CHAPTER-7

MOTIVATION

Chapter-7 1
 Objectives of the Chapter
 Definition of motivation
 Classifications of motives
 The content theories of work motivation
 The process theories of work motivation
 The contemporary theories of work motivation
 Motivation of performance through job design
and goal setting
 Application of goal setting to organizational
system performance
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 Definition of Motivation
 Motivation is defined as “The willingness to exert high level
of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by efforts,
and ability to satisfy some individual needs.”
Stephen P Robbins

it is condition that is initiated by a physiological or

psychological deficiency or need in an individual, which
causes the individual to behave in a certain manner in
order to achieve a particular goal or incentive.

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 Elements of Motivation

these elements are interactive and interdependent

Physiological/ Individual Achieves a

Psychological behaves in a particular goal
deficiency certain (INCENTIVE)
(NEED) manner
(DRIVE)

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 Need : physiological or psychological deficiency or
imbalance in an individual will result in a need. For
e.g. hunger thirst
 But psychological need may sometimes arise without
any deficiency or imbalance. e.g. strong need for
progress.
 Drive: physiological drive is a condition which
causes a person to work in a particular direction.
 Incentive : anything that mitigate the drive and
decrease the intensity of the drive

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Classification of Motives:

 Primary Motives
 General Motive
 Secondary Motives

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 Primary Motives:

 A motive is termed as a primary motive when

it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as
well as it is physiologically based. It is not
earned, and it is physiological based.
 all human beings have same primary motives
 Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of
pain

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 General Motives:
 A motive is considered to be a general motive if it
is not learned, but is also not based on
physiological need. general motives stimulate
tension within the individual. They are also called
“stimulus motives”
 The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive
to remain active
 The affection motive

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 The Curiosity, Manipulation and
Activity Motives
 The motives of curiosity, manipulation and
activity are very beneficial for a person, as
they often result in innovations and better
ways of doing things.
 If individuals were restricted from satisfying
these motives, there would be no improvement
in the way things are done, which would result
in stagnation.
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 The Affection Motive:

 Affection or love is a somewhat complex

general motive.
 The complexity arises due to that fact that
love is similar to the primary motives in
some ways, while in some other ways, it
resembles secondary motives.

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 Secondary Motives:
 It is a motive that has been learned or
acquired over time
 The power motive
 The achievement motive
 The affiliation motive
 The security motive
 The status motive

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 The Power Motive

 The person’ drives to gain power and prove

himself superior to others.

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 Achievement Motive
 The achievement motive is a person’ desire
to perform excellently or to handle complex or
competitive situations successfully.
David C. McClelland
 Profile of High achievers:
 Moderate degree of risk
 Need for precise feedback
 Satisfaction with accomplishment
 Total dedication towards task

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 Affiliation Motive
 Employees especially those at the lower
levels of the organizational hierarchy,
have a strong desire to belong to and be
accepted by other employees or the
whole group

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 Security Motive
 Security motive is based largely on fear
and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try
to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to
achieve security

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 Status Motive
 Status is defined as the rank a person holds

relative to others within a group. The

status motive is extremely important

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 The Content Theories of Work
Motivation
 The content theories of motivation attempt
to identify and prioritize the needs and
derives that motivate people at work.
 The theories are:
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of
Motivation
 Alderfer’s ERG theory

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Abraham Maslow

Challenging projects,
(
Self actualization Opportunities for innovation
needs
and creativity, training)

Esteem needs
(Important projects,
Recognition, prestigious office
location)
Social needs
(Good coworkers, peers, superiors,
customers)
Safety or Security Needs
(Job security; benefits like life insurance; safety
regulations)
Physiological needs
(Basic pay, Workspace, heat, water company cafeteria)
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 Two-Factor Theory:
 Herzberg’s classification of needs as
hygiene factors and motivators.
 He conducted a study to find out the job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors
 Job satisfiers were associated with job
content and job dissatisfiers were related to
job context ( circumstances/ situation)
 satisfiers were called motivators and
dissatisfiers were called hygiene factors

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 Hygiene Factors (Needs): they are preventive in
nature they are responsible for preventing
dissatisfaction.
 They are similar to lower level needs in Maslow’s
hierarchy
 Presence of able supervisors
 administrative policies of the org.
 Fair pay
 Good interpersonal relations
 Conducive working conditions
Once hygiene factors have been addressed,
organization can make use of motivators to make
people feel motivated and satisfied
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 TWO-FACTOR THEORY: Contd…
 Motivator Factors (Needs): were essential
to keep employees satisfied
 the wok itself: Meaningful and
challenging work,
 Appreciation for good work
 Giving adequate responsibility to employees
 Clear achievable goals
 career growth (opportunity for growth,
opportunity for advancement)

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Chapter-7 22
CONTRIBUTION OF HERZBERG’S
THEORY
 Theory proposed that the employers will not be
able to motivate employees if they concentrate
only on the hygiene factors.
 hygiene factors are necessary only to retain
their employees. but they cannot motivate the
employees

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
 Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of
needs rather than a hierarchy
 Existence needs – These are associated with
the survival and physiological wellbeing of an
individual.
 Relatedness needs – These needs
emphasize the significance of social and
interpersonal relationship.
 Growth needs – These needs are related to a
person’s inner desire for personal growth and
development.Chapter-7 24
 Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or
cultural environment may cause the relatedness
needs to predominate over unfulfilled existence
needs.
It is also possible that intensity of growth needs will
increase in the degree to which they are satisfied.
limitations of content theories :
They do not explain the complexities involved in the
process of motivation.

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 The Relationship between Maslow,s
Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs
Work itself Achievement
Self-actualization factors
Possibility of growth Growth
and fulfillment Responsibility
Motivation

Advancement
Recognition
Esteem and status
Status
Relatedness
Relations with supervisors
Peer relations
Belongings and
Relations with subordinates
social needs Quality of supervisions
factors
Hygiene

Safety and Company policy

security and administration
Job security
Existence

Physiological Working conditions

needs Pay

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 The Process Theories of
Work Motivation
 The process theories of motivation deal with
“How” of Motivation.
 It deal with the cognitive antecedents
(preceding factor) that go into motivation or
effort, and more specifically, with the way the
cognitive antecedents of an individual relate
to one another.
 The theories are
 Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 The Porter-Lawler Model

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 Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory
of Motivation
 The theory is based on three variables – valence,
instrumentality and expectancy – and is therefore commonly
termed VIE theory.
 An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

 Valence (V) denotes the strength of an individual’s preference

for a particular outcome.
 valence is value or expected utility
 Valence is +ve if person prefer to attain a particular outcome
 valence is –ve if person is not interested in the outcome


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 Vrooms’ Expectancy
Theory of Motivation Contd…

 Instrumentality refers to the degree to

which a first-level outcome would help in
attaining the desired second-level outcome.
 Instrumentality serves as an input for
valence
 Expectancy is the probability that
performing a specific action would produce
a particular first-level outcome or effort.

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 Outcome
Valence
Performance Value of the outcome
Effort Instrumentality
Expectancy to the person
belief
Belief that if I try had that if I do better,
I can do better Vs indifference or aversion
I get a better reward

Motivation

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Relationships Identified In Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory
 Effort performance relationship- an individuals
perception of the probability that a specific level of the
performance would result if he put a certain effort
 performance- reward relationship – the extent of an
individuals belief that a particular level of performance
would result in achieving the desired outcome.
 Rewards- personal goals relationships- the degree to
which an individuals need are satisfied by the rewards
given by the org. and his perception of the attractiveness
of these rewards.
 Managers need to asses the relationship between the
three factors and personal goals .

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 Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory
Goals and associated
Person possessing preference Outcomes (Direct and
Among Various outcomes Correlated)

1st level 2nd level

Expectancy outcomes
outcomes

Motivational force = Walence*Expectancy Action Outcome Outcom

e
1
1a
Accompanied by perceived
probabilities of various Outcome
actions leading to Different 1b
outcomes
Outcome

Feedback (Modification of preferences) 1c

Net Valence or Values of all outcomes

(satisfaction –dissatisfaction)

*Walence = ΣValence x Instrumentality

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 The Porter-Lawler Model

 Porter and Lawler tried to explore the

complex relationship between
motivation, satisfaction and
performance, and pointed out that
efforts put in by an employee did not
directly result in performance.
 it gives a comprehensive explanation
of work motivation.
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 Acc to porter Lawler model performance is
dependent on three factors :
 An employee should have the desire to
perform i.e. he must feel motivated
 Motivation alone cannot ensure successful
performance of a a task: he should have the
necessary skills and abilities.
 The employee should also have the clear
perception of his role in the org. and accurate
knowledge of the job requirement.

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 The Porter-Lawler Model contd…
8. Perceived
Equitable Rewards

4. Abilities & Traits

1. Value of Reward

7.a Intrinsic
Rewards

6. Performance
3. Effort

9. Satisfaction

2. Perceived Effort
Reward Probability 5. Role Perception

7b Extrinsic
Rewards
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 Effort: the amount of energy expended by an
individual to perform a specific task. Effort
depends upon the attractiveness of the reward
and the probability that his efforts will lead to the
reward.
 Performance : it is not necessary that the effort
will result in performance. Performance in turn is
depended on the abilities and skills and the way
the individual perceives his role.

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 important variables in the model
 Reward: employee is rewarded acc. To
performance. Reward can be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
 intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to
himself for having performed a task well
 Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the
employee by the organization

 Satisfaction: depends upon whether the actual

reward offered fall short of, match or exceed
what the individual perceives as an equitable
level of reward.
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 The Contemporary Theories of
Work Motivation
 Equity Theory :
J. Stacy Adams
 This theory states that the degree of equity
or inequity perceived by an employee with
reference to his work situation plays a major
role in work performance and satisfaction.

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 Employees generally compares their output –
input ratio with that of others. If they
perceives the ratio of their outcomes and
inputs are equal to that of their peers and
others , it will result in equity

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 Equity Theory Contd…
 Equity theory represented schematically
as:
Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
 Inequity is represented as follows:
Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
(or)
Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

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 Various referent comparison used by employees:
 Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in same org.
 Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in another org
 Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a a different position but belonging to the
same org.
 Other-outside - comparing ones experience in
the present position with the experiences of
those holdingChapter-7
a different position in41another org
 Equity Theory Contd…
 After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an
employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices.
The choices that an employee is likely to make are as
described below:
 Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he puts in a
particular job
 Change in outcomes: the employee may act an
manner that brings about change in the outcome or
end result.
 Distort perceptions of self: the employee may distort the
perception he held about his own performance
 Distort perception of others: an employee may
change the way Chapter-7
he perceives others jobs,
42 positions and
 Equity theory proposed four methods for
overcome inequity :

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 Attribution Theory
 Attribution theory deals with the cognitive
processes of an individual, which help
interpret his behavior as being caused by
aspects pertaining to the relevant
environment.
Harold H.Kelley

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 Locus of Control Attributions
 ‘Locus of control’ refers to the chief
source of factors that creates a result or
gives rise to an outcome in the
employee’s perceptions.

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 Other Attributions
 Consensus:
Behave in similar manner
 Consistency:
Pattern of behavior, which may be relatively
stable or unstable
 Distinctiveness:
Indicates whether a person’s behavior is
similar for all tasks

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Motivation of Performance Through Job
Design and Goal Setting:
 “Job design” can be defined as the process of
structuring tasks and responsibilities into a job
in an attempt to make the job more
meaningful, significant and satisfying.
 The theory of goal setting as propounded by
Locke, Wood and Mento is based on the
principle that difficult goals stimulate
performance and commitment.

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 Motivation of Performance
Through Job Design
 Approaches to job design
 Job engineering approach to job design
 Job enlargement approach
 Job rotation
 Job enrichment

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 Approaches to Job Design

 Job engineering approach to job design:

 Concerned with issues like plant layout,
design of products, processes and tools.
 Job enlargement approach:
 Deals with the horizontal expansion of jobs

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Approaches to Job Design Contd…
 Job rotation:

This approach involves the regular

switching of jobs among employees.
 Job enrichment:

The job enrichment approach carries out

a vertical expansion of jobs.

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 Quality of Work Life and Socio-
Technical Approach to Job Design
 QWL approach deals with the impact of
work on the employees and on
organizational effectiveness.
 The sociotechnical aspect of job design
aims at creating a harmonious interface
between the human and technological
aspects of work so as to enhance the
quality of work life.
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 Job Characteristics Approach to
Job Design
 The Job Characteristics approach
identifies certain features of jobs that
result in certain psychological states.
 The core dimensions or characteristics of
a job :
 Skill variety
 Task identify
 Task significance
 Autonomy
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 Measuring Task Scope:

 Task scope refers to a dimension for

describing jobs at various levels of the
organization.
 Hackman and Oldham have developed a
qualitative method
 MPS = (Skill variety + task identify + task
significance) x autonomy x feedback/3

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 Redesigning Jobs

 Combination of tasks
 Vertical Loading of jobs
 Introduction of an open feedback system
 Formation of natural teams

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Motivating Performance Through
Goal Setting:
 A goal can be defined as the desired
consequence of an action.
 Performance enhancement through goal
setting:
 Goals should be specific
 Goals should be difficult and challenging
 Goals must be owned and accepted
 Goals must have a specific time frame
 Goals should be measurable

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 Barriers to Effective Goal
Setting

 Lack of top management-support

 Lack of Communication
 Content of the goal
 Technical incompetence

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Application of Goal Setting to Organizational
System Performance

 The theory of goal setting is usually

implemented through a system called
Management by Objectives, popularly
known as MBO.
 MBO refers to the process of setting goals
and objectives through the participation of
the management and he workers.

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 The Process of MBO

 Consensus on key goals and objectives

 Sketch a plan of action
 Control of behavior
 Periodic appraisal and reviews:

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 Summary of The Chapter
 Definition of motivation
 Classifications of motives
 The content theories of work motivation
 The process theories of work motivation
 The contemporary theories of work motivation
 Motivation of performance through job design
and goal setting
 Application of goal setting to organizational
system performance

Chapter-7 59