrete is highly stressed at the top of the slab and that this stress drops
to zero near the center. The steel takes all of the tensile stress in the lower portion of the
slab.

The concrete in the lower half of the slab is used only to hold the steel in place. If some of
the concrete between the steel bars is removed and the steel bars grouped, a concrete joist
system is formed, as illustrated in Fig. 1.40.

1.39 CONCRETE SLAB AND 1.40 CONCRETE JOIST AND

STRESSDIACRAM STRESS DIACRAM
 The efficiency oftl e system increases as the depth of the joist is increase‹i.
Removal af fee excess concrete in the fower ortion, which was not oy^structv.re.1 value,
rcduces the dead load and provides greater live load carrying capacity for the system. The
material l‘equi7ed for a concrete joist system will be considerably less than that required for
a slab system of equal span and load.

Neutral plane,
No mpressive generally referred U mer hall oi beam in
to as neut.ral axis compression
Compresoive
stress

Ten site 8Oss 'ection

(a) Beam in three dimensions

FIGURE 4.16 The location of the neutral axis in a beam under

$tress distribution on a small length, PQSR, of the beam io Figure 4.J 5.
bending stresses. Note that the neutral axis i$, in fact, a neutral
plane. It is called the neutral axis because we genera])y draw a
beam in two dimensions—i n cross section—in which the neutra
plane is shown as a line.

eteei reinforcing in oottom

reinförcng
Figure 8.5: Bending in a concrète beam without and with steel
 Reinforced concrete beams depen‹ting on the stresses develop can be reinforced in two
different ways.
A singJmia/om& •em is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the
tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.

A Hobli-rein/erce‹f lens is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete
element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression
The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone ofa
concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive 1vfoment(positive moment), extra
reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the eection.

Neither the concrete joist system nor the concrete slab system takes full advantage of
concrete's ability to resist compressive forces over its entire area. Concrete is utilized more
efficiently in systems which primarily resist compressive forces.
One method of obtaining a better utilization of concrete in beams is by pre-stressing orpost-
tensioning the concrete. Figure 1.41 illustrates a simple concrete beam under load. The dark
triangle represents tensile stress and the lined triangle represents compressive stress in the
beam.
If, as in Fig. 1.42, the steel rods in the bottom of the beam are. stretched and secured, this
would (without any external load) cause a compressive stress in the bottom and a small
tensile stress in the top of the beam. When an external force is applied, as in Fig. 1.43, the
entire cross section would then be under compression. This compression, through the entire
beam depth, represents a better utilization of the properties of concrete than
does the reinforced concrete beam shown in Fig. 1.40

l.dl REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

1.42 POST-TE NSION BEAM WITHOUT LOAD

1.43 POST•TENSION BEAM WITH LOAD

Figure 1.44 illustrates the relative sizes of beams constructed of different materials and
spanning a given distance with the same external load. These beams are drawn te the same
scale. The concrete and wood beams are similar in size while the steel beam is much
smaller.
Figure 1.45 shows typical columns of various materials. These sketches represent. columns
of equal length and loading conditions. The wood and reinforced concrete columns are
similar in size while the steel column is smaller. The masonry pier ml4st be several times
larger than the other columns.
*. ' .'
° .•
‘ ' . °p
’

ci. ’
,°.
- °r p.
.’ pp','p '.
R.
1.44 RELATIVE SIZE OF
BEAMS

6
w •
‘ ’ •‘

1.45 RELATIVE SIZE OF COLUMNS

This chapter has illustrated that external forces or applied loads cause various types of
internal resistive forces and stresses. To obtain a stable structural system, these internal
forces must be resisted within the structure. The geometry and materials of a structural
system determine the ability of a structure to adequately resist external forces,
A keen observation of materials, form, and nature is helpful in obtaining an understanding
of the basic principles of structures. The principles and structural materials introduced in
this chapter are very important to the understanding of structures.
The chapters which follow will be divided into two divisions: stnictural analysis and design
analysis which will deal with many structural forms used singly or in combination with
other forms to create architecture.

SUMMARY

1. A force can be defined as that which tends to exert motion, compression or tension.
2. A compressive force tends to condense material.
3. A tensile force tends to stretch material.
4. A shearing force tends to divide an object along a plane parallel with the opposing
external forces.
5. Torque is the result of forces which tend to twist an object, resulting in a shearing stress.
6. Bending is the result of forces which tend to deflect a member by inducing
tension, compression and shear.
7. Internal forces cause stresses within stnictural members.
8. A moment may be defined as a force acting through a distance.
 BEARING WALL
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Introduction A bearing wall is a structural system that distributes loads which spread
gradually through a vertical or near vertical continuous mass to supports. These loads
create internal compressive forces and stresses in the wall.
Examples of the bearing wall can be found in nature. One example is a 700 foot high
natural rock foundation"in Utah (Fig. 2.1). The rock formation is a result of erosion which
has not removed the more heavily stressed bearing material, The resulting formation is
wider at the base than at the top which distributes the accumulation of loads over a larger
area and contributes to the stability of the formation.
Another example of a bearing wall in nature is the Brazilian ant hill shown in Fig. 2.2. The
conical ant hill is constnioted of many small .pieces. The increased width at the base of the
cone distributes the accumulation of loads over a larger area and provides some natural
stability. The single exterior epening appears at the top where it does not disrupt the
stnictural continuity of the wall (Fig. 2.3).

NT *“’
 Lord Distribution

Thg distribution of forces in a bearing wall is similar tc the distribution of foices in the
Brazilian ant hill and the natural rock formation. The weight of the wall increases towatd
its base. If the compreBsive stress (f= P/A) of the meteriel is to remein approximately
constant, then the arci must incrense as the load increases; thus the wall must become
thicker toward the base. The resulting shape of the wall section, illustrated in Fig. 2.4,
resembles a triangle and is called a battered wall. This shape of bearing well is quite
common when constricted of weak compressive materials.’
The increin in the width at the base of the battered wall distributes the total weight of the
wall over large ai'ea of Oil. As a result of this distribution, the weight ,of the wall does not
exceed tire bearing capacity of the coil

A fearing irn2f is a compressive member that is continuous in one direction that distl'ibutes
vertical loads which spresd gradually to the support (usually soil). It differs from a
continuous row of adjacent columns in its ability to spread the load out along ite length
(acting as a beam; Figure 7.7) and to provide inherent lateral resistance in the plane of the
wall (diaphragm: Figure 7,8). Both of these actions result from the internal shearing
stresses that can develop within the.wall.

Figure 7.7: A bearing wall spreads concentrated loads along its length as a..
result of vertical shear resistance; the same load applied to a continuous.
row of columns remains concentrated in a single column.

its length as a resd,

Figure 7.8: A bearing wall provides lateral stability along
lackin9
of horizontal shear resistance (diaphragm action); thiG Is
continuous row of columns.
 A vertical bearing wall may be constructed with materials strong in compression (Fig2.5).. 3
The stress in this well increases toward the base since the thickness of the wall does not
vary and the area remains constant. This type of wall is not as structui ally efficient as a
battered wall since the material in the top is not fully stressed.
The at ea of the base of this, wall is smaller than the battei ed wall, and the load of the wall
may exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. Increasing the area under the base of the wall
with a footing, as shown in Fig. .5, will distribute the total weight of the wall over a larger
area of soil.

The distribution of live and dead loads within the bearing wall can be illustrated with
several sketches.

Figure 2 6 illustrates typical forces acting on and within a bearing wall. For‘ maximum
stnictural efficiency, joists or beams must be closely spaced to distribute the load evenly
thi‘ougliout the entii‘e wall The triangular shaded areas on the elevation of the wall
illustrate the approximate load distribution of each joist, This load distribution increases
uniformly from top to bottom throughout the entire wall. The uniform load distribution will
cause a gradual increase of stress in the wall and a uniform stress on the footing and the
soil.

If the structural continuity is disrupted by • ••be opening as illustrated in Fig, 2,7, the
stress will not tncrease uniformly threughout the wall and the loads on the footing will not
be unifoi ms Notice the increase in load distributioti around the opening. This beai'ing wall
is less efficient than the wall illustrated in Fig, 2.6 since the loads are not transferred
directly and uniformly to the footing.

2.6 STRESS IN TYPICAL BEARING WALL

>- OPENING IN BE
IN G W,q ,t,
 Figure 2.8 shows a portion of a bearing wall with the loads spaced at wider intervals than in
Fig 2.6. The load distribution within the wall is not as uniform under this type of loading.,
The intei'nal stresses vary considerably near the top of the wall, but they ai'e beginning to
show some degree of uniformity toward the base.
This type of bearing wall is not as efficient in the distribution of loads and i‘esistance to
forces as is a wall with closely spaced loads.

When beams are widely spaced as shown in Fig. 2.9, heavy concentrated loads are
transferred to the wall These heavy loads may tend to curse the wall below the beams.
Bearing plates are frequently used to distribute the concentrated load from the beams over a
larger wall area, This will reduce the concentration of stresses on the top of the wall, as
shown in the sketch. A portion of the wall between supports is non-bearing. The stress near
the base of the wall will not be as uniform as Fig. 2.6 or 2.7 and the distribution of the load
to the footing will cause unequal stresses in the footing. The sketch shown in Fig. 2.9
demonstrated that a bearing wall under widely spaced concentrated loads is not an efficient
structural system. A mpre efficient use of material is obtained by increasing the wall
thickness beneath these concentrated loads, as illustrated in Fig. 2.10, These loads are
concentrated at points of larger, area called pilasters. Less wall material can be used
between pilasters because the force is considerably less in the wall than in the pilasters. The

- WIDELY SPACg'D BEAMS

ON A BEARING WA95

8-8! STABIMTY OF TR IANGLE

AND RECTANGLE

2.10 CON CENTRATED LOADS

ON PILASTERS
 toottng Js ai3o eniargea tJnoer tne pnaxter @ equanze trio uisviiuuviuii
The wall between the pilasters is not required to carry more than its own weight and may
be considered a non-bearing wall. This type of construction closely resembles the post and
beam system in which the loads are concentrated and carried to the ground through piers or

These examples indicate that the bearing wall is most effioient when
the loads are relatively uniform and closely spaced along the entire length of the wall with
few, if any, openings in the wall

Lateral Stability

In order for a bearing wall to fall over, the resultant of all the lateral and vertical forces
must fall outside of the base of the wall. If the development of tensile forces is to be
avoided (if a masonry wall is not reinforced), then the resultant of all the lateral and vertical
forces must be further restricted to the niiddle third of the wall at any height.

Figure 2 I l compares the stability of two geometric forms the triangle and the iectangle
The cross sectional areas of most bearing wells are either rectangular or triangular. The
centei’ of weight of the triangle is clQsei‘ to its base than is the center of weight of the
rectangle. This lower center of gravity in the triangle makes it more resiative to overturning
than the rectangle. The broad b8so of the mangle also contributes to its stability.

The battered wall is an effective means of developing lateral stability with weak
compressive materials. A more efficient method of developing lateral stability should
considered when strong compressive materials are available.
Figure 2.12 illustrates a method of obtaining lateral stability by the addition of buttresses to
a thin straight rectangular wall of uniform thickness. Buttresses increase the stability of the
wall through the triangulation of a portion of the wall. This method of developing stability
is not the most efficient. It requires the addition of more material than is necessary to
sustain the applied loads. The buttresses in this illustration stabilize the bearing wall
whereas the pilasters in Fig. 2.10 transfer concentrated loads to the footing.
The most efficient method of developing stability is through geometry instead of mass.
This can be demonstrated with playing cards. Figure.
2.13 shows that two cards placed end to end forming a stra'bht wall would not be stable
unless supported.

' STABILITr or PIN SECTION

212 BUTTRESSED BEAI8NCWALL
 hta0nity without additional support is possioie wneti own w'u• •'» p.«••• - o- - p.-• .
one another as shown in Fig 2 14 This method is employed to stabilize the bearing wall. (
Fig. 2. IS) Fig. 2.16 shows the stability may be obtained with a single curved card .The

stability of card is increased as the radius of curve is decreased. The cylindrical and the
undulating walls shown in fig. 2.17 are examples of stable bearing walls.

These examples have shown how stability of bearing walls can generally be obtained
through the careful use of geometry

2.14 STAgiLIZED TiIIN SECTION,

2.16 CURYED SETioN

2•l7 CURVEDJarLs
 DESIGN ANALYSIS

The design of the primitive shelter shown in Fig. 2.18 was an ingenious application of basic
structurel principles using nibble stone. Combining wall and roof in â BÎngle form, acting as
both structure and space enclosure, this shelter developed naturel stability through the
geometry, of the cone. The circuler plan permitted the stones town dJ bear against one
another as the diaineter of eaoh course decreased toward the top. The use of this crude
irregular material, assombled without mortar, depended upotl gravity for rigidity. The walls
increased in thickness toward the base, providing stability. Unlike the direct structurel and
functional simplicity of lhe ant hill, this man-made gtnioture demonstrates an exemple of
structurel discontinuity through the introduction of an openin8 at the base of the bearing
wall. The location of an opening at a point of heavy load concentration required a means of
diverting the weight of the wall above to either side of the opening. In this. exemple, the
huge stone lintel used to bridge the opeiàng öecomes the largest-single construction
element. Where large stones were not available, voids were often spanned by an arch or
corbel.
Temple ofhonis
The pylons of the Egyptian temple illustrate an example of stability developed through
mass, employing the bettered wall (Fig. 2.19). Forty feet thick at the base, the masonry
walls slope inward and upward to a height of 100 feet. The low center of gravity and thick
base of this near- triangular mass effectively resist overturning The batter spreads the
enormous weight of the wall over a wide ground area at the base preventing undue
settlement of the structure. The batter. also spreads the weight over a larger wall area
toward the base.

This maintains the stress within the stnictural capacity of the wall material. The great
thickness and immense weight developed by the pylons limited the size of openings to very
small penetration. These could be easily spanned with short stone lintels which ceused a
minimum of disturbance in the vertical distribution of loads.

2.8 ÜNMIWYEBAARacw*ri
STRUCÎURETRULIÆ

2.19 PYLONS. TEMPLE OF HORUS

EDFU. 237-57 B.C.
 Medieval bam
Tht Medieval bam show u in Fig. 2.21 illustrates a method
of developing stability in the
wall by the addition A more economical use Of materials than
battered walg,
these buttresse s provide GäSS ät iS0lated points along the call. This
several points stiffens the relatively high tuin W8ll 8nd provides increased thickness at
geometry stability through the
OVeftuming,of tnangulation. While
those aiong the theSupport
SÏdes buttresses of th»
concentra tar to
ted loads
end as
wall provide
well as resistanthe
resisting cet
exerted by the tiub»r roof The stone walt between hru«t
these side buttresses are es sentially
non-bearing walls.

2.21 OLD TIT£IE BARN.

BRADFORD ON-AYO 2.23 MISSION CHURCH. NEW MEXICO.
17th. CENTU

Mission church
Figure 2.23 illpstrates the influence of materials upon the design of a bearing wall in the
Southwestern United Statea. The design of this stnicture is influenced by the physical
properties of adobe, a sun dried mud and-grass building block..
Thick battered walls provide stability and distribute loads over a large area preventing the
weak stiuctural material from being crushed under its own weight. The excessive mass of
thick walls is justified since it acts as insulation against the oppressive heat of the region.
The very close spacing of the projecting roof timbers limits the load carried by each and
permit a uniform distribution of the roof loads, thus avoiding a concentration of heavy
loads on the weak bearing material. The narrow openings are spanned with short exposed
lintels which express the distribution of loads over these openings.
 ground floor plan

Mona&rock balding
The limitations of the masonry bearing wall as a structural system for multistory buildings
became evident in the Monadnock Building (F'ig 2 24)
The massive walls which are sixteen stories high increase in thickness toward the base to
spread the load and prevent the brick from being crushed beneath the enormous
accumulation of weight. The wall thickness is expressed by the deep openings. The vertical
alignment of voids and solids permits loads to be transferred directly to the ground. The
bearing wall, when used in buildings of great height, consumed a large portion of floor area
at the lower levels and limited the continued use of this structural aystem for multistory
buildings.

Unity temple
The reinforced concrete church shown in Fig 225 illustrates a method of obtaining stability
in bearing walls through geometry. The strength of reinforced concrete allows the
monolithic walls to be relatively thin. The walle, lacking tbe stability developed by mass
have been turned 90 degrees at the comers to develop rigidity end to provide resistance to
overturning. Each independent se8ment of folded wall tends to develop its own stability.
Glass has been inserted between these segments to provide a limited quantity of mtural
illumination, while emphasising the structural independence of each segment. . —
 2.26 INTER-FAITH CENTER. BRANDEIS
UNIVERSITY. xBRAMOVITfi. UŚ5

Inter faith center

Figure 2.26 illustrates an example of stability resulting from the geometry of the curved
plane. Fired bricks, a strong compressive material of uniform aizø and quality, have been
assembled to create two tøll slender walts. These walls have been stabilized by thu
geometry of their curvature rather than mass. This curvature resists the tendency of the
walls to overturn, thus preserving their narrow width and resulting in an economy of
material. The geometry of.the structure creøtei two large natural openings which do not
appreciably affect the stnictuial continuity of the system.

SUMMAR* ØEARINGWALL

2 .It is most effiGient when uniformly loaded.

3. Øøometry is more eifiøient than mg9S in developing stabilİt$.
of the sySt»o ønd should be
4 Openin8Swithin the Wdİl dismpt the structural continuity
’limited an gİEC and Humber
ãİ/•
5. Naturalopenings exist baweøn opposing pairs of bearing,
 1

Ch.3
POST AND BEAM

The post and beam is a structural system which distributes loads to supports through a linear
arrangement of horizontal and verticd members. The vertical members are referred to as
posts or columns and resist primarily compressive forces. The horizontal members are
referred to as joists, beams, or girders, and resist bending forces and shear.

Posts are quite common in nature. Typical examples are the human leg, tree trunks, and
flower stems. In contrast, the horizontal beam, and therefore the post and beam system, is
practically nonexistent in nature. There are many forms in nature which may resemble the
post and beam system; however, the beam form is curvilinear. These curvilinear beam forms
distribute loads by either tension or compression with little, if any, bending.

The Banyon tree has a growth pattern which resembles the post and beam system (Fig. 3. l).
Long extended horizontal limbs are supported by vertical growth. These limbs carry their
own weight and are not intended to support large external loads or forces.

3.I BANYAN TREE

Load Distribution

The most direct manner of transferring loads through a post and beam system is usually the
most eificient and satisfactory method. The members of this system often reflect the
proportion of load that they carry, as illustrated in the following examples.

When two loads of 150 pounds each are placed on a beam, equidistant from the center
support, the system is in equilibrium as illustrated in Fig. 3.2. The total load carried to the
ground is 300 pounds. If this system is inverted it would be similar to the post and beam
system shown in Fig. 3.3. One half of the concentrated load is transferred horizontally to each
end of the beam where it is transferred to the column and then vertically to the ground. The
columns support loads of 150 pounds each and are of equal size.
 Fitiiii e 3.4 shows o beam with t88equ Ou fi *TJd éUâ Un09Uitl tlistance from the centei
support, If the weight of the load multiplied by its distance from the support on one side is
equol to the weight of the load• multiplied by its distance fi‘om the suppoi't on the other side,
the moments will be equal end the system will be in equilibrium If this system is inverted it
would be similar to the post and beam system shown in Fig 3 5 in which the concentrated
load of 300 pounds is located near one end of the beam A greater portion of the load is
transferred horizontally to the lefl support in this example than is transferred to the right
support This unequal tlislribution of load supported by the columns is reflected in the
different column sizes

3.2 EQUILIBRIUM WITH EQUAL LOADS

3.3 EQUAL COLUMN LOADS

3.4 EQUILIBRIUM WITH UNEQUAL LO s

3.5 UNEQUAL COLUMN LOADS

A post-and-beam assembly works well for gravity loads. Under gravity loads, the beam is
subjected to bending, Because there is no connection between the post and the beam the
bending iii the beam is not transferred to the post. Fig.2. Consequently, the posts are under
pure compression , no banding.
Under lateral loads (wind and earthquake), the post-and-beam assembly is theoretically
unstable. When the lateral loads are within the plane of the post- and-beam assembly, the
beam tends to slide over the column, and the column turds to overturn or slide along its base,
Fig. 3(a)
A frame is similar to apost-and-beam assembly, except that the members of the subjected
frame (the columns and beams) are mnnected together. The connection between column and
beam can be upln eonnectton, giving a pin-connected frame, or it can be arigid connection,
giYing a rigid frame.

Loads may also be distributed along the entire length of a beam as shown in Fig. 3.6. This is
the most common loading situation in stnictural deign and is referred to as an uniformly
distributed load. This uniform load is transferred equally to each column and therefore the
columns are the same size If unequal loads are distributed along a beam as shown in Fig. 3.7,
the distribution of the load to the columns is not equal, and the column sizes required indicate
this unequal distribution.
 3
Rotation
of beam
here

Post

FIGURE 2 U nder graVjty loads, the

beam in a post-and-beam structure is
subjected to bending, which causes it to
rotaÏe at the joint. Because of the
absence of a connection between the
post and the beam, the rotation of the
beam at the joint is not transferred to the
post. The post is, therefore, subjected to
compression only.
(a) Instability of a post-and- (b) Instabilité of a posé-and-beam
beam structure under in-plane arructure under out-of-plane
lateral loads lateral loads

8VURE 3 Under the action of both in-plane and out-of-plane lateral loads, a post-and-beam structure is unstab

UNIFORM LOAD ON BEAM

3.6 3.7 NON-UNIFORM BEAM LOAD

All of the vertical applied loads on the beam will be equal to the totd load that the columns
must support and transfer to the ground. The summation of all vertical forces acting
downward must be equal to the summation of all the Yertical resisting’ forces acting upward
if the structure is to remain in equilibrium.

A pictorial view of a simple post and beam system is shown in Fig. 3.8. The two end frames
are similar to the frame shown in Fig. 3.3. When 1000 pounds is concentrated at mid-span on
the beam the load will be distributor throughout the entire system to the ground. One half of
this total load (500 pounds) is transferred horn the beam to each frame. This 500 pound load
at the center of the frame beam is transferred equally to the columns. Each column supports
250 pounds. The central beam carries the greatest load in the system and is therefore larger
than either of the frame beams. Each of the columns supports the same load and is of equal
 3’9 POST AND BEAM. UNIF'ORM LOAD
3.8 POST AND BEAM . SINGLE LOAD

Bays
A bay is an internal division of a repeating structural frame defined by the column (or bearing
well) spacing. Simple stnictural bays consist of columns along all four sides of the structural
boys (Figure 9,15). while simple in eppearmce, this layout results in the columns in the
center having the greatest load (that of a full bay), side columns having loads haif that of
those in the center (half bays), and comer columns having loads only one-fourth that of the
center (quarter bays). To equalize the loading on all columns, half-bays can be created on the
perimeter by using overhanging beams. This equalizes the load on columns and reduces the
number of columns requéed.
i›

i ” '
. . . . < .. - -• L- - - -

(a)

Figure 9.15: Structural bays: (a) simple bays, 24 columns required, (b)
overhanging bays on two sides, 20 columns required; and (c) overhanging
bays on four sides, 15 columns required.

Figure 3.9 shows a post and beam system which rorms one bay. Each piece of the decking
carries only a small portion of the total applied load. The decking distributes the applied
unifoztâly upon tbe two beams. Eacb beam carries one half of the total deck load and is
deeper than the shallow decking. Each column supports one half of the beam load and is
equal in size. Note the geometry of the members comprising this system. The roof decking
supports a light load, and, since its principal function is that of a roof covering, it is wide and
shallow. The baams must support arger loads; therefore, they are narrow and deep.
 The fOll0wing examples illustrate how loads are dismbuted in multiple bay systems.
rigur93.10 shows two separate bays similar to the bay of Fig. 3.9. Each bay may be divided
into four areas of equal size and weight. This is iIlUStfated by the shaded area on one bay.
Each beam carries a load of two areas or one half the total bay load. Each column Stlp orts
one half of the beam load which is the load of one area.
Figure 3.11 shoWS these two bays combined. in this system each of the four beams carries
peas as in the previous example. The six columns do not support equal loads and are
unequal in size. The end columns support only one area each, while the center columns
suppoft two areas each. TWo c0llmln sizes will be required if they are to re0ect the vertical
load that each column must support.

3.10 TWO SINGLE BAYS

8.11 TWO BAYS COMBINED

In Fig. 3.12 the two bays have been combined in another way which alters the distribution of
the loads from the previous example. The end beams still carry two areas. The center beam
carries four areas which require this beam to be larger than the end beams. The center
columns support two areas and are larger than the comer columns which• support one area

Two bays are shown,in Fig. 3.13, one placed upon the other. The total area load distribution
of the top bay is similar to that discussed in example 3.10. The besms in the lower bay carry
the same areas those in the upper bay and are identical in size. The upper columns each
support one area The lower columns support the load from the upper columns as well as one
area from the lower barn, or a total of two areas. The lower columns are, therefore, larger
than the upper columns.

3.12 ALTERNATE COMBI NATION

A combination of four staclied boys is shown in Fig. 3.14. All of the benins in flits example
carry the same load end are equal in size. The load distribution in the columns is not equal.
Each center column in the top boys supports two trees, end the comer columns support one
area. The center columns in the lower bays support four areas, end the corner columns
support two areas. The various column siz.es shown in this figure reflect the foods which they

The post and beam system may be expended by the addiñon of bays, bolh horizontally atid
vertically. The distribution of loads throughout th0se multiple bay systems is reflected by the
various sized members which comprise these systems.
Column md beoin sizes frequently remain unchanged even though the stresses within the
members may be unequal. This is ofien the result of other design considerations or the
economy of fabrication and construction.

FOUlt STACKED BAYS

Lateral Stability .

Resistance to wind and other horizontal forces is required for the stability of orthogonal
frames, In general, this is achieved by using one or more of the following principles:
fFISfigiif•fiPfi (breaking the flame down into triangles which are inherently stable geometric
forms ) Jrinf rigidity (creating a rigid connection where members intersect), and *hear waffs
(utilizing the inherent shear resistance of a planar surf such as a wall— to changing its
shape) (Figures 9.4 through 9.14). Resistance to wind and other horizontal forces is required
for the stability of orthogond frames. In general, this is achieved by using one or more of the
following principles: frianguféfinn (breaking the frame down into triangles which are
inherently stable geometric forms ) Joint rlghtlfy (creating a rigid connection where members
intersect), and shear wolfs (utilizing the inherent shear resistance of a planar surfac such as
a wall— to changing its shape) (Figures 9.4 through 9.14).

Figure 9.4: Lateral stability through triangulation: Triangular frame is

inherently stable wiih hinged joints. Recall that a triangle can/1Ot Chanae
' i !. .‹i *' :
Figure 9.5: Lateral stability through triang ulation: (a) a rectangular frame is
inhe entyuns1abIewithhngedjoinis(b)ad%ngadagonaIcabIe5eprovdes
stability in one direction (when the cable is put in tension), (c) but not in the
other direction (the cable cannot resist compression); (d) adding a second
diagonal cable provides stability in both directions; (e) one diagonal strut
provides stability in both directions because it can resist both tension and
(f) compression.

Figure 9.6. Lateral stability is

building exterior, John Hancock Center (1966; Chicago, Skidmore,
Owings,
and Merrill, architects and engineefs). The structure was conceived to
allow
the slender building to resist
the lateral wind loading. The architectural
expression of lhe system was based on structural necessity.

Figure 9.7: Lateral stability through joint rigidity: Rigid top joints form a table.
Stability is achieved with one top rigid joint (which makes the frame behave
as a stable triangle). More than one rigid joint increases the frame’s rigidity
but makes the system statically indeterminate.
Figure 9.9: Lateral stability through joint rigidity: Columns cantilever0d tI'0M
t|1e ground create rigid bottom joints. This system is commonly used in "pole
(which
barn" construction. Stability is achieved with one boltom rigid joinl
makes the frame behave as a stable triangle). As above, more Cl an one
rigid joint increases the frame's rigidity but makes the system slatically
indeterminate.

equlvalen L
stab e trlan

Id)

Figure 9.10: Lateral stability through joint rigidity: Three hinged frame. (a)
Pentagonal trame is unstable with four or more hinged joints. (b) Fixing the
two "knee joints” makes the frame stable, behaving as a triangle (shown
dotted). (c) Similarly, fixirig the two bottom joints would also achieve stability.
(d) As a general rule, to be stable, open frames can have no more than
three of the joints hinged. In other words, such frames must be effectively
””“' ' °°“ * * •' • !='• fnr sts hilitv
 The simple post and beam system of construc0on will oiten lai1 naturai latéral stability.
Laterai forces, Such as wind and earthquake, may cause structural failure unless they are
sufficiently restrained (£ig. 3.15).
Meth0ds of stabilizing the post and beam structurel system may vary coiisiderabJy, but all are
deslgned to reduce or to elimïnate the lateral displacement of the members within the
structurer system.
A table with poorly connected legs is similar to an unrestrained post and b am system (Fig.
3.16). A horizontal force applied to this table will reveaJ its instability. The table can be
stabilized by fastening “beams" to the legs as shown in Fig. 3.17. Figure 3.18 shows a beam
and column system in which the beam has been rigidly connected to the column to produce a
rigid frame and reduce lateral instability. The columns are able to resistd•*- “
beam action or bending.

3.15 LATERAL INSTABILITÉ

3.16 INSTABLE

3.17 STABLE 3.18 STABILITÉ THROUGH RIGID JOINTING

Several additional methods of obtaining lateral stability in post and beam systems are shown
in the following examples.

The diagonal tie rod is illustrated in Fig. 3.19. It transfers lateral forces through tension to
supports without producing bending in the columns.

3.19 DIAGONAL TIE RODS

 The diagonal knee brace is shown in twig, 3.20. The knee brace is similar to the tie iod and
does impart bending to the column fiona Iateid foi'ces.

(a) l¢ brace proflle (d) Ercentrlc K-brace profile

3,20 KNEE BRACES

Masoiuy or other seuctural materials placed between the columns as illustrated in Fig. 3.21
acts as a two-dimensional shear wall which will prevent lateral movomeni.

A rigid reinforced concrete shear wall may be used as a three-dimensional anchor for the
skeleton frame (Fig. 3.22). This wall provides lateral stability without causing bending in the
Lateral stability in a structural system must be developed through out the entire system.

3.21 MASONRY INFILL 3.22 CONCRETE SHEAR WALL

(b} Pan i bra¢e, aleo

called shear wa\\ brace

r-lGURfi 4 2 (a) lf a single brace is

used, it must be sufficiently heavy
against buckling under compression.
(b) Shear wall bracing.
DESIGN ANALYSIS

The structural principles exhibited by the prirrntive post and beam shelter of Fig. 3.23 renuin
basically unchanged in contemporary architecture. The limited technology of early man,
howe*er, severely restricted the size or his post and heam constructions. Primitive techniques
of shaping and s.curely joining the structural members limlted the construction to light
wooden poles which were usually lashed together to provide a structural skeleton of only
modest size. Lateral stability was developed by setfing the four posts in the ground. Uniike
the bearing wall, the supporting elements o1”this post and beam construction produce only a
negligible amount of shelter. Then.•fore, non-bearing space enclosing surfaces such as roof
and walls must be added to complete the shelter.

3.23 PRIMITIVE POST AND BEAM SHELTER

The Greek temple (Fig. 3.24) is a classic expression of the post and beam system of
construction. Its form and proportions are significantly influenced by the stnictural
limitations of stone, the building material. Restricted in span by the weakness of stone in
bending, the deep lintels rest on massive, closely spaced columns producing a tall narrow
proportion which became characteristic of the stone post and beam architecture of antiqulty.
The circular cross-section of the column produced an efllcient structural form. It developed
stability through its enomious width aitd mass.

3.24 THE THESEION. ATHEN S. 449-444 B.C.

’I'he l›uilding shown in Pig. 3 .27 il lustrntcs the freedom of planning possible within a large
volume thot is unobstrucleé by columns. The bssic stricture end load distribution is
expressed by four larg0 exposed girders and eight columns. The smaller columns support the
glass fncade. The benefits of unobstnicted space have been obtained nl the expense of a
large, hea.vy framing system. Eliminobon of interior supports pi'ovides unlimited
opportunity for subdivision with non-being partitions.

3.27 CROWN HALL. I.I.T.

MIES VAN DER ROHE. 1952

Figure 3.28 diagramatically illustrates the oarly development of the post and beam
skysoraper. Limitntions in the continued use of bearing wails becnine evident as taller
structures were attempted. For example, thick walls (s) which were required to sustain the
load, threatened to consume the useable floor area at lowor levels, Uscable floor area and
flexibility were significantly increased by the replacing of the inferior bearing walls (b) with a
system of cast iron columns and wrougbt iron beams. Stabiiity was deYeloped through the
thick bearing walls retained at the perimeter of the plan. The development of the
contemporary s scraper emerged when the outai bearing wßlls (c) were replsced by beams
md columns providing a complete shcleton frame of stnictaral steel.

3.28 CUARANTY BUILDING. BUFFALO.

SULLIVAN. 1895
A notable variation in highrise structures is fund in the impressive 100 stop John Hancock
Center (Fig. 3.31).

Its tapered outer walls and clearly expressed diagond bracing made this a most unusual
solutioil at the time it was built. The smicWal steel frame derives its strength and lateral
stability from the geometry of the complex of diagonal, horizotltal and vertical members
joined with non-rigid connections The combñiation of these features reduced the amount of
steel by 3 0% compared with that required for the conventiond skeleton frame
skyscraper which must develop much of its lateral stability through rigid joints.

The struckiral design of this building would have been virtually impossible without the aid of
sophisticated computations made possible by today's computer technology.

3.IU JOHN HANCOCE CENTER. CiIICAGO.

SKI DMORE, OWINGS and MERRILL. 1968
stiMuxnv — rosT ••a BkAM

1 The post and beam syslem is composed of horiz.ontiil and vertical members subject to
bending and compressive fvrces

2. frames distribute loads horizontally (by means of beems Ot slabs) tO columns (or bearing
wells) which transmit z» for•o verñcally to the supporting Foundation.

3. Lateral stobiliw in frames mey be provided by triangt lailon joint rigidiy, or shear walls.

4. A bay is an internal division of a repeating structural frome defined by lhe column (or
bearing cally spa°in8.
5. The sizs of the structural units may vary depending upon the forces they must sustain

6. Lateral stability is not geometrically inherent in this rectangular system

7. Nonsiructursl elements are necessary for o complete space enclosure

8. The system suggests a modular arrangement of both smictural md non- structirN elements
6 The stracturai module may expnnd both horizontally and vertically

9. The system is most appi'opriate for functions which do not i'equire lai'ge unobstructed
spaces.

IO. The subdivision of space may be independent of the structural system

11. Openings in n modular system do not disnipt the structural continuity of the system.
 Ch.4

Structui al Analysis

A truss is a structural system which distributes loads to supports through a linear

arrangement. of various sized members placed within a single plane. These .members , each
shorter than the total span, resist either direct tensile or compressive forces.

The truss system is not easily observed in nature although a few examples do exist. One such
example is the bone stricture in the wing of a vulnire (Fig. 4.1). This bone structure closely
resembles the Warren truss through which considerable strength is developed with a
minimum amount of material and weight.
Another example is a form, similar to .the king post truss, found in the pelvic region of some
birds (Fig. 4.2)

Some truss forms in nature are three dimensional and closely resemble the space frame
discussed in Ch8pter Eleven.

A truss is a triangulated assembly that distributes loads to supports through a combination of

pin-connected members arranged in triangles so that ideally all are in either pure compression
or tension (no bending or shear) and all thrust forces are resolved internally. In practice, some
bending stresses may occur as a result ofjoint friction and distributed loads applied to
members between the joints; these are usually minor compared with the axial forces arid are
typically ignored for analytical purposes.

The triangle is the basic geometric unit of the truss. The triangle is a unique form in that its
shape cannot be changed without changing the length of its sides even when the joints are
hinged. All other hinged polygons (the rectangle for example) are unstable.
The top and bottom miss members are termed the top and bottom chords, respectively. All
members between the top and bottom chords are web members. Plane trusses have all
members in a single plane, while space trusses have members in a three-dimensional
configuratioi Both plane and space trusses span in one direction only.

d.1 BONE FROM A WINC

4.2 PELVIS OF A BIRD

Trusses derived from ties and struts. All joints are hinged. Struts are in compression only and I
cables are in tension only. In Fig.4.2 the trusses on the right are the inverted equivalents of
those on the les; notice that the struts become ties and vice versa as the forces in members
reverse.

(a) cable unit; (right) inverted equivalent is a basic three-hinged arch.

(b) Simple. truss formed by adding horizontal strut to withstand inward thrust; (right)
equivalent truss formed by odding horizorital tie to withstand outward thrust

(c) The same configuration can be raised vertically by end posts (the new boaom chord
members are not stressed directly but are needed to provide lateral stability)

(d) A more complex tniss can be created by imagining the entire assembly shown in (c) to be
carried by another tie. Another horizontal strut is needed to resist the new tie thrusts.

(e) The same process can be repeated to form even more complex misses. Note that the
loifes in the web members (verticals and diagonals) increase away from the middle of the
truss since the applied loads accumulate from the center to the ends.

(f) On the other hand, the greatest forces in the upper and lower chords occur at midspan
where the individual chords (and the forces they carry) combine into one.

(d)

Figure 4.2: Trusses derived from ties and struts.

 3
A truss may be described as an expanded beam (Fig. 4.3). As noted in Chapter One, the
largest internal forces occur at the upper and lower surfaces of a beam The span and load
carrying capacity of such a beam can often be increased.

Expanding the beam is one means of obtaining additional depth with little increase of
material. If the two ßanges of this expanded beam are tied together with small triangulated
vertikal and diagonal members, a truss is formed (Fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.5 illustrates the load distribution within a .typical truss. The external forces placed
upon the tniss are transferred to supports through the veaical, horizontal, and diagonal
members by tensile or compressive forces. Load distribution within each member of the truss
is usually unequal. This is illustrated by the arrow sizes in the examples. Figure 4.6 shows
two simple tnisses in which the sizes of the members have been drawn to express the relative
magnitude of the loads carried by each of the members.

Figure 4.7 illustrate a simple truss in which symbols express the type of stress in each
member. In the example, double lines illustrate compressive stress and single lines illustrate
tensile stress. Notice that the top chord members of a simple truss are in compression and the
bottom chord member are in tension, while the web members alternate between tension and
compression

4.d EKPANDED BEAM. TRUSSED

4.3 BEAM AND EXPANDED BEAM

d.5 LORD DISTRIBUTION

IN A SIMPLE TRUSS

4.6 VARIATION IN SIZE OF MEMBERS d.7 TYPE OF STRESS IN MEMBERS

'
Figure 4.8 illustrates a variety of common trusses and indicates the stresses generally found
in the members under normal loading conditions. The double lines represent compression,
and the single lines represent tension. The stresses in these members generdly follow the
same pattern as illustrated in the previous examples.

po s t f in k

h OWe

SCISSOF$ c rescen t

;! p ro tf worren

p ro It belgio n

4.8 COMMON TRUSS DESIGNS

 compr ession — - - tension : no stress

Figure 4.6: Tension and compression in rectangular trusses.

Ibn stable

(c) st.able Id) •t ab\e

Figure 4.7: Stability in trusses: (a) unstable truss—the nontriangulated

central area of the truss will greatly distort under an applied loading, leading
to the collapse of the entire truss; (b) and (c) stable truss—the member
pattern is fully triangulated; and (d) stable truss with a nontriangular member
pattern—each of the two simple trusses behave as the top chord struts of a
larger simple triangle.
Figure 4.9 shows that the stresses found in the members of cantilevered misses are often !6
reversed from those found in simply supported trusses. The members in this example have
been drawn to express the type of stress each member contains. The double line members are
in compression, and the single line members are in tension.

The truss generally derives its form from multiples of the triangle. The conventional truss is
designed with the assumption that all joints are pinned or free to rotate. Figure 4.10 compares
the stability of the mangle with that of the rectangle. If the rectangle is free to rotate at the
joints it will easily collapse under a load. The triangle, however, will not deform unless one
member deforms. The rectangle can be stabilized by adding a diagonal member to form
stable triangles (Fig. 4.11). The truss thus derives its stability through the geometry of

4.9 CANTILEVERED TRUSSES

4.10 STABILITY OF THE TRIANGLE

4.11 STABILITY OF A TIED RECTANGLE

 Lateral Stability.

A series of trusses may be laterally stabilized in several ways. The. trusses shown in Fig.
4.12 have been stabilized by diagond tie rods. These diagonal ties could be replaced by
trussed members which would provide stability and would support loads between the
trusses (Fig. 4.13). Figure 4.14 illustrates how lateral stability is obtained by placing
diagonal ties in the plane of the roof.

The Vierendeel truss (Fig. 4.15) is a special type of truss which gains its internal stability
through the tigid jointing of its members. This miss distributes its loads similarly to the rigid
frame. The forces in the truss induce bending as well as direct tension or compression within
the members.

4.12 SERIES OF TRUSSES. TIED

4.13 TRUSSED JOISTS

4.14 DI ACONAL TIES IN HOOF P

LANE

4.15 VIERE NDEE L TRUSS

BESIGN ANALYSIS
The primitive hut shown in Fig. 4.16 illustrates one of the earliest examples of wood miss
construction. The two diagonal poles were held in place by the horizontal tie which formed
the truss. The primitive methods of securing the members of the tniss, however, limited the
span to modest dimensions. The geometry of the trussed roof provided a slope which was
effective in shedding rain.

4.16 PRIMITIVE HUT

An increase in span resulted from improved joining techniques end refined craftsmanship. This is
evident in the early Christian church (Fig. 4.17). The roof is supported by a series of closely spaced
^8 P trMsos spanning nRrly 40 feet. The roofloads carried by the wood trusses are
f°^°d *° "b° fi ^ ' °8° ^ !8 fcr the loads vertically to the ground. Buttresses are not
required, because thrust hss been resolved within the trusses.

4
4.17 S. AGNESE FUORI LE MURA.
ROLE. 625-638

The bridge shown in Fig. 4.1 S is an excellent example of Renaissance truss construction. The
structure was thoroughly triangulated and composed of elements which were considerably shorter
than the total span Iron connections were employed along the tottom chord of the wooden
truss to resist torsion and to hold die members securely i0 place. The top members of the truss were in
compression, and stable connections were obtained by notched joints. The metli‹xls of connecting the
membms indicate the type of stress in each member.

4.18 BRIDGE. PALLADIO. 16th. CENTURY

The potential of the contemporary steel truss as a long span structural svstem is demonstrated in the
aircraft assembly plant shown in Fig. 4.20. The function required a large unobstructed space and end
openings of 300 feet in width. A series of steel trusses, 30 feet deep and 50 feet on center; span 300
feet without interior supports. Functions requiring smaller clear- span areas are grouped within a low
volume bordering one side of the vast hall. This span illustrates the necessity of depth in long span
trusses. In this particular example, the great depth required has been utilized to provide natural light to
the interior of the structure.

4.20 MARTIN AIRPLANE ASSEMBLY

BALTIMORE. ALBERT KAHN. 1938

An example of the Vierendeel truss used in higb rise constriction is shown in Fig. 4.22 where its
form becomes both structural and functional. The prestressed concrete trusses are ñantilevered 34 feei
lOm GOltlmilS spaced 40 feet apart. Each truss is 20 feet high and °UpP°"stw°OOos S b%/i
developed through the use of rigid joints rather than the more common method of triangulation. Thus,
openings in the facade are a result of the fectilinedr geometry of the truss.

4.22 INSURANCE BUILDING.

DUTt£IAM. BECKET. 1964
The exploitation and expression of miss design is vividly revealed in the Sainsbury Center
(Fig. 4.23). The structural system consists of 37 tubular prismatic steel tnisses clear spanning
approximately 110 feet supported on steel lattice towers of similar configuration. Unlike the
more orthodox truss which distributes loads through members placed within a single plane,
this prismatic design distributes loads through an arrangement of members placed in more
than one plane. In theory the stnicMal system employed in this building is closely related to
the space frame discussed in Chapter 11. But unlike the space frame which consists of nearly
equal sized members, indicating a relatively uniform distribution of loads throughout the
system, this design is actually a series of structurally independent trusses and supports
composed of relatively large members which are stabilized geometrically by a generous
number of smart-scale diagonal members.

4.23 SAINSBURY CENTER. NORWICI-I.

FOSTER. 1978.

SUMMARY-TRUSS

1. A truss is a triangulated assembly that distributes loads to supports through a combination

of pin-connected members arranged in triangies so that ideally all are in either pure
compression or tension (no bending or shear) and all thrust forces
2. The top and bottom truss members are termed the top and bottomare resolved imemally.
chords, respectively.
3. All members between the top and bottom chords of a truss are web members.
4. Plene misses have all members in a single plane.
5. Space misses have members in a thrwdimensionai CO figtl ttOR.
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

As arch is a structural system that distributes loads to supports through a curvilinear form
within a single plane. The forces developed within an arch are primarily compressive, and the
arch must be designed to resist these forces with a minimum of bending.

There are many examples of the arch form in nature. Figure 5.1 shows a sandstone arch
which spans 278 feet and is 309 feet high. Over a period of many years, natural arches were
formed by erosion which removed the material that was under least stress leaving the more
heavily stressed material. The arch is narrow at the top and gradually increases in thickness
toward the base. This massive base provides Stability for the arck
The human body contains several arch forms. Figure 5.2 shows an arch of the foot in which
muscles and tendons prevent the ach from spreading. The traditional arch, like the arch of
the foot, is constructed of many small element.

The ñb cage shown in Fig. 5.3 is another example. of the arch form in mature. This parabolic
arch is strong and Oexible. This Oexibility is due in part to its cross section, which is similar
to a wide dat beam

- AltCH OF THE FOOT

51 RAlNBOTvBRlDCE.NATURAL*Rcx

5.3 RIB ARCI-YES

 Figure 5.4 illustrates the various parts of the arch and shows the load distribution within the
arck The system should provide, if possible, a continuous compressive stress line within the
arch in order to minimize bending and provide an efficient smicture. The many small
elements comprising the tradttional arch were placed in the form of a curve to develop
compressive stresses.

hounc h

5.4 ELEMENTS OF AN ARCH 5•5 CA*ENARy

The efficiency of an arch is determined by the geometry of its curved form. This can be
the following examples. A free hanging cable with uniform loads attached
at equd intervals to its entire length would assume a form known as a catenary curve (Fig.
5.5). Tti• ‹Plenary closely resembles the parabolic curve wiiich is formed by a continuous
horizontal load suspended from a free hanging cable as shown in Fig. 5.6. Notice in Fig. 5.6
that the intervals betweai the support points on the cable are not equal. The line of stress in
both of these curves must lie within the plane of the cable.

5.p PARABOLA 5.7 INVERTED CATENARY. ARCH

Fig 5.7 shows an inverted cateiaiy curve forming an arch. The line of stress resulting from
the uniform load lies within the arch and is a compressive strms. This arch is the most
etficient geometric form to support a uniform load applied to the arch surface.

Semicircle

vary

Figure 8.6/ Common shapes for curved elements. Figtsrg 8.68 Shapes for low arches.
Wedge action allows arches to transfer vertical loads to each side using compression only.
Notice that as in Figure 13.7. the wedge-shaped voussoir tends to spread supporting surfaces
apart as a result of its vertical gravity load. This causes reaction forces on each side
perpendicular to the joint (if these reactions were not perpendicular, slippage could occur at
the joints). The load at the top of the key stone makes each stone on the arch press on the one
next to it. This happens until the push is applied to the end supports or abutments, which are
generally embedded in the ground. For every action there is an equal reaction. The ground
which pushes back on the abutments creates a resistance which passes from stone to stone.
The components of these reactions are vertical load (due to the gravity) and horizontal load
(due to thrust).

Figure 13.7: Wedge aclion

Line ofthrust
The funicular shape of an arch coincides with its line of thrust which is the set of resultants of
the thrust and weight each part of an arch imposes on the next lower one. For bending to be
completely eliminated in an arch, the line of thnist must coincide with the arch axis (Figure
13.9). However, even compressive masonry arches can tolerate a small deviation of the thrust
line from the arch axis without developing tension cracks. The line of thrust should be in the
middle thfrd of the stone face resting on. This is known as Middle-Third Rule. Thi z is
illustrated in the Fig.3 and fig. 4 below. When the line of thrust coincides at exactly at the
edge of middle third there is zero tension on one side and compression on the other side.
When the line of thrust acts beyond the middle third then tension stresses develope at one end
which is not acceptable in contemporary arch design.
 Compressible
base

Tension

Compression
FICURE<

Middle Third Rule and Crothic Cathedrals

The middle third rule has been used in the design of structures since Gothic times. At the time
,the designers of the Gothic cathedrals used it with great success to ensure that the resultant
of the leteral thrust from the flying arches and the gravity load of the vertical buttress remains
in the middle third of the horizontal section of the buttress. The figure below illustrates this
case.

flying arch, also

called flying buti
 v oussoir

springer

Figure 13.8: Parts of a masonry arch.

resultants of the Ihrusl
igure 13.9: The line of thrust in an arch is the set of
nd weight each part imposes on lhe next lower one.

Stability
While arches and suspended cables share similar funicular shapes, they are different in their
inherent stability under changing loading conditions. If the magnitude or location of loads q9
a suspended cable changes, the resulting funicular shape of the cable changes and the system
remains stable. But if the loading changes on a thin arch so that its shape is n‹i longer
funicular, it will collapse. (The only exception is a triangular arch loaded only at the top,
which will remain stable.) To prevent this, the shape of the arch may be constrained so that it
does not buckle upward (Figures 13.12).

Figure 13.12: Arch stability: (a) three-hinge arch

is inherently a stable triangle,
while (b) four-hinged arch is unstable.

To see how this works, consider a four-hinged arch (the simplest that is inherently unstable)
loaded at the two locations. If the relative loading on the hinge points changes, the funicular
balance changes and the hinge with the greater loading will tend to buckle down. But for this
to happen the other load point will have to buckle up. If all of the load points can be
restrained horn buckling upward, then the arch becomes stable.

The same principle applies to curved arches. If they can be restrained so that no point along
the curve is allowed to buckle upward, the arch becomes stable. This is the reason that a thin
masonry arch (which cannot resist tension or bending) is unstable under changing load
conditions. But arches of the same shape which are infilled above with masonry are
prevented from buckling upward and are inherently stable. For this reason, nonfunicular arch
shapes can be successfiilly used in masonry structures provided their shape is restrained by
surrounding masonry. Examples of nonfunicular shapes are semicircular and pointed arches.
See Figure 13.13
 Figure 13.13: Masonry arch stability: (a) because masonry cannot resist
tension, thin masonry arches are inherently unstable and tend to collapse
when there are four or more hinges, and (b) arches surrounded by masonry
walls are stable and able to resist varying loads.

Figure 5.8 illustrates the traditional semicircular arch. The dotted line drawn within the arch
is a catenary curve and represents the line of stress developed by the weight of the arch. If
tlus semicircular arch is not properly weighted it will tend to collapse as shown in Fig. 5.9.
Bending stresses at the haunch will tend to force this portion of the arch outward, allowing
the top of the arch to fall. When these forces within the arch are resisted by counter
forces, as shown in Fig. 5.10, the arch will be stabilized.

5.8 SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCH

5.9 UNWEIGHTED ARCH

5.10 WEIGHTED ARCH

 rigure o. i i snows now inese corner rorces may oe oeveiopeo my placing massive ouuress
material along the exterior of the arch to provide stability for the arch form and to prevent the
arch from spreading. A tie rod may be used as the resisting element if the mass of material at
the spring line is removed (Fig. 5.12). The dotted stress line is near the center of each arch
The forces developed within any arch form tend to spread the arch at its base (arch action).
These forces must be resisted at the base by counter forces as illustrated in Fig. 5.13. The
diagonal force at the base of the arch may be resolved into both a horizontal force (thnist) and
a vertical force (weight) as shown in Fig. 5.14. The magnitude of the horizontal or vertical
forces necessary to support the arch at the spring line depends upon the applied forces and the
shape of the arch.

5.12 WEIGHTED AND TIED ARCH

ARCH. COUNTER WEIGHTED

5.13 ARCH ACTION 5.14 YERTIPAL xjy ROWZONTA¿

REACTIONS
# t,9 ),#///•Q Jt#)•9# #••m*• ••m•• *m•**• •••• • •••••••• W • . .-*-• - -Q—- - — - —-
narrow parabolic arch in which the weight exceeds the thrust at the base.

Figure 5.16 shows a parabolic arch whose span is now greater than its height. The weight of
tliis arch at the base is approximately equal to the thrust.
The parabolic arch shown in Fig. 5.17 illustrates the tremendous thnist developed in arches of
shallow curvatiire. The weights in all three arches are equal. This means that the horizontal
thrust is an additional force created by the curvature of the arch. These examples illustrate
that methods• of resisting thrust in various arch forms become an important part of arch
design.
Arches may be formed in a variety of shapes, some of which are illustrated in Fig. 5.18. The
techniques used to resist the forces produced within these arches will necessarily vary with
the particular arch form.

5.16 INTERMEDIATE ARCH

5.15 STEEP A?ICH

«bsli‹ horseshoe

5.17 SHALLOW ARCH

segmental
three-centered
5.18 7YPICAL ARCH FORMS
 nrcnes are aiso ruin OI m eriais wnicn can resist tension tunu 0ciiuint;j, burn
laminated wood, and reinforced concrete. Based on these conditions, there are three
configurations that are commonly used in conjunction with these materials, based on end
conditions: rigidl *’* * I (p }jijjgy), ftrvr-Ang«d, and rarer-Sin,ged (Figure
13.23) (as noted above, arches with fn»• • - •• *• '»• nre unstable).

(a) RICIP CbJ TWO-HINGES

Ice THREE - HINTED

Figure 13.23: Arch configurations: (a) rigid; (b) two-hinged reduces bending
at ends; and (c) three-hinged, reduces bending (due to deflection and thermal
expansion) throughout.

Rigid arches (which include most unreinforced masonry) allow no rotation at the end
supports; rigid arches bend as a result of any deflection as well as thermal expansion Hinges
are introduced in arches as a way of controlling bending due to deflection and thermal
expansion The monolithic arch is designed and constructed as one continuous member with
both ends rigidly connected to supports This arch must be able to resist bending forces
throughout die arch and at the supports (Fig. 5.19)..

Two-hinged arches are hinged at each support; they minimize bending stresses near the
supports but bend at midspan. Three- hinged arches reduce bending both at the end supports
and also across the entire span due to the middle hinge which allows movement due to
deflection and thermal expansion without bending. See fig 5.20

5.19 MONOLITHIC ARCH 5.20 TWO-HINGED AnCH

5.D1 THREE-HINGED ARCH

525 FRAMEARCHES
 variations by rotating freely about each pin. Bending forces are completely eliminated at
these three hinged points. This type of arch has found wide use in laminated timber
construction. The three-hinged arch is easier to fabricate and transport than the two- hinged
arch. Structural analysis is considerably less complex than for other types of arches.

The contemporary arch has assumed a variety of forms. Two such examples are illustrated in
Fig. 5.22. These arch forms are often referred to as bents or frames and resemble the post and
beam stnicturaJ system. In these illustrations the dotted line shows the parabolic stress curve
of the arches. Bending stresses occur in the frames where the stress lines do not follow the
center lines of these forms. The hames must be thickened at these points to resist bending.
The further the stress line varies from the center line of the arch, the greater the bending
becomes, thereby requiring a greater amount of resistive material.
La2rMS*bd
The single planar rch form is a mne stable structure than a simple post arid beam structure because
of the geomoy of the arch. Fi e 5.23 ill@tratesthe triangular form of the three-hinged arch which
provides ¡jjty itt the plane of the arch. The post and beam would
require ties or other m•ans to
prevent collapse.
Arches in series may be stabilized by the same methods used in truss or post and beam construction
(Fig. 5.24).
The Lamella system illustmted in Fig. 5.25 is composed ofa series of iinersecting arches. The
interaction between these arched components provides lateral stability for the system without the use
of diagonal ties.

5.23 GEOMETRY OF THE ARCH

AND THE POST AND BEAM 5.24 SERIES OF ARCHES

-86 LAMEL LA ABCI-I SYSTEM

The primitive arch shown in Fig. 5.26 illustrates one of the simplest arch forms used to span
an opening in a bearing wall. Placed diagonally, the two stone slabs act principally in
compression and are capable of spanning a distance greater than the length of either stone
Slab. Thrust at the base of the arch is resisted by the mass of the walls at either side of the
opening.

5.26 PRI dgTIYE ARCH. DELOS, CItEECE

The Roman structure shown in Fig. 5.27, composed of three tiers of semicircular stone
arches, illustrates an effective method of bridging a large span, 882 feet, with materials strong
in compression. These arches were constructed of stones laid without mortar. Stability is
maintained by the mutual interaction of the thrusts of adjacent arches and the two
embankments. Resistance to deformation of the semicircular arches is developed through the
weight of the stone at the haunches and the wéght imposed by the arches above. Thus the
line of stress is within the arch, and bending is eliminated.

s.s7 PONT DU GARD. NIMES. 15-0 A

The arch is dramatically expressed in, the Gothic cathedral shown in Fig. 5.28. Arched struts
transfer the thrust of the vaulted ceiling to buttresses. This arched system is called u yig
basrecs. The line of stress from vault to earth must fall within the mass of this buttress.
developed through the weight of the buttress which must be sufficient to resist the
thrust pressing against it from the diagonal stiuts„ The carved stone omamerit comüngeash
buttress is not only decorative but contributes addifional mass to stabilize the buttress. The
visual character of the building in this ingeniously complex and delicately balanced structural
system results öom the direct expression of load distribution.
 fl ng
bultmess
pinnacle

buttress
pier

5.28 RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. RHEIMS.

121E-1290

Figure 13.15: Flying buttless (half arch) used to bface the top
of gothic
churCh walls against the horizontal thrust resulting from the vaulted
stone
ceilings. The pointed pinnacles at the top were functional as
well as
decorative, adding additional weight to the top ol the buttress
pier.

The arch in traditional architecture was not generally used as a means of enclosing space
unless combined with another system such as the vault. Figure 5.29 illustrates an example of
its most frequent use, that of providing openings within a bearing wall. The delicate quality
of the arched arcade in this example is made possible by the extensive use of thin metal ties,
rather than massive buttressing, to counteract thrust. This is most conspicous at the comers of
the arcade where no buttressing whatsoever is evident Ties are also used between the arches
and the massive interior wall to resist the thrust of the vaulted arcade.
r igure o. su illuStfàtTS VRAI je
visuai propornons ni a
by structurel considérations. Openings are obtained in this load-bearing
of the solid stonewall byattheeither
walls use ofend
semicircular arches. Their thrust iS resisted by the mass visual rhythm of
dg
of the faca which provide the neces mary buto«si»g and also terminale the
and aesthetics.
the for. The proportion of solid wall IO void is a funcôon of both structure
The size of the arch and its function as a space-enclosing structural system were dramatically
e;tpanf1ed as a result of technology. The development of stTuCtur8l steel aad reltTÊOfG0d
concrète completed the transition of the arch horn a method of spanning openings in load
bearing wails to a major structurel element.

5.30 S. FRANCESCO. RIMINI. ALBERTI. 1446

Figure 5.37 illustrates a huge arch standing 630 feet high. The monument is constructed of
reinforced concrete encased in stainless steel. The form of the arch resembles a weighted
catenaiy. As a result, the forces exerted by the arch are within the arch form. The hollow
triangular cross-section of the arch is 17 feet wide at the crown and gradually enlarges to a
width of 57 feet at the base. This broad base develops stability and distributes the weight of
the arch over a large area to provide a more uniform stress throughout the stnicMe. The
increased mass at the base resists the thrust developed by the arch. Thus the shape of the arch
is significantly influenced by the nature of the principal stnictural material and the forces
acting upon and within the structure.

5.37 JEFFERSON MEMOBIAA ARCH.

ST. LO£/IS. SAABINEN.
 used
Figure 13.27: London Exchange House, exterior, showing steel arches
above the arch are in compression; those
to span 256 JI (78 m). Columns
below are in tension.
 typical compression column (above archJ
typical "auapender" columh (below archJ

arch

diagonal
fDraces archJ

tie beam

truss
ier
paza level
paring level
train level

fa4 Us BRAGE& ARCH L6) B RAGE @ URGH

Figure 13.30: London Exchange House, exaggerated deflection diagrams:

(a) without diagonal ties, and (b) with diagonal ties.

_ _ floors above arch

supported bq columns
which rest on arch

- —- - - floors Delow arch

supported bg suspenders
_ which are hung from arch
— arch accumulates vertical
— — loads and transfers them to
side supports
horizontal member resist s
thrust due to arches and
suppor I.s center dl a gonalt

dia gon ale s I abili ze the arch

under acfmme t ric al io a ding
SUMMARY — ARCH

1. A fiinicular arch is the inverted compressive equivalent of a suspension cable and

experiences only axial compression

2. As with a suspension cable, if the loading is distributed uniformly across the horizontal
span of an arch, the funicular shape is a parabola.

3. If loading is distributed uniformly along the curve of the arch funicular shape is a catenary.
The fiinicular shape for an arched opening in a masoiuy wall is between the two

4. The shallower the arch for a given loading, the greater the lateral thrust generated.

5. A true masonry arch depends on wedge-shaped voussoirs to transfer loads laterally entirely
by compression

6. The funicular shape of an arch coincides with its line of thrust which is the set of resultants
of the thrust and weight each part of an arch imposes on the next lower one.

7. If the line of thrust stays within the middle third of an arch, then only compressive forces
will exist and no tension will develop.

8. If the loading changes on a thin arch so that its shape is no longer funicular, it will
collapse; to prevent this, the shape of the arch may be constrained so that it does not buckle
upward.

9. Rigid arches allow no rotation at the end supports, which introduces bending as a result of
any deflection as well as thermal expansion

10. Hinges are introduced in arches as a way of controlling bending due to deflection and
thermal expansion.

II. Two-hinged arches are hinged at each support; they minimize bending stresses near the
supports but bend at midspan.

12. Three-hinged arches are hinged at each end and at midspan; they reduce bending both at
the end supports and also across the entire span due to the middle hinge.
Three-hinged arches allow movement due to deflection and thermal expansion without
bending.
The vault is a structural system which distributes loads by arch action through a single curved
plane to continuous supports. The stresses within the vault are primarily compressive. The form of

the vault must eliminate bending caused by the weight of the vault and the applied loads.

In its simplest terms, a vault is an arch extruded (or rotated) into a third dimension. And like
an arch, the vault (traditionally a masonry structure) is purely compressive and unable to resist
tension. Because of this, vaults require conEnuous support along each base.

The cave shown in Fig. 6. I is an example of a vault found in nature. Many of these vaults were
formed by erosion. This vault is similar to a series of arches and is stabilized by massive
material.
Another vault form is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. Many of these vault forms, however., do not
distribute their loads by arch action but in a manner more closely related to the load distribution
of thin shell structures.
6.1 NATURAL CAVE
6.£ BEAK OV A BIRD

The load distribution in the vault, similar to that in a series of adjacent arches, develops arch
action as shown in Fig. 6.3. These loads also spread through the vault similar to the distribution
of loads in a bearing wall (Fig. 6.4).

The vault formed by this series of interlocking arches must resist the forces developed within the
system from live loads and dead loads. The thrust resulting from these loads must also be resisted.
Methods of resolving these forces and of stabilizing the vault structure are similar to the methods
described for the arch in Chapter Five.

The vault, unlike the arch, develops a continuous thrust at the base that requires continuous
massive buttressing to prevent the base from spreading (Fig. 6.5). This continuous massive
buttress is often extended into the vault. This provides additional weight to counter any tendency
for the vault to erupt near the haunch. Tie rods would not be a pracEcal method of resisting this
thrust because of the large number required. The horizontal support along the length of the vault
can be at close intervals as shown in the figure.

A barrel vault is a planer structure ,having the funicular shape spanning across the curved cross
section —the width. It requires conEnuous or closely spaced supports along the edge, but the gable
ends may remain open as seen in the figures.
6.3 LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES OF ARCHES

6.5 CONTINUOUS VAULT BUTTRESSING

6.4 L AD DISTRIBUTION IN A FAULT
Barrel vault

A barrel vault transmits horizontal forces to the supports along its entire length, under vertical
3 loads. In cylindrical shell the horizontal thrust is concentrated in the gable walls, and
is often resisted by a tension rod in the wall.

The traditional vault generally consisted of either a single barrel vault or was formed by
intersecting vaults. Figure 6.6 shows how a groined vault is created by the intersection of two
hemispherical vaults.

A variation of the groined vault is the ribbed vault shown in Fig. 6.7. Forces in the ribbed vault
are transferred through the vaults to ribs and then to four points of support. The problem of
continuous thrust created by traditional barrel vaults is simplified in the ribbed vault system
which is able to direct its forces to point supports. Ties may replace massive buttresses to resist
the concentrated thrust of ribbed vaults (Fig. 6.8).
6.6 GROINED VAULT 6.7 RIBBED VAULT

6.8 TIED RIBBED GOTHIC VAULT

The cloister vault is formed by the intersection of two or more vaults (Fig. 6.9). The ends are
closed and loads are distributed in a manner similar to the single barrel vault.
6.9 CLOISTER VAULT
6.10 CLOISTER DOME

Another variation of the cloister vault is shown in Fig. 6.10. Here the intersection of four vaults

forms a dome with eight sides. The distribution of loads, in this dome is similar to that in Fig.
6.9 and requires a continuous buttress to resist thrust.

The load distribution and design of contemporary shell vaults is considerably different than that
of the traditionalvault and is discussed in Chapter Ten.

Roman vaulting
The ancient Romans used groin (intersecting) vaults to roof space with two perpendicular axes.
The intersecting vaults of this had similar dimensions: base height, rise, and width. Because this
similarity, the geometry of the intersection was relatively straight forward and, in the p la n,
the lines of intersection were straight at a 45° angle to the vaults (Fig. 14.5).

(a) mom abor e ‹bJ ir or 0e\ ow

Figure 14.5: Roman groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above, (b) axonometric view

from below, and (c) roof ptan. Notice that because the intersecting vaults are identical, the

groin portion is square in plan, and the intersections are both straight and at a 45° angle to the
vaults.

Romanesque vaulting
The Romanesque period adopted the semicircular vault of the Roman period. However. Romans
intersected only vaults of identical shape and span. Romanesque architects intersected smaller
semicircular vaults with larger ones. The resulting intersection was skewed, curving in plan, and
created unbalanced thrust forces in the groin area. The fact that some of these structures have
survived for centuries is attributable to the massive supporting walls and buttresses rather than
sound engineering principles. See fig. 14.10
nLersection are a<ewe0 in plan
(ct from above fcJ roof plan

Figure 14.10: Romanesque groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above,

(b) axonometric view from below, and (c) roof plan. Notice that because the intersecting vaults
are of different span, the groin intersections are skewed in plan, resulting in unbalanced thrust
forces.

Gothic vaulting
Gothic masons finally resolved the difficulty of intersecting vaults of different spans. The key to

the solufion was the development of the pointed arch and vault. This geometry allowed vaults over
different width bays to have the same height and intersect with the same simplicity and directness
that characterized Roman vaulting. In addition, because the pointed vault more closely
approximates the ideal funicular catenary, the need for surcharge over the haunches was greatly
reduced (Figure 14.11).
intersections are srraiqhL in plan

ma? i ro

aDove

(c) root plan

Figure 14.11 : Gothic groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above, (b) axonometric view
from below, and (c) roof plan. Notice that, while the span of the vaults differs and the

groin portion is rectangular in plan, the intersections are both straight, like Roman

vaulting, and resull in balanced

thrust forces.

kateral Stability

Neither diagonal Ees nor other means of obtaining lateral stability were necessary in traditional
vault design Lateral stability is developed within the plane of the vault, due to its continuous
form (Fig. 6.11). The ribbed vault gains lateral stability through the interaction of its arched
forms.

II LATERAL STAIIIIJTY OF A YARNT

(Q) (b)

Figure 14.3: Lateral resistance in (a) independent arches and (b) a vault.
Thrust resistance
Like arches, all vaults (regardless of shape) create horizontal thrust. The shallower the angle of
line of thrust, the greater the thrust. If the vault springs directly from the foundation, the
friction between the ground and the foundation may suffice to resist spreading.
One method preventing this situa6on is to make barrel vaults parallel to each other which will
cancel this horizontal thrust between the vaults but the end vaults will need a strong lateral
support to resist the thrust.
However, if the vault is elevated to rest on two parallel vertical walls (or on parallel beams on
vertical columns), the thrust will cause the tops of the walls to spread apart. One way to contain
the thrust is to add horizontal ties between the bases of the vault; this allows the tension of the
ties to resist the outward thrust.

The ancient Romans used a different strategy for resisting thrust; they added large amounts of
masonry over the lower portion of the vault (haunch). In addiEon to increasing the foundation
friction, this surcharge redirected the line of thrust to a much steeper angle so that it would he
within the center third of the wall so that it would not overturn.
(e)
Figure 14.4: Means of resisting lateral thrust in vaults: (a) friction of foundation,
(b) tendency of vault resting on vertical walls to spread, (c) Roman semicircular vault with
thickened haunch and thick walls, (d) Romanesque sold buttesses, (e) Go+hicfying buttesses, and f)
metal ties.
Finally, because the Roman semicircular vault was not funicular (a catenary is the funicular shape
for a vault of uniform thickness), the lower portion (below 52°) of the vault tends to buckle
upward. The added weight of the surcharge resists this and maintains the entire vault in
compression. Later, in the Romanesque period, solid buttresses were added to resist thrust. The
flying buttress evolved in the Gothic period to separate thrust resistance from the wall entirely
(Fig'are 14.4).

DESIGN ANALYSIS

The long narrow storage rooms, shown in Fig. 6.12, illustrate an example of Egyptian brick vault
construction. The structure is characterized by the massive continuous buttresses which are
necessary to resist the enormous thrust produced by the thick vaulted roof. Thick haunches are
also necessary to stabilize the form of the vault. A strong ax is is created by each of the dark
tunnel-like rooms, and natural openings are restricted to the ends of the vaults.
6.12 STORAGE ROOM. RAMESS E UM. THEBES

An example of the vault used in contemporary architecture is shown in Fig. 6.15. This reinforced
concrete barrel covering the nave of the church is supported by posts and beams and emphasizes the
axial plan. The continuous thrust exerted by the barrel is resisted by thetas ceiling beams

covering the narrow side aisles. The coffered ceiling reduces the weight of the - roof as well as
creating an interesting pattern. Illumination, introduced through the natural

openings between the exterior columns, contributes to the lightness and reveals the simplicity of
the smicture

6.15 S. ANTONIUS. BAS EL. MOSER. 1926

SU NtMARY — VAULT
1. . A vault is a three-dimensional arched structure which transmits forces to supports by
compression only. It is unable to resist tension. (By contrast, a shell is able to resist

compression and tension.) Because of this, vaults require continuous support along their base.

2. Unlike a series of adjacent arches (which act independently), the shear resistance of the vault
allows the load to spread out (at a 45° angle on each side) to adjacent areas.

3. Like arches, all vaults (regardless of shape) create horizontal thrust. The shallower the line
of thrust, the greater the thrust.

4. Lateral stability is developed through the geometry of the vault.

5. Openings in the vault disrupt structural continuity.

6. Groin vaults are intersecting vaults used to roof spaces in two perpendicular axes,

7. The traditional vault is seldom used today.

8. The contemporary thin shell system has replaced the traditional masonry vault.

9. Roman groin vaults were semicircular and identical in span resulting in a simple intersection

geometry.

The dome is a structural system which distributes loads to supports through a doubly curved plane.

It is a continuous geometric form, without comers or abrupt changes in surface direction, and
encloses the maximum volume with a minimum of surface area. The dome must be designed to resist
compressive stresses along the meridian lines (arch action) and to resolve circumferential tensile
forces in the lower portion of hemispherical domes

The sLaI1 in Fig. 7.1 is an example of a dome in nature. It resists loads applied from any
direction. It is a structurally stable shape and is able to resist some bending caused by
concentrated loads, but is more resistant to uniform loads.

Other forms resembling domes may be observed in nature, but it is difficult to determine the type

of load distribufion within these structures. Some of these domes will distribute loads similar to

the arch, while others will distribute loads similar to the thin shell.
7-I SJTULL

7.2 ARCH OF RESOLUTION

Load Dist ibution:

The dome is an arch revolved about a vertical axis. It is similar to a number of separate arches

with a common keystone, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The compressive forces within the dome are similar to
those developed within an arch and must be resisted in a similar manner. The dome will spread at
its base if it is not restrained by either mass or ties.
The thrust at the base of the dome is continuous and traditional methods of obtaining stability
relied upon massive buttressing. The disadvantage of this method of resisting thrust is shown in
Fig. 7.3. The buttress requires a thick supporting wall that makes the entire structural system
massive.

Tie rods may be substituted for massive buttresses in resolving the thrust at the base, as
illustrated in Fig. 7.4. A lighter supporting system emerges from the use of a circumferential tie
which forms a tension ring.

2.3 BUTTHkSSED DOME 7.4 TIED DOME

In addition to arch action, the hemispherical dome also contains circumferential forces (Fig. 7.5).
The dome develops compressive forces in the upper portion and tensile forces in the lower portion.

They cause the dome to compress above a transitional line and to spread below this line. The

position of the transitional line will vary depending upon the type of loading applied and the mass

of the dome. This transitional line, under most loading conditions, may vary between 45 and 60
degrees from the vertical axis (Fig. 7.6).

7.5 FORCES IN A DOME 7.6 TRANSITIONAL LINE

One method of resisting the tensile forces in a hemispherical dome is by using massive buttresses
below the transitional line, as shown in Fig. 7.3. A dome which is less than a hemisphere may not
develop circumferential tension if it is terminated near the transitional line. This shallow dome
produces enormous thrust, developed through arch action, witfdn the dome and must be adequately
restrained.

The
domeis an extremely stable strucWd form and resists lateral deformation through its
geometry
7.7 LATEST STABkWJ$Y OF A DBME

An ingenious example of primitive dome construction may be seen in the igloo (Fig. 7.8). The
hemispherical dome is composed of snow blocks laid in one continuous spiral to enclose a single
volume. The weak compressive strength of the material limits the size of the dome. The geometry of
the dome provides natural lateral stability and dictates the circular shape of the shelter's plan.
The opening at the base ofihe dome disrupts the structural continuity of the system. The forces
resulting from the discontinuity of structure are resolved by the vault placed at the entry. Thrust
is resisted by the surrounding ice and snow.

Figure 7.9 illustrates an early dome constructed of cut stone. This dome, enclosing a single
volume, springs from massive bearing walls. The square plan reflects the geometry imposed by the

structural requéements of the dome. The thick walls provide support and resist the continuous
thrust of the dome. A narrow opening through the bearing wall provides a means of access without
disrupting the structural continuity of the dome.
7.8 ESKIMO ICLOO 7.9 TOMB OF BIZZOS. RUWEKA. Sth.

CENTURY

Figure 7.10 illustrates a classic example of Roman architecture in which a dome encloses a single
unobstructed space 142 feet in diameter. The mason hemisphere, coffered to reduce the weight of
the roof and ornament the interior surface. rests upon a massive cylindrical bearing wall
approximately 20 feet thick. This wall acts as a buttress to resist the enormous continuous thrust
of the dome. The increase in thickness of the dome towards the base provides sufficient mass to
resist the tendency of the normal hemispherical dome to erupt at its haunch and spread at the base.

Thus the forces within the dome are resmcted to compression. The single circular opening at the

top accentuates the focal point of the space and provides abundant illuminafion without disrupting
the structural continuity of the dome. This simple geometrical form is circular in plan and is a
direct result of the geometry and load distribution of the dome.

oculus (un glazed)

cowered dome (unreinforced concrete

thicKened at haU nch to add weight to resist upward Duckling

7. 10 PANTHEON. ROME. 120-124 A.D.
Figure 14.17: Pantheon, axonometric view showing radial tension crack

weight Oi thICK haunch and call maKe the line of thrust ihcreasingq vertcal, keeping it
within the middle third

oi the call and supporting

foundation

Figure 14.16: Pantheon, load path diagram.

A masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is illustrated in Fig, 7.1 1. The central brick dome
rests on gigantic pendentives which transfer the weight and continuous thrust of the dome to four
piers. The structural system, freed from the restrictions of massive bearing walls, allows access
into the central volume from all sides. The central portion of this enormous and

,. intricate interior space resembles an oval in plan, approximately 107 feet by 225 feet. Four
huge buttresses, evident in the plan, and two half domes resist the thrust exerted by the
pendentives. The central dome is ringed by 40 windows placed between massive abutments
surrounding the base of the dome. The appearance of the dome is thus lightened while
retaining &equate resistance to thrust.
7.11 S. SOPHIA. CONSTANTINOPLE. ANTHEMIUS and ISODORUS. 532-537
q o slo tted

w in doc
make dome
appear
ro Noa

concrete done
cre at.es | a ter al I.hrust

surroudngh5fdomS5 act as fhtng buttresses toresisthru$t

p:ers under corners
pendentive and woll5
support vertical leads
gg re5i s I- I.hFU'2t- I-LOfI\
dOMg5
Figure 14.22: Hagia SOphia, load path diagram.

gure 7. I4 illustrates an example of twentieth century dome construction characterized by its

relative light weight and large span. Several layers of tile, including hollow tile, are used to

reduce weight. The dome is 6Fi inches thick and spans approximately 72 feet. Thrust is resisted by
a steel tension banJ at the circumference, thereby eliminating the massive buttresses which were.

characteristic of earlier masonry dome construction. This masonry dome supports an inner stainless
steel dome which is suspended by cables. This inner shell serves as a counter-weight for the dome
and projection screen for the planetarium. The circular seating plan, surrounding the central focal
pO t, compliments the geometry of the structural form,
7.14 BUHL PLANETARIUM. PITTSBURGI4.
ING M and BOYii. q q
SUMMARY DOME
1. The dome transfers loads through compression and may create circumferential tension.
2. The continuous thrust at the base of a dome must be resisted to stabilize the form.

3. It develops lateral stability through its geometry.

4. Openings through the dome, except at the top, disrupt structural contuiuity.

5. The traditional masonry dome has been replaced by the contemporary thin shell or geod

sAcAe
 Ch.6

VAULT
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Introduction:

The vault is a structural system which distributes loads by arch action through a single curved
plane to continuous supports. The stresses within the vault are primarily compressive. The form
of the vault must eliminate bending caused by the weight of the vault and the applied loads.

In its simplest terms, a vault is an arch extruded (or rotated) into a third dimension. And like an
arch, the vault (traditionally a masonry structure) is purely compressive and unable to resist
tension. Because of this, vaults require continuous support along each base.

The cave shown in Fig. 6.1 is an example of a vault found in nature. Many of these vaults were
formed by erosion. This vault is similar to a series of arches and is stabilized by massive
material.
Another vault form is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. Many of these vault forms, however., do not
distribute their loads by arch action but in a manner more closely related to the load distribution
of thin shell smictures.

6.1 NATURAL CAVE

'' 6.2 BEAE Of A BIiID

 Load Distribution : “"

The load distribution in the vault, similar to that in a series of adjacent arches, develops arch
action as shown in Fig. 6.3. These loads also spread through the vault similar to the distribution
of loads in a bearing wall (Fig. 6.4).

The vault formed by this series of interlocking arches must resist the forces developed within
the system from live loads and dead loads. The thrust resulting from these loads must also be
resisted. Methods of resolving these forces and of stabilizing the vault structure are similar to
the methods described for the arch in Chapter Five.

The vault, unlike the arch, develops a continuous thrust at the base that requires continuous
massive buttressing to prevent the base from spreading (Fig. 6.5). This continuous massive
buttress is often extended into the vault. This provides additional weight to counter any
tendency for the vault to erupt near the haunch. Tie rods would not be a practical method of
resisting this thrust because of the large number required. The horizontal support along the
length of the vault can be at close intervals as shown in the figure.

A barrel vault is a planer structure ,having the funicular shape spanning across the curved cross
section —the width. It requires continuous or closely spaced supports along the edge, but the
gable ends may remain open as seen in the figures.

6.3 LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN A

SEftIES OF AltCHES -8 LOAD DISTRIBUTEON IN A VA
ULT

6.5 CONTINUOUS VAULT BUTTRESSING

Barrel vault
 A barrel vault transmits horizontal forces to the supports along its entire length, under vertical 3
loads. In cylindrical shell the horizontal thrust is concentrated in the gable walls, and is often
resisted by a tension rod in the wall.

The traditional vault generally consisted of either a single barrel vault or was formed by
intersecting vauits. Figure 6.6 shows how a groined vault is created by the intersection of two
hemisphericd vaults.
A variation of the groined vault is the ribbed vault Shown in Fig. 6.7. Forces in the ribbed vault
are transferred through the vaults to ribs and then to four points of support. The problem of
continuous thrust created by traditional barrel vaults is simplified in the ribbed vault system
which is able to direct its forces to point supports. Ties may replace massive buttresses to resist
the concentrated thrust of ribbed vaults (Fig. 6.8).

6.6 G.ROIN ED VAULT 6.7 RI BBED VAULT

6.8 TIED RIBBED COTHIC VAULT

The cloister vault is formed by the intersection of two or more vaults (Fig. 6.9). The ends are
closed and loads are distributed in a manner similar to the single barrel vault.

6.9 CLOISTER VAULT

6.10 CLOISTE B DOME

Another variation of the cloister vault is shown in Fig. 6.10. Here the intersection of four vaults
forms a dome with eight sides. The distribution of loads, in this dome is similar to that in Fig.
6.9 and requires a continuous buttress to resist thrust.
The road distribution and design of contemporary shell vaults is considerably different than that
of the Eaditional vault and is discussed in Chapter Ten.
Roman vaulting
The ancient Romans used groin (intersecting) vaults to roof space with two perpendicular axes.
The intersecting vaults of this had similar dimensions: base height, rise, and width. Because this
similarity, the geometry of the intersection was relatively straight forward and, in the plan, the
lines of intersection were straight at a 45° angle to the vaults (Fig. 14.5).

ihtersect ion
isstraight
and at 95’
{a) from above (b) trom lselow

Figure 14.5: Roman groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above, (b)
axonometric view from below, and (c) root plan. Notice that because the
intersecting vaults are identical, Ihe groin portion is square in plan, and the
intersections are both straight and at a 45° angle to the vaulls.

Romanesque vauJfing
The Romanesque period adopted the semicircular vault of the Roman period. However. Romans
intersected only vaults of identical shape and span. Romanesque architects intersected smaller
semicircular vaults with larger ones. The resulting intersection was skewed, curving in plan, and
created unbalanced thrust forces in the groin area. The fact that some of these structures have
survived for centuries is attributable to the massive supporting walls and bumesses rather than
sound engineering principles. See fig. 14.10

ntersect‹ons

La) \t om above

Figure 14.10: Romanesque groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above,
(b) axonometric view from below, and (c) roof plan. Notice that because the
intersecting vaults are of different span, the groin intersections are skewed
in plan, resulting in unbalanced thrust forces.

Gothic vaulting
Gothic masons finally resolved the difficulty of intersecting vaults of different spans. The key to
the solution was the development of the pointed arch and vault. This geometry allowed vaults
over different width bays to have the same height and intersect with the same simplicity and
directness that characterized Roman vaulting. In addition, because the pointed vault more
closely approximates the ideal funicular catenary, the need for surcharge over the haunches was
greatly reduced (Figure 14.11).
 intersections
are s tr aight
n pan

aJ from aoove (c) root pea

Figure 14.11 : Gothic groin vault: (a) axonometric view from above, (b)
axonometric view from below, and (c) roof plan. Notice that, while the span
of thé vaults differs and the groin portion is rectangular in plan, the
intersections are both straight, like Roman vaulting, and result in balanced
thrust forces.

Lateral Stability

Neither diagonal ties nor other means of obtaining lateral stability were necessary in traditional
vault design. Lateral stability is developed within the plane of the vault, due to its continuous
form (Fig. 6.11). The ribbed vault gains lateral stability through the interaction of its arched

‹aJ fbJ
2I LATERAL. STABILITY OF A YAUL7
Figure 14.3: Lateral resistance in (a) independent arches and (b) a vault.

Thrust resistance
Like arches, all vaults (regardless of shape) create horizontal thrust. The shallower the angle of
line of thrust, the greater the thrust. If the vault springs directly from the foundation, the friction
between the ground and the foundation may suffice to resist spreading.
One method preventing this situation is to make barrel vaults parallel to each other which will
cancel this horizontal thrust between the vaults but the end vaults will need a strong lateral
support to resist the thrust.

However, if the vault is elevated to rest on two parallel vertical walls (or on parallel beams on
vertical columns), the thrust will cause the tops of the walls to spread apart. One way to contain
the thrust is to add horizontal ties between the bases of the vault; this allows the tension of the
ties to resist the outward thrust.

The ancient Romans used a different strategy for resisting thrust; they added large amounts of
masonry over the lower portion of the vault (haunch). In addition to increasing the foundation
friction, this surcharge redirected the line of thrust to a much steeper angle so that it would lie
within the center third of the wall so that it would not overturn.
faJ

(d)

Figure 14.4: Means of resisting lateral thrust in vaults: (a) triction of

foundation, (b) tendency of vault resting on vertical walls to spread, (c) Roman
semicircular vault with thickened haunch and thick walls, (d) Romanesque
solid buttresses, (e) Gothic flying buttresses, and (f) metal ties.

Finally, because the Roman semicircular vault wasportion

not funicular (a catenary is the funicular
(below 52°) of the vault tends to
shape for a vault of uniform thickness), the lower
buckle upward. The added weight of the surcharge resists this d maintains the entire vault in
compression. Later, in the Romanesque period, solid buttresses were added to resist thrust. The
flying buttress evolved in the Gothic period to separate thrust resistanc e from the wd1 entirely
(Fig'ure 14.4).

DESIGN ANALYSIS

The long narrow storage rooms, shown in Fig. 6.12, illustrate an example of Egyptian brick
vault construction. The structure is characterized by the massive continuous buttresses which
are necessary to resist the enormous thrust produced by the thick vaulted roof. Thick haunches
are also necessary to stabilize the form of the vault. A strong axis is created by each of the dark
tunnel-like rooms, and natural openings are restricted to the ends of the vaults.

6. l2 STORACE ROOM. RAMESSEUM,

THEBES
An example of the vault used in contemporary architecture is shown in Fig. 6.15. This
reinforced concrete barrel covering the nave of the church is supported by posts and beams and
emphasizes the axial plan. The continuous thrust exerted by the barrel is resisted by the /?a/
ceiling beams covering the narrow side aisles. The coffered ceiling reduces the weight of the -
roof as well as creating an interesting pattern. Illumination, introduced through the natural
openings between the exterior columns, contributes to the lightness and reveals the simplicity of
the structure.

6.15 S. ANTO NI US. BASEL. MOSER. 1926

SUMMARY — VAULT

I. . A moult is a three-dimensional arched structure which transmits forces to supports by

compression only. It is unable to resist tension. (By contrast, a shell is able to resist compression
and tension.) Because of this, vaults require continuous support along their base.

2. Unlike a series of adjacent arches (which act independently), the shear resistance of the vault
allows the load to spread out (at a 45° angle on each side) to adjacent areas.

3. Like arches, all vaults (regardless of shape) create horizontal thrust. The shallower the line of
thrust, the greater the thrust.

4. Lateral stability is developed through the geometry of the vault.

5. Openings in the vault disrupt structural continuity.

6. Groin vaults are intersecting vaults used to roof spaces in two perpendicular axes,

7. The traditional vault is seldom used today.

8. The contemporary thin shell system has replaced the traditional masonry vault.

9. Roman groin vaults were semicircular and identical in span resulting in a simple intersection
geometry.
 Ch. 7

DOXIE

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Inti oduction :

The dome is a structural system which distributes loads to supports through a doubly curved
plane. It is a continuous geometric form, without comers or abrupt changes in surface
direction, and encloses the maximum volume with a rniriimum of surface area. The dome
must be designed to resist compressive stresses along the meridian lines (arch action) and to
resolve circumfeiential tensile forces in the lower portion of hemispherical domes.

The shall in Fig. 7. I is an example of a dome in naMe. lt resists loads applied from any
direction. It is a structurally stable shape and is able to resist some bending caused by
concentrated loads, but is more resistant to uniform loads.
Other forms resembling domes may be observed in nature, but it is difficult to determine the
type of load distribution within these structures. Some of these domes will distribute loads
similar to the arch, while others will distribute loads similar to the thin shell.

7.1 S4tULL

7.2 ARCH OF REVOLUTION

Load Distribution:

The dome is an arch revolved about a vertical axis. It is similar to a number of separate
arches with a common keystone, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The compressive forces within the
dome are similar to those developed within an arch and must be resisted in a similar manner.
The dome will spread at its base if it is not restrained by either mass or ties.
The thrust at the base of the dome is continuous and traditional methods of obtaining stability
relied upon massive bumessing. The disadvantage of this method of resisting thrust is shown
in Fig. 7.3. The buttress requires a thick supporting wall that makes the entire structural
system massive.
Tie rods may be substituted for massive buttresses in resolving the thrust at the base, as
illustrated in Fig. 7.4. A lighter supporting system emerges from the use of a circumferential
tie which forms a tension ring.

7.3 BUTTRESSED DOME 7.4 TIED DOME

In addition to arch action, the hemispherical dome also contains circumferential forces (Fig.
7.5). The dome develops compressive forces in the upper portion and tensile forces in the
lowei portion. They cause the dome to compress above a transitional line and to spread below
this line. The position of the transitiond line will vary depending upon the type of loading
applied and the mass of the dome. This transitional line, under most loading conditions, may
vary between 4J and 60 degrees from the vertical axis (Fig. 7.6).

7.5 FORCES IN A DOME 7.6 TRANSITIONAL LINE

One method of resisting the tensile forces in a hemispherical dome is by using massive
buttresses below the transitional line, as shown in Fig 7.3. A dome which is less than a
hemisphere may not develop circumferential tension if it is terminated near the transitional
line. This shallow dome produces enormous thnist, developed through arch action, within the
dome and must be adequately restrained.

t8•t ^›• c mPüss'°z n rthe crow ard tsnsile Ir

G^! O8gh the 5urfaC¢ ot the âome are always

conyressiv¢ urder full vertical |oadinç,

Wfl5iÏI4 ñ00g f0F@5 OCCBFS atan gnglg pf{rQrp

45°t0 b0° fro«l the vertical axis.
Lateral Stability:
resists lateral deformation through fts
dome is an extremely stable structural form and
The
geometry

OF A HOME
7.7 LATEIIAL STABILITY

DESIGN ANALYSIS

An ingenious example of primitive dome construction may be seen in ltte igloo (Fig. 7.8).
The hemispherical dome is composed of snow blocks laid in one continuous spiral to enclose
a single volume. The weak compressive strength of the material limits the size of the dome.
The geometry of the dome provides natural lateral stability and dictates the circular shape of
the shelter's plan. The opening at the base of the dome disrupts the structural continuity of
the system. The forces resulting from the discontinuity of structure are resolved by the vault
placed at the entry. Thrust is resisted by the surrounding ice and snow.

Figure 7.9 illustrates an early dome constructed of cut stone. This dome, enclosing a single
volume, springs from massive bearing walls. The square plan reflects the geometry imposed
by the smictural requirements of the dome. The thick walls provide support and resist the
continuous thnist of the dome. A narrow opening through the beañng wall provides a means
of access without disrupting the structural continuity of the dome.

7.8 ESKIMO IC LOO 7.9 TOMB OF BIZZOS. RUWEKA.

Cth. CENTURY
Figure 7.10 illustrates a classic exemple of Roman architecture in which a dome encloses a
single unobstructed space 142 feet in diameter. The masonry hemisphere, coffered to reduce
the weight of the roof and omament the interior surface, rests upon a massive cyliiidrical
bearing wall approximately 20 feet thick. This wall acts as a buttress to resist the enormous
continuous thrust of the dome. The increase in thickness of the dome towards the base
provides sufficient mass to resist the tendency of the normal hemispherical domë to erupt at
its haunch and spread at the base.
Thus the forces within the dome are restricted to compression. The single circular opening at
the top gccentuates,.the focal point of the space and provides abundant illumination without
disruptin8 the stnictural continuity of the dome. This simple geometrical form is circular in
plan and is a direct result of the geometry and load distribution of the dome.

oculuo funglAzed)

cotteced dome
(unreinforced
c oncr ece)

thic kened at hauhGh

co ada weight to
resist upu/ard
buckling

ti ti

radial tension crack

Figure 14.17: Pantheon, axonometric view showing

tveîpht of think ljaunch '

and wa\t make 'the line ot
rhrust increasing
ver tical, keeping lt
ait.hin the middle third
ot the u/all and supportlng
foundatioü

Figure 14.16: Pantheon, load path diagram.

 A masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is illustrated in Fig. 7.11. The central brick dome
rests on gigantic pendentives which transfer the weight and continuous thrust of the dome to
four piers. The structural system, freed from the restrictions of massive bearing walls, allows
access into the central volume from all sides. The central portion of this enormous and
. tricate interior space resembles an oval in plan, approximately 107 feet by 225 feet. Four
huge buttresses, evident in the plan, and two half domes resist the thrust exerted by the
pendentives. The central dome is ringed by 40 windows placed between massive abutments
surrounding the base of the dome. The appearance of the dome is thus lightened while
retaining adequate resistance to thrust.

7.11 S. SOPIIIA. CONSTANTINOPLE.

ANTHEMIUS and ISODORUS. 532-537

concrete dome
‹o slotted creates lateral thrust
windows
make dome surrounding h alf donfie '8
appear act a5 flying nuttresses
to float to resist thrust
piers under corners
OC pendent ive andwell5
support ver tical loads

to resist thru•+C ff”OM

domed

Figure 14.22: Hagia Sophia, load path diagram.

 Figure 7. l4 illustrates an example of twentieth century dome construction characterized by lts
relative light weight and large span. Several layers of tile, including hollow tile, are used to
reduce weight. The dome is 6â inches thick and spans approximately 72 feet. Thrust is
resisted by a steel tension band at the circumference, thereby eliminating the massive
buttresses which were. charactei'istic of earlier masonry dome oonstruction. This masonry
dome supports an inner stainless steel dome which is suspended by cables. This inner shell
serves as a counter-weight for the dome and projection screen for thé planetariutri. The
circular seating plafl, surrounding the central focal point, compliments the geometry of the
structural form.

7.14 BUHE PLANETARIUM. PITTSBUncii.

) INGMAMandzovo.

SUMMARY .DOME
1. The dome transfers loads through compression and may create circumferential tension.

2. The continuous thrust at the base of a dome must be resisted to stabilize the fonn.

3. It develops lateral stability through its geometry.

4. Openings through the dome, except at the top, disrupt structural continuity.

5. The traditional masonry dome has been replaced by the contemporary thin shell or geodesic
smicture.