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M. 19
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ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

JohnC. Frye, Chief Urbana, Illinois
November, 1964

NDUSTRIAL MINERALS NOTES •

No. 19

BINDING MATERIALS USED IN

MAKING PELLETS AND BRIQUETS
G. R. YOHE

ABSTRACT

This compilation of information about materials that have been used

as binders in making pellets, briquets, or other products shaped from powdered
or granular substances was prepared for use in the Illinois State Geological
Survey laboratories. Although it is not an exhaustive report, other workers
also may find it useful.

Information from about 200 abstracts selected from Chemical Abstracts

for 1937 through 1963 is Included. Both organic and inorganic binding materials
are discussed.

The original reference and the Chemical Abstracts citation are given
in the list of references. The report is indexed.
 In connection with work in progress at the Illinois
State Geological
Survey, a need arose for a compilation of information about
materials that had
found application as binders in the making of pellets, briquets,
or other
articles formed from powdered or granular material.

Although this report is by no means exhaustive, it may be of

interest
and value to workers in other laboratories. The decision was
therefore made
to distribute it as an Industrial Minerals Note.

According to Webster's New International Dictionary (2nd edition),

a binder is "anything that causes cohesion in loosely assembled
substances!
as tar, asphalt, or crushed stone in a road."

This definition is somewhat too broad for the present discussion,

for it would include such things as water (which serves as a temporary binder
for sand as children build their castles at the beach) or mucilage with which
we fasten a postage stamp to an envelope. In the broad sense, anything that
serves as an adhesive might be called a binder.

This discussion is restricted to substances that can be mixed with

powdered or granular solids for the purpose of forming pellets or briquets
having reasonably good resistance to weathering and a fair degree of stability
in handling. Even with this limitation, it is scarcely possible to assemble
complete information, as there are many kinds of materials to be bound, many
potential binders, and many purposes for using binders.

Indexes to Chemical Abstract s for 1957 through 1963 were used, but
only selected references were examined. For example, under "Binders" only
those entries deemed pertinent were looked up, and under headings' that refer
to materials being bonded, "binders for" references were selected. Numerous
topics, including adhesives, cements, fibers, inks, lacquers, lime, mortar,
paints, plaster, resins, and rubbers were excluded.

In this review, binders are divided into two categories, inorganic

and organic. Under each of these headings, the various binding materials are
listed in alphabetical order. This is not completely satisfactory, as many
mixtures have been described, some comprising inorganic, some organic, and
some both inorganic and organic materials. However, this arrangement is con-
sidered preferable to one in which the key words are derived from the materials
being bonded, as many binders have been described without reference to the
kinds of materials with which they may suitably be used. The index lists
binders, materials bonded, and other items such as additives and solvents.

The forces that enable materials to serve as binders are not all
of the same nature. Most organic binders function essentially as "glues" or
sticky types of adhesive that' wet the surfaces of the particles being bonded
and thus cement them together. Some such binders are applied as hot liquids
and become solid when cool, and others may remain in a more or less viscous
liquid state. Some inorganic binders (fusible metals, for example) also
function in this manner.
 - 2 -

Other binders are solids of very small particle size. Because

of their high surface energy these particles adhere firmly to other sur-
faces, and thus may serve as bonding agents between neighboring particles
of the material being bonded. Most binders that function in this manner
are inorganic materials; clays, colloidal alumina, and colloidal silica
are examples.

Some binding action may involve both of these principles. An

ore pellet might possess sufficient "green" or "dry" strength because of
surface energy forces, and then be permanently bonded by being heated to
a partial fusion stage wherein forces of the first described type come
into play.

A cknowledgment . The assistance of Mr. Touradj Adl in search-

ing Chemical Abstracts is gratefully acknowledged.
 - 3 -

INORGANIC BINDERS

ALUMINA

A U. S. patent issued in 1961 to John Bugosh and assigned to the

du Pont Company* describes the preparation and use of fibrous boehmite, a
hydrated alumina (A100H). This material, which can carry a positive charge,
is used to coat surfaces (e.g., glass, paper) that have been given a negative
charge. The coating can then serve to anchor a top coat of other desired
material by virtue of its OH groups, its electrical charge, or its fibrous
physical nature.

Another publication issued by the du Pont Company2 describes the

binding action of this same material (but calls it "Baymal Colloidal Alumina")
and indicates that the boehmite fibrils are approximately 50 angstrom units in
diameter and several hundred angstroms long. If an aqueous suspension of these
fibrils is applied to a material such as asbestos that is made up of larger
fibers or to one composed of spherical or granular particles, the evaporation
of water leaves a gel first and then a mat or "felt" of the boehmite fibrils.
At points of contact of the fibers or particles, this mat bonds the material
together.

ALUMINATES

A Hungarian patent 3 describes the use of alkali aluminates, or

aluminates of Zn, Sn, Sb, and Cr which do not contain much free alkali, mixed
in a ratio of 1.7:6.0 with neutral or almost neutral solutions of alkali sili-
cates or alkali fluosilicates. After the product is pressed or centrifuged and
dried below 100° C, it is subjected to a hydrolytic treatment with water prior
to use.

ALUMINUM

Aluminum nitride (A1N), which is useful as a refractory material for

contact with liquid or gaseous aluminum, has such a high sintering temperature
that common binders are not suitable for bonding it.

A French patent 4 describes the use of powdered metallic aluminum,

which is added to the A1N powder with gum arable, sodium silicate, or ceresin
prior to shaping and compressing the pieces. A mixture containing 20, 15, 1,
and 58 percent of 25 to 50, 50 to 100, 100 to 200, and -200 mesh aluminum,
respectively, is recommended.
 - k -

ALUMINUM PHOSPHATE AND PHOSPHORIC ACID

Making castable refractories by bonding alumina, zirconia, mullite,

beryllium oxide, or silicon carbide with phosphoric acid or aluminum phosphate
has been described. 5 A complex amine was used as an inhibitor, and the addi-
tion of ammonium fluoride accelerated the setting of the refractory.

ANHYDRITE (See Calcium Sulfate.)

ATTAPULGITE

Zoelitic molecular sieves, described in a German patent, 6 were made

by mixing zeolites with 1 to 40 percent of attapulgite (a hydrous magnesium
aluminum silicate characterized by a distinctive rodlike particle shape) and
waher, drying the mixture for two hours at 90° C, and firing the shaped arti-
cles at 650° C.

BORATE GLASSES

In the manufacture of abrasive discs, 7 borate glass has been used

as a bonding material. The mechanical properties of the abrasives depend
upon the percentage of a colorless, needlelike mineral at the contact of the
8
corundum grains with the bond. The amount of this mineral varied with the
amount of B2O3 in the bond, and its composition was 3Al203«B20 3 .

A French patent 9 describes the use of alkali metal borosilicates

that soften below 1100° C, together with a plastic clay to improve molding
qualities, for forming articles from oxides of Al, Zr, and Ti, from diamond,
and from carbides of Si, B, U, and Ta. After being molded, the objects are
heated to about 1100° C.

CALCIUM CHR0MITES

Calcium chromites, prepared by heating mixtures of CaO and Cr20 3

in the presence of air, have been shown to possess hydraulic binding proper-
10
ties.

CALCIUM FLUORIDE

Fluorspar (CaFg) has been used as a binder in making abrasive arti-

cles and high-temperature bricks. 195

CALCIUM GERMANATE
,0
Heating a mixture of 2CaO and Ge02 for three hours at 1250 C forms
Ca2 Ge0 4 (calcium orthogermanate ) , which has "a significant degree of mechan-
ical strength, and may be used as a binder. nl1
 - 5 -

CALCIUM OXIDE

Abrasives containing Si02 and A1 2 3 with the addition of trass (a

light-colored volcanic tuff occurring especially along the lover Rhine) have
been formed with calcium oxide as the binding agent. 12

CALCIUM AND SODIUM ALUMINATES

A U. S. patent 13 describes the use of mixtures of calcium aluminate

and sodium aluminate for bonding firebrick and refractory aggregates of fused
silica, alumina, and kaolin. Such mixtures also bond insulating materials con-
taining asbestos, diatomaceous earth, vermiculite, insulating firebrick, and
graphite. The amounts of the mixture of calcium aluminate and sodium aluminate
used vary from 10 to 60 percent, and the unfired strength of the objects is
better than when calcium aluminate alone is used.

CALCIUM SULFATE

A study of the reactions of anhydrite (calcium sulfate) when used as

a binder for building materials has been published. 14

CEMENT P* JS CLAY

A French patent 15 describes the admixture of clay with such binders

as cement in making shaped articles for which mechanical resistance is rela-
tively unimportant. The clay, which should have a grain size below that of the
binder and should contain at least 15 percent AI2O3 and 40 percent Si0 2 , may
compose up to 50 percent of the weight of the mixture.

CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS

A S. patent 16 refers to the use of chromium ore or chromium com-

U.
pounds as binders for dead-burned magnesite, but is concerned primarily with
the use of alkali metal tartrates for improving the quality and strength of
such materials. (See Tartrates under Organic Binders.)

CLAY

The effect of clay binders on the oxidation of sintered silicon car-

bide objects has been compared with the effect of silica gel. The clay binder
17
failed to prevent oxidation below 12^0° C.

Clay minerals or gels of Al(0H) 3 have been used to make abrasion-

18
resistant microspherical molecular sieve catalysts from synthetic zeolites.

A German patent 19 describes the pelletizing of fine ores with a bind-

ing mixture consisting of clay and chalk with aqueous ferrous sulfate, starch,
and aqueous sodium hydroxide.
 - 6 -

FULLER'S EARTH

Fuller's earth ("florigel") kneaded with water to form a sticky,

plastic mass has been used as a binder for catalysts and absorbents used in
the petroleum industry.

GLASS PLUS METAL

The binding of diamond abrasives by a mixture composed of a special

glass (softening point 2000° to 2350° F) and a metallic portion containing
tungsten carbide, iron carbonyl, copper, and small amounts of manganese and
graphite is described in a U. S. patent. 21

IRON HUMATE

According to a Japanese patent, 22 a binder for fuel briquets is

prepared by extracting humic acids from peat or coalite with aqueous sodium
carbonate and treating the extract with ferrous acetate to get a mixture con-
taining iron humate.

IRON OXIDE PLUS CALCIUM OXIDE

The use of 4:1 to 2:1 mixtures of FeO and CaO in the manufacture of
high-silica refractories ("Dinas") 23 from crystalline quartzites produces
bricks of better and more uniform quality and higher compressive strength than
these made with lower proportions of iron oxide in the binder.

LIME

The production of fine-grained lime from coarse limestone by a pro-

simultaneous heating and tumbling has been described in a German
cess of ^si
patent.'
24

The use of a mixture of calcium oxide and gypsum as a binder has

been demonstrated. 25

MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

In the use of dolomite for hearth lining in a 5-ton basic electric

furnace, magnesium chloride was found to be a better binder than either sodium
silicate or tar. 26

MAGNESIUM OXIDE

The preparation of magnesium oxide by precipitating with lime water

and subsequent calcining at 300° to 400° C is described in a Russian patent. 27

Magnesium oxide prepared by firing magnesite has about twice the

strength of that from firing dolomite, and the strength is greater when the
 - -
7

magnesite is fired at lower temperatures (65O to 700° c) than at higher and

when fired short rather than long times. 28

A U. patent 29 describes the manufacture of a refractory bond-

S.
forming material for nonacid refractory aggregates by firing a mixture of
finely divided MgO and Si0 2 (20 to 60 percent of the latter) for half an
hour at 1100° C.

MAGNESIUM SULFATE

The change in form that occurs when a dehydrated inorganic salt is

converted to the hydrated crystal form is the basis for the recommendation that
a partially dehydrated magnesium sulfate be used industrially as a binding
material. Setting begins in 3 minutes and is complete in 6 minutes. 30

METALS

A U. patent 31 describes the forming of objects from powdered

S.
graphite that had been mixed with a diffusionable binder, such as Zr, Nb,
Mo, Ti, Cr, Si, or compounds of these which decompose to form the metals.
For example, graphite containing k percent ZrH 4 was pressed in a die at 1)000
lb/sq in. while being heated to l600° C in a reducing atmosphere and gave a
strong, compact object of low porosity.

Titanium carbide articles have been formed with fusible metals as

binders. 32 Chromium and silicon adhered to TiC after cooling below the melting
point, but nickel and cobalt surrounded the TiC particles more thoroughly.
Other metals tried were Al, Be, Nb, Au, Fe, Pb, Mg, Mn, Pt, Ti, and W.

The use of low-melting metals or alloys to bond powdered magnetic

metals, such as alnico, has been patented in the United States. 33 The mixture
of powder, fusible metal (melting point belox^ i+50° c), and ZnCl 2 as a flux is
heated to coat the alnico grains, then pressed into a mold at a temperature
above the melting point of the binder, and cooled.

METAL CARBIDES
34 describes the carbide-bonding of graphite articles.
A U. S. patent
A thermosetting synthetic resin is first used to bind the graphite particles
into the desired shape. After the resin is cured, the object is heated in a
neutral or reducing atmosphere in the presence of carbide-forming elements
(Hf, Zr, Ti, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Th, U, B, or Si, or a mixture thereof) to enable
the elements to penetrate the object and react to form carbides in situ.

METAL CARBONYLS
35 involves bonding
This process, the subject of a Russian patent,
metal carbide or nitride powders by treating them with solutions of the carbon-
yls of the same metals, so that decomposition, presumably at an elevated temper-
ature, results in deposition of the metal that serves as the actual binder.
 - 8 -

METAL PLUS GLASS

A French patent 36 describes the agglomeration of diamond powder with

a mixture of 80 percent fine metal powder (85 percent Cu, 10 percent Sn, 5
percent Ag) and 20 percent fine glass (72 percent Si02 , 11 percent Na 2 0, 5
percent AI2O3, and 12 percent B2O3). The mixture is fritted in a reducing
atmosphere at 700° to 76O C under pressure of 1 to 4 tons/sq cm.

PE0SPH0R0NITRILE DICHLORIDE POLYMERS

According to a German patent, 37 polymeric phosphoronitrile dichlo-

ride (PNCl 2 ) n is used as a hinder for abrasives forming abrasive wheels. It
is prepared by refluxing 5.3 g NH 4 C1 and 20.8 g PC1 5 in 100 cc C 2 H 2 C1 4 , filter-
ing when evolution of HC1 has ceased, recrystallizing the product from C 2 H 4 C1 2 ,
and heating it to 36°G. A water-soluble resin was made by heating 11 g hydro-
quinone, 11 g resorcinol, and 18.6 g H3BO3 to 280° C. Thirty-eight grams of
this powdered resin, 2 g of hexamethylenetetramine, and 8 g of (PNCl 2 ) n were
mixed with carborundum and formed into a wheel at 175° C.

PHOSPHORUS ACIDS PLUS METAL OXIDES

Equal parts of H3PO4 and H 2 P2 7 were mixed with a dry metallic oxide
(MgO and Fe 3 4 are not suitable, but most others are) in a ratio of 1:3 to 3:1
and heated 5 to 60 minutes at 250° to 400° F; then 2 to 5 percent of a dusting
powder such as MgO or MgC0 3 was added and the mixture ground to the desired
size. This material, described in a U. S. patent, 38 can be used as a binder
or as a molding composition.

PICKLING LIQUORS

Neutralization of sulfuric acid waste pickling liquors and subse-

quent production of FeS0 4 leaves a residue containing CaS0 4 . A possible use
for this residue is as a binder. 39

PORTLAND CEMENT

A Russian patent 40 describes the use of portland cement or alumina

cement, with or without the addition of sodium silicate, as a binder for abra-
sive wheels of quartz, corundum, carborundum, and like materials.

POTASSIUM SILICATE PLUS Zn OR Ca COMPOUNDS

41
A U. S. patent on the bonding of abrasives indicates that a stable,
heat-resistant binder that is self-setting at room temperature and resistant
to discoloration in moist climates consists of a mixture of about 350 parts of
a high-ratio potassium silicate (Si0p>/K2 less than 2), about 100 parts of ZnO,
ZnC0 3 , or CaC0 3 , and 1.5 to 2 parts of a wetting agent such as sulfonated
castor oil.
 - 9 -

SALT HYDRATES

According to a German patent, 42 ores may be pelleted by mixing them

with a binder that consists of a supersaturated solution or melt of a hydrated
salt, of which the liquidus temperature is above room temperature.

SILICA

The preparation of colloidal silica sols in vhich the silica is of

very small particle size has been described in a U. S. patent. 43 The use of
such sols, with gelation promoted by an acid or a "latent acid" (such as form-
amide, which yields formic acid and ammonia on hydrolysis), has been recom-
mended for the binding of ore pellets, 44 and may be of particular interest in
pelletizing calcium fluoride for use in the steel industry.

SILICATES (See also Sodium Silicate.)

Granular lead oxides are prepared, according to a German patent, 45

by mixing FbO or FD3O4 with 5 to 15 percent of a wetting, binding, and harden-
ing agent and heating the mixture to 300° C with a vibratory motion. Sodium
or potassium silicates are among the suitable agents listed.

SILICIDES

Carbon articles such as electrodes can be bonded together by appli-

cation of a collodion-acetone suspension of Si and/or one or more of such sui-
cides as those of Mo, W, Ti, Zr, Ta, and Cr and heating to 1900° to 2100° C in
an argon atmosphere. 46

SILICON CARBIDE

Carbon articles were made by mixing amorphous carbon with SiC or an

inorganic carbide, molding, and heating to above the temperature of decomposi-
tion of the carbide. 47

SODIUM SILICATE (See also Silicates.)

A German patent 48 describes a process of preparing granular super-

phosphates from powder by adding 1 percent of water-free sodium silicate and
5 percent 7-hexachlorocvclohexane in the presence of 2 to 3 percent water end
mixing well in a granulating apparatus. The drying and setting process is
fairly rapid. The use of sodium metasilicate or other alkali silicates is also
described in a Spanish patent. 49

Sodium silicate has also been used with a variety of other materials
50 calls for the use of a mixture
as additives. For example, a Japanese patent
of 30 kg of commercial Na 2 Si0 3 , 1 kg of carnauba wax, 10 kg of water, 15 kg of
kieselguhr, 22 kg of CaCl 2 , 17 kg of K2 S0 4 , and 20 kg of talc powder. The mix-
ture is ground to -100 mesh. Use of 30 kg of this mixture with 200 kg of sand
and a suitable amount of water gives a molded product that does not freeze in
winter and is waterproof and fireproof.
 - 10 -

A U. S. patent
51 referring to the
agglomeration of iron ores in the
blast furnace describes the use of sodium silicate alone or mixed with molasses
or glucose as a cementing agent to decrease the formation of flue dust in the
blast furnace, and states that as little as 0.1 percent of 40° Be water glass
makes a measurable difference in flue dust formation.

For making fuel briquets, a German patent 52 describes the use of

sodium silicate containing citric acid.

A U. S. patent describes the binding of organic and inorganic mate-

rials, including refractories. 53 This is done by dissolving tartaric, citric,
or lactic acid in water to give a pH of about 2.5 and adding 1000 cc of this
solution to 20 to 30 cc of a solution of a polyhydric alcohol and 30 cc of a
glucose sirup. This mixture is then added to 33*5° to 67.5° Be sodium sili-
cate until a pH of 10 to 12 is obtained. Other binder compositions of a
similar nature also are described. The aggregate and binder are mixed, com-
pressed, solidified at about 150° C, and fired at 1000° to I85O C. The
articles possess good storage characteristics and are insensitive to frost.

W0LIAST0NITE

This native calcium metasilicate (CaSi0 3 ) was used in making abra-

sive wheels. 54 The materials were heated to various temperatures, quenched,
pulverized as needed, shaped under pressure, and sintered at 800° C. Decreas-
ing the particle size and increasing the shaping pressure gave stronger
articles, but the compressive strength was decreased if the temperatures used
prior to quenching were increased from 1200° to l800° C.

ZINC SULFATE HYDRATE

Rapid setting and intense hardness were observed for binders con-
sisting of anhydrous ZnS0 4 and water, but strength was lost completely under
conditions that permitted the subsequent loss of water and reversion to the
anhydrous salt. 55
 - 11 -

ORGANIC BINDERS

ALGINIC ACID

A German patent 56 on the manufacture of fuel briquets indicates that

the molding properties of bituminous coals or petroleum or pitch semicoke can
be improved by the addition of alginic acid or its salts or gels. It can be
applied in the form of an emulsion with organic agglutinants such as tar, pitch,
or anthracene oil, and the addition of milled soft pitch is recommended with
lover volatile fuels.

ALKALI CELLULOSE

A German patent 57 describes the preparation of weat her- resistant

briquets by treating coal, coke, or wood charcoal with a 2 percent solution of
sulfided alkali cellulose, heating at 50° C, adding some water if necessary,
and then pressing.

AMINES

According to a U. S. patent, 58 solid particles such as coal, fly ash,

or ceramic materials that contain "digestible matter" may be bonded by mixing
them with amines such as RNH2, where R is aliphatic and contains not more than
12 carbon atoms, or EsN(CE2) n Wi2t where n is not more than 6.

ANTHRACENE- SULFUR

When anthracene oil was heated for 5 to 7 minutes at 280° to 290° C

with 3 percent of sulfur, a binder suitable for use in making coal briquets was
obtained. 5'-'
When 0.1 to 3 percent of this binder was added to the coal charge,
briquets having improved strength and water resistance were obtained.

ARALDITE

The physical and chemical properties of Araldites (epoxy resins) as

binders have been discussed in two reports. 60 * 61

ASPHALT

Because of a scarcity of tar in France, experiments on the use of

62
asphalt as a binder for briquetting fine coal dust have been carried out.

A French patent 63 describes in detail the preparation from a Kuwait

crude oil of an asphaltic bitumen that is suitable for use as a binder for coal
fines.
 - 12 -

The modification of petroleum asphalts by air oxidation at 2J5° to

280° C to increase their viscosity and adhesiveness has been described in two
Russian articles; 64 * 65 such products are used in making coal briquets.

Asphalts with various additives have been used as binders. For

example, a British patent 66 calls for powdered casein and magnesium silicate
to be stirred into melted asphalt ic material. Salt and sugar may also be
added. The resultant binder is suitable for use with rock aggregates for
pavements.

A liquid binder, capable of coating damp or unheated aggregates,

was made by blending 10 to 50 percent of a viscous, nonvolatile hydrocarbon
oil with 20 to 60 percent of a volatile petroleum distillate and mixing the
blend with 15 to kO percent of a powdered, hard asphalt; this is the subject
of U. S. patents. 67

Another U. S. patent 68 deals with the admixture of phenolic com-

pounds and a metal oxide such as PbO with asphalt in the manufacture of binders
useful in road construction.

Oleylamiee in amounts of approximately 2.5 percent added to asphalt

improves binding action, especially for acidic or moist aggregates. 69

The use of 0.1 to 5 percent of a substituted tetrahydropyrimidine

(i.e., 2-heptadecyl-4,6,6-trimethyl-3,^,5>6-tetrahydropyrimidine) to improve
the binding characteristics of asphalt also has been patented in the United
States, 70

Still another U. S. patent 71 involves the addition of a solvent to

asphalt. The solvent is of the paraffinic hydrocarbon type, b.p. 50° to 200°
C, and the solvent action is increased by admixture of small amounts of oxy-
genated solvents of the ether, ester, or ketone type.

BITUMENS

Numerous articles have been published on the use of various bitumi-

nous materials as binders. Some of these deal with general features of bind-
ing action, while others cite specific mixtures and applications. In one of
the former type, 72 water resistance is discussed in terms of adhesion between
the mineral aggregate and the binder. Adhesion is defined as the resultant
of the interfacial tensions of water and the binder relative to the aggregate.
Negative values indicate that water tends to displace the binder, as it does
when the aggregate is hydrophilic. With positive values, the aggregate is
hydrophobic and the binder is not displaced readily by water. Chemical inter-
action between binder and aggregate is an important factor; the hydrophobic
character accompanying good adhesion is enhanced by reaction between basic
oxides of the aggregate and acidic groups of the binder to give water- insoluble
compounds.

In using bitumens instead of pitches as binders for fuel briquets,

it is important to develop procedures that work best for the particular bitu-
men used. 73 A Nagylenglyl crude oil bitumen, 74 although inferior to coal tar
pitch for binding coal briquets, could be used satisfactorily, especially when
applied in the molten state by spraying.
 - 13 -

According to a German patent, 75 ores, coal, lime, or mixtures thereof

are briquetted with a distilled bitumen having a penetration (depth
of penetra-
tion of a needle of specified shape under controlled conditions of load, tem-
perature, and time. See ASTM. Designation D5-52) of 20 to 30 at 25° C. The
powdered material is wet, mixed with the hot liquid bitumen, and homogenized
before pressing.

Several shale bitumens were studied as possible binders for coal

briquets; those of lower density (about 1.1) and softening temperature (46°
to $0 C) vere not satisfactory, but one with a density of 1.17 and softening
temperature of 87 C produced briquets of high heat- and water-resistance that
were superior in mechanical strength to those made with coal tar pitch. Another
study of shale bitumens 77 showed that those of high softening temperatures
could be used directly, while those of lower softening temperatures could
advantageously be applied as pastes with lime.

Bitumen emulsions also have been much used as binders. Coal fines,
for example, have been briquetted satisfactorily after being sprayed with an
emulsion of petroleum bitumen, water, and an emulsifier; 78 pressing was at
250 kg/sq cm while the material was hot, and the effects of varying the part-
icle size, moisture content, amount of binder, and other factors were studied.

A U. S. patent 79 deals with the use of a quick-breaking oil-in-water

type of emulsion of bitumen for binding mineral aggregates. The bitumen is
emulsified in combination with NaOH and an alkali metal phosphate. A similar
type of emulsion used for bonding hydrophilic aggregates and incorporating 0.05
to 0.5 percent of sodium dichromate is said to form a particularly strong bond
with the aggregate. 80

Another U. S. patent 81 involves adding Na 3 P0 4 to a low- viscosity,

quick-breaking, clay- free bituminous emulsion to slow down the breaking to
allow sufficient time for mixing with the aggregate, fibrous filler, and other
materials, while a French patent 82 describes the use of such emulsions with
the addition of an emulsion-breaking agent to give controlled breaking at the
desired time, A general theoretical discussion of the adhesion of bitumens to
rock aggregates and the use of emulsifying agents has been published. 83

Bitumens have been modified by the incorporation of various types of

additives. A German patent 84 claims improved adhesion of bituminous binders
to aggregates by the addition of small amounts (0.01 to 1.0 kg/1000 kg of
aggregate) of an aqueous dispersion containing, preferably, 10 to 15 percent
of a water- insoluble amine or amide. For example, an especially useful dis-
persion contained 75 percent water, 10 percent long-chain amine, and 15 percent
of a 21 percent alkyl sulfate solution.

A French patent 85 also calls for the admixture of amines to improve

the adherence of bitumen binders, citing RNH2 , RR'NH, and RR'R" N, where R, R 1
,

and R" are hydrocarbon radicals of at least 13 carbon atoms.

Two French patents 86 ' 87 claim to improve the adhesiveness of bitumi-

nous binders by the addition of 0.2 to 5 percent of salts of primary or sec-
ondary amines that do not decompose on heating, or 0.1 to 5 percent of reaction
products of polyamines with mineral or organic acids. These salts may be added
as such or formed in situ by incorporating the acid and base separately into
the bitumen solution.
 - Ill -

A German patent 88 specifies as a binder for making coal or coke

briquets a mixture of bituminous hydrocarbons, sulfidic benzene derivatives,
sulfidic benzene homologs, and aliphatic halohydrocarbons. The components
were mixed and heated in an autoclave while being stirred rapidly.

A blend of petroleum bitumen and a fraction from Ladkin asphaltite

was said to be thermally and chemically a more stable binding material than
coal tar pitch. 89

The addition of calcium phenolates to avoid the undesirable effects

of naphthenic acids in bitumens has been cited by a German patent. 90 Thus 51
kg of CaO was dissolved in 8.5 metric tons of boiling commercial creosote oil
with simultaneous removal of 25 kg of water (and a small amount of oil) by
distillation. After cooling, the oil was added to 4l.5 tons of bitumen "B-80"
and stirred at 150° C. Adhesives of the amine type were then added.

A French patent 91 describes the preparation of bituminous binders

having good adhesion toward mineral aggregates and metals. In the process,
0.5 to 2.0 percent of heavy metal soaps of high molecular weight organic acids,
such as Fe or Fb oleates or naphthenates, was added to the bitumen. This
binder was used as a preliminary coating; a further quantity of binder not
containing such soap was then added.

The addition of unslaked lime to bitumen to produce a slow- setting

binder is described in a U. S. patent. 92 Another U. S. patent 93 covers the
use of a heavy bitumen to which an organic nitro compound has been added for
making carbon electrodes.

The improvement of adhesiveness of bituminous binding agents by the

addition of organic silicon compounds, such as (CH3) x (CH 3 0)ySi, where x + y = k,
is claimed in a German patent. 94 The silane may be applied to the rock aggre-
gate prior to addition of the binder, or it may be mixed with the bitumen.

BUTADIENE- CHL0R0PRENE

The bonding of abrasive articles by the use of polymerized chloro-

prene mixed with a butadiene monomer and an unsaturated ketone has been claimed
in a U. Sr patent. 95

CARBOHYDRATES (See also Cellulose Derivatives and Starch.)

The preparation of carbohydrate ethers or esters for use as binders

has been described in a U. S. patent, 96 and carubin (locust bean gum), which
is about two-thirds mannose and one-third galactose and almost completely
water-soluble, has found application as a binder in the ceramic and mining
industries. 97

CASEIN

A mixture of casein with 30 percent by weight of portland cement has

been patented in Russia as a binder for making abrasive wheels. 98
 -15-
CASSAVA FLOUR (See Manioc Flour; Sulfite Liquor, and reference
177.)

CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES

A German patent" describes the preparation of a polysaccharide bind-

ing agent, suitable for use in textiles, papers, and paints, from inorganic
reactants and cellulose derivatives. For example, 25 parts of sodium carboxy-
methylcellulose, 10 parts of A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , and 5 parts of Ca(0H) or
2 3 parts of
MgO form a useful dispersion when added to water and stirred.

COAL PLUS AMINES (See also Amines; reference 58.)

A mixture of coal and amines has been patented in the U. S. 100 as a

binder for ceramic materials. It i6 hardened by heating it to a temperature
below the decomposition temperature of the coal used.

COAL HYDROGENATION PRODUCTS

According to a Russian patent* * the product obtained by hydrogenating

a humus coal at 350° to 380 C and 50 to 100 kg/sq cm may be used as a binder
for briquetting coal.

DRYING OILS PLUS ADDITIVES

A British patent 102ment ions a number of drying oils (for example,

linseed, soybean) which may be mixed with about 15 percent Isano or Boleko oil,
heated to the desired viscosity (5000 cp at 20° C, for example), treated with
0.1 percent Co and 0.3 percent Fb driers, and used in about 2 percent amounts
with quartz sand to make foundry cores.

EPOXY RESINS (See also Araldite.)

A German patent 103 claims that resins made by curing epoxy alkyl
esters of polybasic aromatic acids with polycyclic aromatic amines can be used
as bonding agents for metals and other materials. For example, 100 g of di-
glycidyl terephthalate melted with 25 g of benzidine was heated at 90° to 100°
C and degassed for 5 minutes at 5 to 20 mm, poured into molds, and cured at 1^0°
C for 60 minutes.

Another patent 104 describes a cement for abrasives that is made by

the condensation of vinylcyclohexene dioxide wdtto pyrome 11 it ic anhydride.

A U. S. patent 105 describes a binding mixture of 5 parts by weight of

an epoxy resin prepared by the reaction of 2,2-bis(4-hydroxy-3-allylphenyl)pro-
pane and epichlorohydrin, 3 parts of a high molecular weight (3,000 to 10,000)
polyamide prepared by the reaction of dilinoleic acid and ethylenediamine, and
1 part of a liquid polysulfide prepared by the reaction of bis(2-chloroethyl)~
formal and Na2 Sx cured for 10 to 12 seconds at l80° C. This had excellent
strength and good resistance to water and ethylene glycol.
 - 16 -

FURAN DERIVATIVES

A U. patent 106 claims that molding sands or abrasive granules may-

S.
be bonded with k percent of a mixture such as 75 parts of furfuryl alcohol,
25 parts of maleic anhydride, 5 parts of urea, and 0.5 part of NH4CI. The
resulting mix was cured in an oven at 300° F.

GLYCEROL

A German patent already cited 45 describes the preparation of granular

lead oxides by mixing the oxide (FbO or Fb 3 4 or both) with 5 to 15 percent of
a wetting, binding, and hardening agent and heating them to 300° C with a vi-
bratory motion. Glycerol, as well as dispersions of high polymers (e.g., pol-
yvinyl chloride in acrylic acid or polystyrene, sulfite liquor or molasses
wastes), is listed as a suitable additive, Glycerol also may be used as a
binder in refractories and ceramic-bonded abrasive compositions. 107

GLYCOL ESTER DERIVATIVES

A binder for uniform, very hard, dense, abrasive forms is made from
an unsaturated polymer of a glycol and an unsaturated polybasic acid, copolym-
erized with a vinyl monomer and styrene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide
(U. S. patent).
108

GUMS, NATURAL (See Shellac.)

HUMIC ACID AND HUMATES

A Russian patent 109 describes a binder for coal briquets that is

obtained by treating brown coal ground to 0.5 mm particle size with a 0.1
percent solution of NaOH or NH 4 0H. This is similar to the preparation des-
cribed 15 years later as "new' — a sodium humate made by fine grinding of coal
;

in an alkali; 77 the amount of this used in briquetting xras kept below 1.5 per-
cent to avoid tackiness on the press.

Other experiments on the use of humate s as fuel briquet binders 110

indicate that the crushing strength of the pro:.:ct depends upon the cation
accompanying the humate ion; with Na a mar-rimum of i+0 kg/sq cm is attained,
but with Al, NH 4 , Fe, and Ca it is 20 kg/cq cm or less. Optimum amounts of
the binder are 3 to 6 percent.

EYDR0XYAMINE DERIVATIVES

A British patent 111 describes binding agents for tar and bitumen
that are made by treating (H0C 2 H4NHC2H4) 2 NC2H 4 0H with stearic or oleic acid
at 140° to 160° C.
 - 17 -

LIGNOSULFONATES

A study of the variation of properties of lignosulfonates with vary-

ing molecular weights showed that with increasing molecular weight their bind-
ing strength in iron ore pellets increased. 112

LUPINES

A Hungarian patent 113 specifies that if seeds of lupines or soybeans

are steeped in an acid solution for 8 to 12 hours, separated from the liquid,
disintegrated, partly freed (if desired) of their oil content, and added to pow-
dered coal in amounts of 1.5 to k percent, suitable binding action is achieved.

MANIOC FLOUR PLUS MOLASSES

A French patent 114 describes the binding of charcoal briquets with a

mixture of 560 g of manioc flour, I+33 g of molasses, k g of 30 percent NaOH
solution, and 3 g of 30 percent formaldehyde solution.

MOLASSES

A French patent 115 dealing with coal briquets describes as the binder
used a hardened product obtained by dehydration of molasses or other sugar res-
idues followed by polymerization at an elevated temperature in the presence of
a catalyst. The brittle product is then ground to a powder, which may be used
alone or mixed with tars, bitumens, resins, or with a fermentation inhibitor.

NITROPHENOLS

Although the nitrophenols are apparently not used alone as binders, a

Japanese patent 116 claims that the addition of a "phenylnitrophenol compound"
to a binder for the manufacture of molded products of carbon and graphite im-
proves their hardness and bending strength.

ORGANOSILICONS

A 117 claims polymers of siliconols, alkoxysilicons, sil-

U» S. patent
iconacylates and other organosilicons as binders for abrasives. They may be
used with or without nonsilicon resins.

PETROLEUM OXIDATION PRODUCTS

Binders that have kerosene or white spirit oxidation products as their

base are prepared by the oxidation of hydroxy acids with xylitol or its anhy-
dride in the presence of H2S0 4 , NaHS0 4 , or a sulfonic acid to thicken the pro-
duct. Drying of the esterification product is hastened by dissolving it in
118
solvent naphtha containing 1 to 2 percent litharge (Russian patent).
 - 18 -

PETROLEUM PITCH

A binder described in a French patent 119 is composed of a mixture of

petroleum pitch and coal tar stabilized with bituminous shale pitch.

A British patent 120 describes a petroleum pitch suitable for making

coal briquets. The pitch is made by air oxidation of a residue from the vacuum
distillation of petroleum (or a bitumen obtained by deasphalting such a residue)
at 3^0° to 400° C and atmospheric pressure. Steam injection is used to control
the temperature, sweep out volatile substances, and prevent the deposition of
coke. .
-.;.

A 121 deals with binders for carbon electrodes; these

U. S. patent
binders (softening point 70° to 120° C, specific gravity 1.2 to 1.3, and H/c
ratio less than l) are prepared by mixing a cracked petroleum fraction, con-
taining at least 50 percent by weight aromatic compounds and having a min-
imum boiling point of 650° F, with a partially hydrogenated cracked fraction
also containing at least 50 percent aromatic compounds and having a minimum
boiling point of 700° F. The mixture is then thermally and noncatalytically
a
cracked at 100 to 2500 lb/sq in. gage and 800 to 1000° F, and the product
stripped at less than 525° F and 20 mm pressure to produce the binder.

Binders useful as substitutes for tar in the manufacture of solid

fuels are described in a French patent; 122 they are made by mixing coal dust
of 0.5 to 1 mm particle size with petroleum pitch and, optionally, oil tar,
Al2(S0 4 ) 3 , and an oxidic mineral containing 8 percent carbon, 6 percent Fe20 3 ,
31 percent A1 2 3 , 48 percent Si02, and 7 percent IfeO.

PHENOL-ALDEHYDE RESINS

In the preparation of phenol- aldehyde resin binders, various phenolic

compounds or crude phenol-containing mixtures and various aldehydes have been
used. An example of the application of a crude mixture is seen in a French
•

1
patent. '
To 1000 kg of a crude wood tar containing 3*5 percent acetic acid,
ammonia was added in sufficient amount that 10 to 15 kg of acetic acid remained
unneutralized. This provided a mixture of acetic acid and its ammonium salt
to serve as a catalyst for the condensation reaction. Then 70 kg of acetal-
dehyde was added slowly, with stirring, under an atmosphere of nitrogen, the
temperature was raised slowly to 70° C and maintained at that point, with
stirring, for 5 hours. A slow stream of air was then passed through the mass
and the temperatuz-e raised to about 110° C. After 14 to 16 hours, a product
was obtained that softened at about 60° C, melted at 71° C, and was useful as
a binder for coal dust.

A binder for charcoal briquets described in a Japanese patent 124 was

made by heating a mixture of 100 parts crude phenol, 100 parts formalin, and
2 parts H2SO4 for 1 hour at 60° C, washing with an equal amount of water,
allowing the residue to stand 2 hours with 100 parts of methanol and 5 parts
of 38 percent NH 4 0H and then overnight with 10 percent NaOH in methanol.

A British patent 125 involves the use of formaldehyde with a coal tar
acid fraction containing phenol (phenol: formaldehyde ratio of 1:1.5 to 1:2.2)
and condensation in aqueous NaOH. Lignin, starch, cellulosic material or other
carbohydrates may be used as extenders, and the coal briquets are cured by
heating to 1^0° to 160° C. The briquets are weather- resistant.
 - 19 -

A modified phenol- formaldehyde resin, containing about 10 percent

of
o-chlorophenol, is claimed as a binder for abrasives in a U. S. patent. 126

A British patent 127 claims that the bonding of such materials as glass
fibers by means of a phenol- aldehyde resin can be greatly strengthened by
in-
corporating 0.1 to 0.5 percent of an organosilicon compound of the formula
%SiX 4 . n , where R is an alkyl, aryl, or alkylaryl radical containing one or
more OH or Wis groups reactive with the resin, X is alkoxy, aryloxy, OH, or a
halogen, and n is 1, 2, or 3.

A Russian patent 128 relates to the use of a mixture of powdered phenol-

formaldehyde resin and rubber for bonding grains in making abrasive articles,
and a U. S. patent 1 9 describes the bonding of metal oxides or magnetic com-
positions by the use of a 2:1 mixture of phenol- formaldehyde and urea- formal-
dehyde resins along with Ca, Zn, or Bu stearate, carbowax plasticizer, and a
little water.

PHENOL BORATES AND PHOSPHATES

The bonding of abrasive grains in making grinding wheels may be accom-

plished, according to a U. S. patent, 130 by means of boric and phosphoric acid
esters of various phenols. In one example a resin was made from 12.1 parts of
monophenyl phosphate, 11 parts each of resorcinol and hydroquinone, and li.3
parts of boric acid. The mixture was refluxed to drive off water, and the tem-
perature was gradually increased to 200° C within an hour to yield a brown,
somewhat pliable, sticky resin. The resin was mixed with 2 percent hexa-
methylenetetramine, and carborundum grains added until the resin was 10 percent
of the mixture. This was formed into a wheel, cured 1 hour at 175° C and then
at 200° C.

PITCH (See also Petroleum Pitch.)

Various pitches and pitch combinations have found extensive use as

binders, probably because of the ready availability and low cost of the pitch
as well as its desirable physical and chemical properties. Although a majority
of these applications seems to be in the realm of making fuel briquets, the use
of pitch as a binder is by no means restricted to these materials.

According to a British patent, 131 a binder is produced by oiling back

a pitch, removing water and part of the oils by distillation, extracting with a
solvent to remove certain undesirable constituents, and distilling off the sol-
vent .

High-boiling fractions from pitches and tars, together with the sec-
ond anthracene fraction obtained in pitch rectification (softening temperatures
69° to 83 C, 19 to 33 percent insoluble in toluene, and 71 to 77 percent vol-
atile) show promise as bonding agents for coal briquets. 132 Average softening
temperatures of such pitches rose from 79° +-0 101° C during 12 months, while
the volatile contents dropped slightly, frcn 73.3 to 71.4 percent. Briquets
bonded with 12 percent of pitch at 150° C and pressed at 95° C and ^00 kg/sq cm
possessed high mechanical and water resistance and were not tacky.
 - 20 -

A German patent 133 specifies a mixture of hot pitch, dispersible

clay, water separated during the purification of gas, and 0.5 to k- percent
naphthalene, anthracene, or phenanthrene , as a suitable binder to be triturated
with coal in making briquets.

Another patent 134 describes the briquetting of wet coal sludge by-
mixing it with 5 percent of a liquid pitch-coal product obtained by heating
fluxed hard pitch and powdered coal up to 300° C,

The use of wash oil or lignite tar oil and pitch in briquetting solid
fuels is claimed in another German patent. 135 Still another 136 applies to the
use of tar-pitch melts as binders for fuels that are not easily coked, and are
moist and fine grained.

Lignite pitch as a binder for the briquetting of crushed solid fuels

is specified in another German patent. 137

A discussion of the optimum properties of pitches, the addition of

20 to 30 percent pitch distillate to promote better covering of the coal par-
ticles, the use of pitch emulsions and of air-blown pitch distillate has been
published. 138 Laboratory experiments have shown it possible to prepare sat-
isfactory briquets by adding 8 percent or more of coal tar residue with a
139
melting point of 95° C to coal fines.

A German patent 140 describes the use of tars and pitches from the
low-temperature carbonization of brown coal as binders for briquetting coal
and other solid carbonaceous fuels.

The influence of the chemical and physical properties of pitch on

its binding characteristics has been studied, 141 with special attention to
the role of the gj, P, and 7 constituents, (Note: the a fraction is that
portion insoluble in pyridine; the P fraction is soluble in pyridine but in-
soluble in chloroform; and the 7 fraction is soluble in both pyridine and
chloroform-G*R»Y.) The content of the £ and 7 components should be about 80
percent and their ratio 1:1. Low-quality pitch contains high amounts of a and
7 components. In this study, the ductility of the pitch was stressed.

A technique has been developed whereby the pitch binder in a coal

briquet can be made visible and the amount used can be estimated by micro-
scopic examination. 142

A study of medium- soft pitches from coke oven, horizontal retort,

vertical retort, and low- temperature tars has been made, using infrared anal-
yses, solvent extraction, and chemical analyses. Physical properties were
related to viscosity, and specifications for pitch as a binder for briquets
and carbon electrodes were reviewed. 143

A further study of binders by a viscosity measurement (the torque

required to rotate a platinum disc dipped into the molten sample) at temper-
144
atures between 40* and 1^0° C has included hard pitches. Agglomerating
properties were evaluated by determining the compression strengths of pitch -
coke briquets made with the binders. Values obtained with the pitches were
about as might be expected on the basis of industrial experience.
 - 21 -

Various additives have been used with pitches in the preparation of

binders. A U. S. patent 145 relating to the making of carbon or graphite elec-
trodes specifies the use of less than 5 percent of an additive with pitch, or
with a tar which is subsequently distilled until an 80° C softening point
is attained. Suitable additives listed are MnCl 3 , CrCl 3 , FeCl 3 , nitrobenzene
sulfonyl chloride, p-toluene sulfonyl chloride, or nitronaphthalene sulfonyl
chloride.

A Japanese patent 146 mentions the use of coal-tar pitch and resin in
fish oil or mineral oil, dispersed by means of an alkaline solution of cellulose,
as a briquet binder.

Making refractories of calcined dolomite and a binder of 65 to 70

percent coal-tar pitch and 30 to 35 percent anthracene oil and pressing at more
than 500 kg/sq cm has been described. 147

A German patent 148 describes bonding carbon articles together or to

metals with a mixture made up of one-third pitch, one-third electrode graphite,
and one-third graphitic acid.

A German patent 149 involves mixing tar oils and wood or lignin with
pitch to obtain binders with a wide plasticity range. For example, 1000 kg of
tar pitch was heated until the softening point rose to above 100° C, and then
85O kg of anthracene oil and 300 kg of lignin were added. Heating was continued
3 to h hours to decrease the point of fracture.

Hard spherical coal pellets for subsequent activation with steam at

1750° F were described in a U. S. patent; 150 they were made by mixing the pul-
verized coal with 20 to 30 parts of core pitch and tumbling the pellets with
k-0 cc per 100 g of powder of a molasses solution of specific gravity 1.10 to
1.15.

A German patent 151 describes the use of an emulsion or suspension of

pitch, prepared with the aid of such an emulsifying agent as concentrated sul-
152
fite liquor, as a binder for briquetting carbonaceous fuels; a Japanese patent
claims what appears to be a similar mixture made up of 25.5 parts of coal tar,
U8.3 parts of coal tar pitch, 25.4 parts of water, 5 parts of 30° Be waste pulp
liquor, and 0.1 part of NaOH mixed together at 95° C.

POLYACKYLAMIDE

Polyacrylamide is a water-soluble, nonionic powder made by the polym-

erization of acrylamide. In aqueous solutions it is compatible with most natu-
ral and synthetic water-soluble gums, latex systems, and many salts; it is a
153
good thickening agent, protective colloid, and binder.

POLYALKYLENE GLYCOL- POLYETHYLENE OXIDE

The binding of precious- stone abrasives with a polyalkylene glycol-

154 For example, 20
ethylene oxide polymer is described in a U. S. patent. g of
diamond or sapphire powder was dispersed with $k g of polyalkylene glycol and
agitated while 26 g of ethylene oxide was added; heating and stirring were con-
tinued until a uniform consistency was obtained. The polymer had a molecular
weight of 4000 and melted at 50° C.
 - 22 -

POLYAMIDES

Magnetic cores, described in a French patent, 155 were made by emul-

sifying a superpolyamide with 80 percent ethanol in an autoclave at 1 kg/sq cm
pressure and 120° C, mixing with a magnetic powder such as iron, homogenizing
in a heated mixer, coagulating with cold water, and homogenizing again.

POLYESTER RESINS

A U. patent 156 describes a binder that may be used for abrasives

S.
and other materials. A mixture of k.k parts of ethylene glycol, Ml. 7 parts
of commercial pentaerythritol, 21.5 parts of a diallyl ether mixture of
pentaerythritol, 22.3^ parts of maleic anhydride, 2.3 parts of boric acid,
and 18.6 parts of water was heated under COs and stirred at 170° to 190° C
for 3 hours. The product had an acid number of 17 .^; it was diluted with
water to 75 percent solids prior to use.

POLYMERS OF HYDROCARBONS

A Dutch patent 157 describes the use of various polymers and/or

copolymers of olefinic hydrocarbons, their mixtures, and their mixtures with
pitch. Monomers listed as suitable starting materials are ethene, propene,
butene, butadiene, and styrene. The binders were used in making fuel briquets.

POLYURETHANES

A U. patent 158 gives the details of preparing elastic grinding

S.
articles. In an example, 600 g of AI2O3 was moistened with a solution of
10 percent of hfk , V-tri-isocyanatotriphenylmethane in CH2CI2, the solvent
1

evaporated and the A12 3 added to a molten, castable polyurethane polymer,

stirred vigorously for 30 seconds, and the mixture placed in molds for 2k
hours. The polyurethane was prepared by adding 70 g of 1,4-butanediol to the
reaction product of 1000 g of linear polyesters containing aliphatic OH groups
and 300 g of 1,5 -naphthalene diisocyanate and stirring for 30 seconds.

POLYVINYL ACETAL

A bonding composition for magnetic metal described in a U. S. pat-

ent 159 consists of ^2.5 percent of polyvinyl acetal (obtained by the reaction
of 70 percent hydro lyzed polyvinyl acetate with acetaldehyde), ^2.5 percent
of polyvinyl acetate, and 15 percent of a B-stage condensate of cresylic acid
and formaldehyde.

PRICKLY PEAR LATEX

A latex can be obtained by pressing prickly pears; when mixed with

sulfur and heated under pressure this forms a binder. It is not water-
resistant. 160
 - 23 -

RESINS

US of 8ynthetlc re ?ins as binders for magnetic

«v
described, Si
;, ?
161 and a „
granules has been
German patent"* deals with the use of such resins
in bind-
ing fuel briquets.

Another German patent 163 describes water-resistant binders,

useful for
abrasives, which were made from novolak-hexamethylenamine and
coal tar pitch
that had been modified by blowing.

SAWDUST

An Austrian patent 164 claims that briquets can be made from coal which
alone is not amenable to briquetting (e.g., brown coals) by mixing it with 20
to
50 percent of sawdust or similar wood waste and pressing at 1200 to 3000 atmos-
pheres.

SHALE BITUMEN

Heating Baltic shales up to about 380° C converts much of their or-

ganic matter to an extractable form, called pyrobitumens . These pyrobitumens
showed good binding properties when used for the briquetting of fine coal. 165

SHELLAC

The use of shellac for binding abrasive articles has been patented in
the United States. 166

SOYBEANS (See Lupines and reference 113.)

STARCH

Various starch preparations, derivatives, and mixtures have found

numerous applications as binding agents. As a binder for fuel briquets, a U. S.
patent 167 claims a solution of 100 grams of potato starch dextrin in 1 liter of
water which was heated while 100 ml of glacial acetic acid was added. Other
organic acids may also be used. A rather similar procedure is given in a Dutch
patent, 168 which claims that this binder permits the use of much lower pressures
for briquetting than those permitted by pitch binders.

Another U. S. patent 169 gives a process that calls for further addi-
tives. Twenty kg of potato starch was mixed gradually with 2.7 kg of 80 percent
acetic acid and the mixture heated to 175° C. A mixture of 2 kg of polyvinyl
acetate and 2.5 kg of 80 percent acetic acid heated to about 60° C was added to
the first mixture, and 0.6 kg of paraffin also was added. This mixture was
carefully and thoroughly mixed with 1000 kg of coal dust containing 11 percent
H2O, the temperature raised to 90° C by steam injection, and the briquets pressed
and air dried. They were resistant to outdoor storage and did not disintegrate
during burning.
 - 2k -

The use of starch in the presence of alkalis also has been applied
to making fuel briquets. A British patent 170 dealing with the making of
briquets from peat that had been treated with alkali does not, however, claim
the starch as a binder, but says that a small quantity of starch is incor-
porated before, during, or after the alkali treatment in amount insufficient
to act as a binder but sufficient to replace the lost colloidal substances
of the peat.

Another British patent 171 says that a binder for fuel briquets was
prepared by mixing starch, water, and an alkali such as Na2C0 3 or WaOH and
heating the mixture to 220° to 350° F to produce a heavy, viscous, sticky
fluid. A U. S. patent 172 claims the production of a material suitable for
use as an adhesive or a binding agent from potato starch, sodium chloroacetate,
and barium hydroxide.

A Belgian patent 173 specifies as a binder a product obtained by

esterifying starch at 60° to 300° C with 1 to 20 percent of an inorganic acid
in the presence of 5 to 50 percent of urea and treating it with 5 to 50 percent
of an aldehyde at a pH of 6 to 9« Curing may be done at 20° to 200° C.

A 174 describes the preparation of a binder for various

U. S. patent
materials. Five hundred parts by volume of a 40 percent solution of formal-
dehyde was diluted with an equal volume of water containing 20 parts by volume
of 80 percent acetic acid; 500 parts by weight of potato starch was suspended
therein and the mixture maintained at room temperature several hours prior to
use.

STYRENE POLYMERS

A German patent already cited 45 (see Glycerol) mentions the use of

polystyrene.

A copolymer of styrene and linseed oil is described in another

German patent 175 as a suitable binder for coating formulations. A mixture of
900 g of styrene, l8 g of di-tertiary butyl peroxide, and 1.8 g of sulfurized
dipentene was added over a period of 2 hours to 1100 g of stirred linseed oil
at l80° to 200° C. The sulfurized dipentene was obtained by heating 100 g of
dipentene and 5 g of sulfur at 150° to 250° C.

SULFITE LIQUOR

The reclamation of dust from the abrasion of lignite briquets is

the subject of an East German patent. 176 The dust was mixed with 2 to 5 per-
cent sulfite waste liquor (31° Be) at 50° C and processed on a conventional
extruder. The resulting briquets had strengths up to 80 kg/sq cm.

Low-temperature carbonization of coal briquets for which h to 6

percent of beech wood sulfite liquor or 1.9 to 3 percent cassava flour was
used as the binder has been described. 177

A Russian patent 178 on the briquetting of coal describes a binder

consisting of sulfite liquor and 3 to 5 percent of oxidized petrolatum, and
a German patent 179 claims the use of sulfite liquors added to the fuel before
 - 25 -

or simultaneously with a tar-pitch melt to give briquets that may be rendered

weather- re si st ant by heating at 150° to 200° C.

TAR

Tars of various kinds, like bitumens and pitches, find many applica-
tions as binders. Often there is no clear-cut distinction between these mate-
rials.

In one study, a horizontal retort tar was brushed on various test

pieces of rock. After an hour these were immersed in Na2 C0 solutions of known
3
concentrations. The concentration of Na2 C0 3 required to strip the tar from the
test piece in 24 hours at room temperature was a measure of the adhesion. The
following qualitative estimates of adhesion to each rock type are given: ortho-
clase - bad; hornblende - bad; biotite - poor; quartz - poor; labradorite -
poor; augite - good; Olivine - excellent.

Low- temperature tars from peat and brown coal generators, low in aro-
matic s content, were blown with oxygen at 200° C for 2 to 7 hours to raise the
softening points; when used in amounts up to 7 percent of the dry fuel they
were satisfactory binders for briquetting bituminous and anthracitic coal
fines. 181

A wide variety of tars and tar mixtures was studied in a search for
binders for anthracite fines. 182 These included petroleum residues, hydrogen-
ation residues, coal tar, generator tar, wood tar, and others; over 100 exper-
iments were carried out.

A German patent 183 describes the modification of tar by heating it to

150° to 350° C with oxygen-producing substances that leave no undesirable impu-
rities, e.g., (M 4 )2S20 8 (ammonium peroxydi sulfate) or activated carbon, prior
to use as a binder for coal. This treatment is claimed to increase the content
of pyridine- and benzene-soluble components and thus increase the adhesive power
of the tar.

A review of the physical and chemical properties of tars and pitches

and their effects on binder performance has been published. 184

A study of the effects of water in tar binders has shown that binder
consumption may be reduced by determining the optimum water content, by lowering
the surface tension of the water by adding such agents as benzyl alcohol or
soap, and by using water-tar emulsions. 185

A Japanese patent 186 claims good binding properties (for fuel briquets)
for a binder consisting of an emulsion of 50 percent of a mixture of 1 part
minus 60 mesh coal and h parts coal tar heated 2 hours at 300° C, 15 percent
coal tar, 8 percent 30° Be' waste pulp liquor, and 27 percent water, mixed and
applied at 90° C.

Tar mixtures, useful in binding rock aggregate such as that used in

road building, are specified in a French patent 187 as 40 to U5 parts of tar and
60 to 45 parts of a 300° to 36O C anthracene oil fraction.
 - 26 -

Lime-treated tars are used in making binders for road surfacing

materials and for briquetting some coals, and a study of the physical changes
that accompany the addition of the lime has been published. 188 Making calcium
carbide briquets with 20 to 23 percent of a binder containing U5 percent coal
tar and 55 percent coal tar pitch is more satisfactory than using pitch alone.189

The use of wood tar from wood chemical plants as a binder for making
charcoal briquets has been described. 130 The charcoal and wood tar were ground
together, heated to 110° to 120° C, pressed at 65 to 300 kg/sq cm, and baked at
^20° to 450° C for 35 to h0 minutes.

TARTRATES

In using chromium compounds in the binding of dead-burned magnesite,

a strong, dense, crack-free mass is obtained by adding 0.25 to 2.5 percent of
an alkali metal tartrate and firing the mixture at 2800° to 2910° F. (See
also Chromium Compounds under Inorganic Binders, and reference 16.)

UREA- FORMALDEHYDE RESINS

Modified urea- formaldehyde or phenol- formaldehyde resins with im-

proved bonding strength characteristics are produced by making a precondensate
with a predetermined methylol content and treating it with a mixture of fur-
fural and furfuryl alcohol in the monomeric or semipolymerized state. 191 The
viscous resin so obtained is useful in making abrasive articles.

VINYL POLYMERS (See also Glycerol, reference ^5; Glycol Ester Derivatives,
reference 108.)

A U.
192 deals with the use of latex materials for binding
S. patent
abrasives. These latexes were made by the emulsion polymerization of a vinyl
chloride- vinylidene chloride mixture, or a styrene-butadiene mixture. One
latex, for example, contained 75 percent vinyl chloride and 25 percent vinyl-
idene chloride. The latex was added to the grit, such as SiC, mixed, and the
water evaporated to leave free-flowing granules that were then placed in molds,
pressed, and heated at 600° C for J>6 hours to form the abrasive articles.

A French patent 193 specifies the bonding of abrasives with one or

more polymerized vinyl compounds that contain sufficient OH groups to be
soluble or dispersible in water. This may be a polyvinyl alcohol, a partly
hydrolyzed polyvinyl compound, or a polymerized vinyl ester of a hydroxy acid.

ZAHLIT

Zahlit-D is an unsaturated hydrocarbon fraction with a specific

gravity about 1 and Engler viscosity of 1300° at 50° C and 12.5° at 125° C.
It is used, according to a Belgian patent, 194 as a binder for mineral fibers,
for mica and asbestos to form insulators, or for lead salts to form bricks
for radiation protection.
 27

REFERENCES
(Abbreviations of publications in these references are those
used in Chemical Abstracts .)

1. Bugosh, John. Articles coated with fibrous boehmite. U. S. patent

3,013,901, Dec. 19, 1961; C. A. 56, 10419h.

2. Anon. Theory of binder action and film formation. Baymal colloidal

alumina. E. I. du Pont d.e Nemours and Co., Industrial and Biochemical
Dept., Wilmington, Del. [Not dated but presumably issued about 1961.—
G. R. Y.]

3. Levai, Marcel. A crystal- like binding material of relatively great

hardness. Hungarian patent 135,524, Apr. 25, 1949; C. A. 45, 4854h.

4. Pechiney-Compagnie de produits chimiques et electrometallurgiques.

Binder for aluminum nitride. French patent 1,223,202, June 15, 1960;
C. A. 55, 19180c.

5. Sheets, H. D., Bulloff, J. J., and Duckworth, W. H. Phosphate bonding of

refractory compositions. Brick and Clay Record, v. 133, no. 1, p. 55-57
(1958); Refractories J., v. 34, p. 402-406 (1958); C. A. 52, 15865f.

6. Mitchell, W. J., and Moore, W. F. Zeolitic molecular sieves. German

patent 1,055,515, Apr. 23, 1959 (to Union Carbide Corp.); C. A. 55, 10749f.

7. Lyubomudrov, V. N. Use of borate glass as bonding material for abrasive

disks. Abrazivy, 1953, no. 6, p. 3-9; C. A. 49, 6561i.

8. Lyubomudrov, V. N. Boron aluminate as a bond in abrasives. Dokl. Akad.

Nauk S.S.S.R., v. 66, p. 89-90 (1949); C. A. 43, 6801i.

9. Compagnie des meules Norton (Soc. Anon.). Agglomerated granular material.

4
French patent 817,978, Sept. 15, 1937; C. A. 32, 2308 .

10. Vasenin, F. I. Chromium-calcium compounds and their binding properties.

3
Tsement, v. 5, no. 10, p. 36-33 (193^; C. A. 33, 1906 .

11. Zhuravlev, V. F. Calcium orthogermar ate and its binding properties.

Dokl. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., v. 59, p. _i45-1148 (1948); C. A. 42, 7186f.

12. Abramovici, R., Kohn, D., and Iakabfi, A. Abrasives with calcium oxide
as the binding agent. Rev. chim. (Bucharest), v. 9, p. 250-253 (1958)
(English summary); C. A. 54, 6073d.

13. Emhiser, D. E. Refractory compositions and binding agents therefor.

U. S. patent 2,793,128, May 21, 1957 (to Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.);
C. A. 51, 12461c.
 - 28 -

14. Ottemann, Joachim, Solution and hydration of anhydrite. Anhydrite as a

binding medium. Abhandl. Geol. Landesanstalt (Berlin), no. 219, p. 1-16
(1950); C. A. 45, 2171a.

15. Socie'te de sondages, injection, forages (Ancienne entreprise P. Bachy).

Silico-aluminous binders. French patent 817,397, Sept. 1, 1937; C. A. 32,
23 16-*.

16. Chantler, L. W. , and Hund, W. 0. Organic binders for dead-burned magnesite.

U. S. patent 3,030,216, Apr. 17, 1962 (to Martin-Marietta Corp.); C. A. 58,
331e.

17. Suzuki. Hiroshige. Effect of clay binders on the oxidation of sintered

silicon carbide bodies. Yogyo Kyokai Shi, v. 67, p. 221-226 (1959);
C. A, 54, 14615d.

18. Mirskii, Ya. V., and Mitrofanov, M. Manufacturing molecular sieve synthetic
zeolites in the form of microspherical powders. Dolcl. Akad, Nauk S.S.S.R.,
v. 141, p. 1155-1157 (1961); C. A. 56, 13794g.

19. Dohmen, Heinrich. Pelletization of fine ores. German patent 1,124,705,

Mar. 1, 1962; C. A. 57, 479g.

20. Capell, R. G., Amero, R. C, and Wood, W. H. Fuller's earth as a binder

for catalysts and absorbents * Petroleum Refiner, v. 25, no. 2, p. 69-71
5
(1946); C. A. 40, 2595 .

21. Kuzmick, P. L. Binder for diamond abrasives. U. S. patent 2,866,698,

Dec. 30, 1958; C. A. 53, 6570c.

22. Anada, Naoaki. Liquid briquet binder. Japanese patent 1140(1950),

March 31; C. A. 46, 7744d.

23. Kainarskii, I. S., and Dudavskii, I. E. Dinas with ferruginous binder.

Ogneupory, v. 10, no. 6, p. 3-10 (1945); C. A. 42, 5637i.

24. Willmann, Karl. Fine-grained binders from coarse-grained limestone or

other carbonates. German patent 1,092,367, Nov. 3, 1960 (to Rhelnische
Kalksteinwerke G. m. b. H.); C. A. 55, 26386b.

25. Volzhenskii, A. V. Semi-plant investigations on the production of a

binding material from burnt lime and gyps'-im. Prom. Stroitel. Material.,
v. 2, no. 8, p. 37-40 (1940); C. A. 35, 3410 e .

26. Tagaya, Masao, Nakamura, Nobuo, and Nobutr.ka, Shingo. Dolomite hearth
lining. Tetsu-to-Hagane, v. 36, p. 2-4 (1950); C. A. 45, 69781.

27. Drozdov, K. S. Magnesium bonding material. U.S.S.R. patent 107,129,

Aug. 25, 1957; C. A. 52, 3297a.

28. Kuznetsov, A. M., and Mikhailov, N. N. Comparative evaluation of the

binding properties of caustic magnesite and caustic dolomite. Zhurnal
Priklad. Khim. (J. Applied Chem. U.S.S.R.), v. 20, p. 257-264 (1947);
C. A. 42, 2735e.
 - 29 -

29. Austin, L. W., and Hicks, J. C. Refractory bonding material. U. S.

patent 2,628,915, Feb. 17, 1953 (to Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp.);
C. A. 47, 6108h.

30. Zhuravlfiv, V. F., and Zhitomirskaya, V. I. Binding properties of crystal

hydrates of the sulfate type. J. Applied Chem. U.S.S.R. , v. 23,
p. 115-119 (1950) (English translation); C. A. 45, 3141c.

31. Goeddel, W. V., and Simnad, K. T. Metal bonded carbon bodies.

U. S. patent 3,001,238, appl. Dec. 31, 1958 (to U. S. Atomic Energy
Comm.); C. A. 56, 7035i.

32. Engel, W. J. Bonding investigation of titanium carbide with various

elements. Natl. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Tech. Note 2187, 15 p. (1950);
C. A. 45, 1931c.

33. Mendelsohn, L. I. Molded magnet and magnetic material. U. S. patent

2,724,174, Nov. 22, 1955 (to General Electric Co.); C. A. 50, 3678f.

34. Cline, C. F. Carbide-bonded graphite bodies. U. S. patent 3,007,805,

appl. Aug. 22, 1957 (to Carborundum Co.); C. A. 56, 6930b.

35. Romanov, V. D. Hard alloys prepared by the metal-ceramic method.

U.S.S.R. patent 82,155, Nov. 22, 1958; C. A. 53, 16910b.

36. Societe d'etude et de relisation d'outillage diamante. Agglomeration

of diamond powder. French patent 1,243,527, Jan. 16, 1961; C. A. 55,
203 70i.

37. Redfarn, C. A. Binders for abrasives. German patent 1,042,451,

Oct. 30, 1958; C. A. 55, 4056g.

38. Thompson, J. S. Bonding materials. U. S. patent 2,702,425,

Feb. 22, 1955 (to Parker Rust Proof Co.); C. A. 49, 10598c.

39. Bruk-Le Vinson, T. L. Rational methods for the neutralization of

sulfate-containing waste pickling liquors. Materialy Soveshchaniya po
Voprosam Ochistki Prom, i Stochnykh Vod, Moscow, 1955, p. 170-175
(pub. 1957); C. A. 53, 22642h.

40. Bendryshev, A. P., and Shapiro, A. D. Binder for abrasive goods.

s
U.S.S.R. patent 47,897, July 31, 1936; C. A. 33, 3554 .

41. Metzger, L. H. Bonding adhesives for abrasives. U. S. patent 2,376,163,

3
May 15, 1945 (to Industrial Abrasive Inc.); C. A. 39, 34 12 .

42. Dietrich, Alfred. Pellets from finely ground materials, especially ores.
German patent 969,626, July 3, 1958 (to Duis burger Kupferhutte);
C. A. 54, 6492d.

43. Bechtold, M. F., and Snyder, 0. E. Chemical processes and composition.

U. S. patent 2,574,902, Nov. 13, 1951 (to E. I. du Pont de Nemours
and Co.); C. A, 46, 1669h.

44. Bugosh, John. "Ludox" (colloidal silica) as a binder. Private

communication, June 25, 1964.
 - 30 -

45. Evers, Dietrich. Granular lead oxides. German patent 1,013,273,

Aug. 8, 1957 (to Accumulatoren-Fabrik Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54, 8006h.

46. White, E. S., Singer, Norbert, and Hays, J. W. Bonding of carbon bodies.
German patent 1,077,132, Mar. 3, 1960 (to Morgan Crucible Co., Ltd.);
C. A. 55, 23955i,

47. Sugita, Toranosuke. Molded articles of artificial graphite. Japanese

patent 173,957, Oct. 24, 1946 (to Hidachi Mfg. Co.); C. A. 46, 2207b.

48. Reppert, R. L. v. Granular superphosphates . German patent 863,947,

Jan. 22, 1953 (to Chemische Werke Albert); C. A. 52, 15813d.

49. Serra, E. B, Conglutinative agents. Spanish patent 231,624, Feb, 20,

1957; C. A. 51, 15900i.

50. Iwata, Yoshimichi. Coagulating agent for earth and sand. Japanese
patent 2285(1958), April 5; C. A. 53, 3652e.

51. Cohen, Harry, Agglomeration of iron ores in the blast furnace.

U. S. patent 2,771,355, Nov. 20, 1956; C. A. 51, 2514i.

52. Polle, Wilhelm. Fuel briquets. German patent 1,057,067, May 14, 1959;
C. A. 55, 8822h.

53. Kerla, Hans. Binding materials. U. S. patent 2,855,318, Oct. 7, 1958;

C. A. 53, 1666a.

54. Klause, K. Wollastonite bodies of high compressive strength for abrasive

wheel binders and similar purposes. Keram. Z., v. 8, p. 455-457 (1956);
C. A. 52, 8491i.

55. Zhuravlev, V. F., and Zhitomirskaya, V. I. Binding properties of crystal

hydrates of the sulfate type. J. Applied Chem. U.S.S.R., v. 23,
p. 237-239 (1950) (English translation); C. A. 45, 6948d.

56. Kaufmann, Waldemar, and Buchmann, Annie, Alginic acid binder for fuel
briquets. German patent 938,899, Feb. 9, 1956 (to Farbwerke Hoechst
A.-G. vorm. Meister Lucius und Bruning); C, A. 52, 150311.

57. Miischenborn, Walter. Briquetting of fine-grained substances. German

patent 810,153, Aug. 6, 1951; C. A. 47, 8350b.

58. McKee, J. H. Solid materials consisting of aggregated solid particles.

U. S. patent 2,652,318, Sept. 15, 1953 (to C.U.R.A. Patents, Ltd.);
C. A. 48, 4196e.

59. Nilus, S. G., and Shapiro, M. D. Production and utilization of ASK

(anthracene -sulfur binder) (for briquets). Trudy Dnepropetr.
Khim-Tekhnol. Inst., 1959, no. 12, pt. 1, p. 163-170; C. A. 57, 3713h.

60. Meyerhans Konrad,

, Adhesive and molding resins on the basis of Araldite.
Kunststoffe, v. 41, p. 365-373 (1951); C. A. 46, 2841h.

61. Meyerhans, Konrad. Araldite as a binder and as a casting resin.

Kunststoffe, v. 41, p. 457-462 (1951); C. A. 46, 3793b,
 - 31 -

62. Bonnier, J. C, Lusinchi, J., Laly, m. , and Waes, M. Use of petroleum

asphalt in the agglomeration of coal fines. Rev. ind. mine'rale, v. 40,
p. 581-602 (1958); C. A. 53, 4697h.

63. Vaquin, J. C. Agglomerating tar. French patent 1,177,202, Apr. 22,

1959 (to Compagnie de raffinage Shell-Berre) C. A. 54, 25783h.
;

64. Gutsalyuk, V. G., Rafikov, S. R., and Bayarstanova, Zh. Zh. Plastic
asphalt by oxidation of extracts. Izvest. Akad. Nauk Kazakh. S.S.R.,
Ser. Khim., 1959, no. 2, p. 72-78; C. A. 53, 17489d.

65. Zvenigorodskii, G. Z., Brekhunenko, F. F., and Krokhin, V. N. The

replacement of coal pitch in coal briquet production by the oxidized
heavy residues of processed petroleum. Voprosy Obogashch. i Briketir.
Uglei, Vsesoyuz. Nauch. Issledovatel. Ugol. Inst., Sbornik 9,
p. 111-134 (1953); C. A. 50, 6772i.

66. Hassard, William. Bituminous compositions. British patent 476,173,

Dec. 2, 1937; C. A. 32, 3932 6 .

67. Mollring, G. B. Liquid bituminous binder. U. S. patents 2,783,162 and

2,783,163, Feb. 26, 1957; C. A. 51, 6976c.

68. Hemmer, Lucien. Improving the adhesivity of bituminous compositions

such as those used for binders in road construction. U. S. patent
2,342,681, Feb. 29, 1944 (to Standard Catalytic Co.); C. A. 38, 4770 5 .

69. Holmes, August. Asphalt binders for moist aggregates. U. S. patent

2,375,653, May 8, 1945 (to Standard Catalytic Co.); C. A. 39, 3646 7 .

70. Mitchell, L. J., and Sommer, H. J. Asphalt bituminous bonding

composition. 0. S. patent 2,534,828, Dec. 19, 1950 (to Shell Development
Co.); C. A. 45, 2647a.

71. Kaufler, Felix, and Schmitz, H. P. Stable asphalt solutions suitable

for use in coating, binding, or impregnating various materials.
U. S. patent 2,102,957, Dec. 21, 1937; C. A. 32, 1445 5 .

72. Dimitriu, Mikail. Practical and theoretical basis of the problem of

adhesion of bituminous binders to mineral aggregates, Inst. geol.
Romaniei, Studii tech. econ., ser. B, no. 25, 149 p. (1946) (French
summary); C. A. 42, 8438a.

73. Zakar, Pal, and Toth, Joseph. Briquets with petroleum residues
(bitumens) as binders. Brennstoff-Chem. , v. 39, p. 373-379 (1959);
C. A. 53, 5633i.

74. Zakar, Pal, and Mozes, Gyula. Petroleum bitumen for briquet ting.
Bitumen, Teere, Asphalte, Peche, v. 9, p. 275-280 (1958); C. A. 53,
1693h.

75. Siegl, Adolf, Eisenhut, Franz, and Gobiet, Viktor. Bitumen for
briquetting of ores. German patent 1,032,547, June 19, 1958 (to
Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks A.-G.); C. A. 54, 17222g.
 - 32 -

76. Popov, V. L. A study of shale bitumens as bonding agents in the

briquetting of coals. Trudy Inst. Goryuch. Iskopaem., Akad. Nauk
S.S.S.R., v. 12, p. 115-123 (1961); C. A. 55, 20387d.

77. Khotuntsev, L. L. Popov, V. L. and Volkov, G. M.

, , New kind of binders
1
for briquetting of coal fines. Ugol v. 35, no. 4, p. 51-55 (i960);
,

C. A. 55, 3036a.

78. Levin, I. S., Gurevich, B. S., and Zvenigorodskii, G. Z. Use of

bitumen-water emulsions in the briquetting of coal fines. Trudy Gos.
Proektno-Konstrukt. Nauchn.-Issled. Inst, po Obogashch. i Briketir.
Uglei, 1961, no. 16, p. 62-69; C. A. 57, 11463h.

79. Mertens, E, W. Quick-breaking bituminous emulsions having increased

adhesion to mineral aggregates. U. S. patent 2,862,831, Dec. 2, 1958
(to California Research Corp.); C. A. 53, 5634b.

80. Mertens, E. W. , and McCoy, P. E. Quick-breaking bituminous emulsions.

U. S. patent 2,862,830, Dec. 2, 1958 (to California Research Corp.);
C. A. 53, 5633d.

81. Boneysteele, P. L. , and McKercher, M. L. Bituminous emulsions suitable

for use as coatings, binders, etc. U. S, patent 2,135,866, Nov. 8,
1938; C. A. 33, 1468 2 .

82. Woodall-Duckham (1920) Ltd. Covering mineral aggregates with bituminous

binders. French patent 850,907, Dec. 29, 1939; C. A. 36, 2111 9 .

83. Ariano, Raffaele. Adhesion of bitumen to rock materials. Ricerche

e studi ist. sper. stradale C.T.I, e R.A.C.I., v. 5, p. 111-121 (1941);
C. A. 42, 734b.

84. Lhorty, M. L. Improving the adhesion of bituminous and other hydro-

carbon binders, German patent 1,103,223, appl. Feb. 15, 1955 (to
Bataafse Petroleum Maatschappij N. V.); C. A. 56, 6265e.

85. Holmes, August, and Hemmer, Lucien. Improving the adherence of bitumen.
French patent 847,829, Oct. 17, 1939 (to Standard franchise des pe'troles);
C. A. 35, 6029 3 .

86. Hemmer, Lucien, and Jouandet, C. Binders of improved adhesiveness.

French patent 1,007,202, May 5, 1952 (to Standard franchise des pe'troles);
C. A. 51, 10893g.

87. Hemmer, Lucien, Flavigny, R., and Leveuf, M. Binders of improved

adhesiveness. French patent 1,007,203, May 5, 1952 (to Standard
franqaise des pe'troles); C. A. 51, 10893h.

88. Friedrich, Paul. Binder for briquetting coal and coke. German patent
732,413, Feb. 4, 1943; C. A. 38, 852 7 .

89. Klimkova, A. F. High-melting bituminous compositions, Korroziya i

Borba s Nei, 1940, no. 3, p. 44-50; C. A. 37, 423 1 .
 -sa-
go. Havestadt, Ludwig. Bitumens and bituminous binders for building
materials. German patent 1,071,569, appl. Nov. 12, 1956 (to Th.
Goldsmidt A.-G.); C. A. 56, 6267c.

91. Hemmer, Lucien. Adhesive bitumens. French patent 826,788,

Apr. 8, 1938 (to Standard francaise des pe'troles); C. A. 32, 8131 1 .

92. Halbach, Karl. Binding material suitable for uniform slow setting.
U. S. patent 2,210,367, Aug. 6, 1940; C. A. 35, 296 4 .

93. Shea, F. L. , Jr., and Juel, L, H. Use of organic nitro compounds in

binders for making carbon bodies. U. S. patent 2,527,596 (to Great
Lakes Carbon Corp.); C. A. 45, 336d.

94. Havestadt, Ludwig, and Arens, Hugo. Improvement of adhesiveness of

bituminous binding agents and coating compounds. German patent 800,685,
Nov. 27, 1950 (to Th. Goldschmidfc A.-G., Chemische Fabrieken); C. A. 45,
3142e.

95. Woodell, C. C. Van Nimwegen, Garrett, and Hager, E. T.

, Abrasive
article. U. S. patent 2,577,060, Dec. 4, 1961 (to Carborundum Co.);
C. A. 46, 2260a.

96. Lolkema, Jan, and Kool, C. M. H. Insoluble layers from carbohydrates.

U. S. patent 2,541,773, Feb. 13, 1951 (to N. V. W. A. Scholten's
Chemische Fabrieken); C. A. 45, 4954c.

97. Lukaszczyk, A. Carubin and Guaran as binders and thickeners.

Tex til -Rundschau, v. 15, p. 130-134 (1960); C. A. 54, 13701a.

98. Petrovich, G. G. Cement for abrasives. U.S.S.R. patent 69,412,

Oct. 31, 1947; C. A. 43, 9408h.

99. Mayer, Erwin, and Bolin, E. A. F. Binding agents, German

patent 928,725, June 10, 1955 (to Uddeholms Aktiebolag); C. A. 52, 5888b.

100. Dryden, I. G. C, and McKee, J. H. Binder for solid particles. U. S.

patent 2,652,354, Sept. 15, 1953 (to C.U.R.A. Patents, Ltd.); C. A. 48,
4196g.

101. Taits, E. M. , Bronovets T. M. , and Andreeva, I. A.

,
Binder,
especially for briquetting coal. U.S.S.R. patent 150,483, Oct. 11, 1962;
C. A. 58, 8825b.

102. Reichhold Chemie A.-G. Air-setting binders for foundry sand. British
patent 911,173, Nov. 21, 1962; C. A. 58, 3190d.

103 . Pietsch, Helmut. Curing epoxyesters with polycyclic aromatic amines.

m. b. H.);
German patent 1,070,372, Dec. 3, 1959 (to Henkel and Cie., G.
C. A. 55, 10967g.

104. Doenhoff, Carl v. Adhesives for abrasives. German patent 1,135,168,

Aug. 23, 1962 (to The Carborundum Co.); C. A. 58, 638e.
Dec. 29, 1959
105. Hart, D. P. Bonding composition. U. S. patent 2,919,255,
(to Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.); C. A. 54, 12615h.
 - 34 -

106, Treat, L. H., and Shaffer, R. C« Aqueous she 11 -molding compositions for
metals from maleic acid, furfuryl alcohol, and urea, U, S, patent
2,999,829, appl. June 25, 1954; C. A. 56, 596g.

107. Lesser, M. A, Glycerol in ceramics and enamels, Ceram, Age, v, 49,

p. 300-302 (1947); C. A. 42, 8434e.

108, Robie, N. P., and Mahlman, 0. L, Abrasive articles. U. S. patent

2,369,689, Feb. 20, 1945 (to The Carborundum Co.); C. A. 40, 694 3 .

109. Zhikharev, S. A. Binders for coal briquet3. U.3.S.R. patent 64,461,

Apr. 30, 1945; C. A. 40, 5228 2 .

1X0. Volkov, G. M. The role of humic acids in the briquetting of solid

fuels. laves t. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., Otdel Tekh. Nauk, Met. i Toplivo,
1959, no. 4, p. 251-253; C. A. 55, 16957e.

111, Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik. (Trihydroxyalkyl)dialkylenetriamines,

their hydrohalide salts, and condensation products. British patent
680,688, Oct. 8, 1952; C. A. 49, 2486h.

112. Benko, Joseph, Measurement of the relative molecular weight of

lignosulfonates by diffusion. III, The effect of molecular size on
surface -active and other properties of lignosulfonates, Tappi, v. 44,
p. 849-854 (1961); C, A. 56, 13133b.

113. Kovats Lajos.

, Binder for coal briquets. Hungarian patent 121,424,
Sept. 1, 1939; C. A. 34, 1466".

114, Carbofor. Cement for wood charcoal. French patent 861,930, Feb. 21,
1941; C. A. 42, 6092b.

115* Carabasse, Joseph, Choquereau, Hector, and Chaix, Raymond. Coal

briquets. French patent 1,177,359, Apr. 23, 1959 (to Houilleres du
Bassin-du-Nord et du Pas-de-Calais); C. A, 55, 949c.

116. Yamada, Keihiko. Molded products from high-density carbon and graphite.
Japanese patent 3959(1961) (to Tokai Electrode Mfg. Co., Ltd.);
C. A. 56, 3746i.

117. Hessel, F. A., and Rust, J. B. Abrasive bodies. U. S, patent

2,559,122, July 3, 1951 (to Montclair Research Corp.); C. A. 45, 8733a.

118. Gel'ts, Vo E., and Adamskaya, R, I. Binding material. U.S.S.R,

patent 110,491, June 25, 1958; C. A. 52, 14225c.

119. Vichnevetzky, Leon, and Manson, Izak. Hydrocarbon binder. French

patent 843,063, June 26, 1939; C. A. 34, 6390 9 .

120. Champagnat, Alfred, Mo let, Louis, and Stern, Robert. Petroleum pitch
for coal-briquet manufacture^ British patent 876,191, appl. Feb. 29,
1960 (to British Petroleum Co., Ltd.); C. A. 56, 5028b.

121. Dunkel, W. L, McAteer, J, H., and Stewart, Joseph,

, Binders for carbon
electrodes from petroleum, U, S. patent 2,772,219, Nov. 27, 1956 (to
Esso Research and Eng, Co.); C» A. 51, 4690h.
 - 35

122. Laboure, Maurice, and Malzac, Albert. Carbonaceous binders for

solid fuels. French patent 1,000,699, Feb. 14, 1952; C.
A. 51 '
3117e.
/ •
123. Societe industrielle de produits chimiques. Bituminous binders.
French
patent 1,002,247, Mar. 4, 1952; C. A. 51, 4606i.

124. Onozawa, Tstsugoro. Molding agent for solid fuel. Japanese patent
3680, May 19, 1956; C. A. 51, 10875f.

125. Evans, J. I. Coal briquets. British patent 881,878, appl. Mar. 18,
1959 (to Monsanto Chemicals, Ltd.); C. A. 56, 7620i.

126. Webber, C. S. Adhesives for coated abrasives. U. S. patent 2,876,087,

Mar. 3, 1959 (to Norton Co.); C. A. 53, 10852g.

127. Aktiebolaget Hoganasmetoder. Modified resin binders for siliceous

materials. British patent 876,033, appl. Oct. 1, 1958; C. A. 56, 4974i.

128. Kazakova, K. S., Brodskii, G. Sh., and Rabits, S. M. Abrasives.

U.S.S.R. patent 123,056, Oct. 10, 1959; C. A. 54, 8024c.

129. Crowley, H. L. Binder for agglomeration of finely divided materials.

U. S. patent 2,775,566, Dec. 25, 1956 (to Aerovox); C. A. 51, 4606h.

130. Redfarn, C. A. Abrasive articles, U. S. patent 2,897,074,

July 28, 1959; C. A. 53, 20742d.

131. Parkes, D. W. Tar binders. British patent 538,308, July 29, 1941
(to Midland Tar Distillers, Ltd.); C. A. 36, 1470 5 .

132. Stepanenko, M. A., Matusyak, N. I., and Gogoleva, T. Ya. Pitch

distillate as a bonding material for briquetting coal. Koks i Khim.,
1957, no. 1, p. 32-35; C. A. 51, 8408e.

133. Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl, Adolf. Binders for
briquetting coal. German patent 957,753, Feb. 7, 1957 (to
Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 53, 1071Qf.

134. Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl, Adolf. Binders for
briquetting coal. German patent 958,554, Feb. 21, 1957 (to
Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 53, 107l0g.

135. Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl, Adolf. Binder for
briquetting solid fuels. German patent 1,011,851, July 11, 1957 (to
Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54, 8036g.

136. Eisenberg, Albrecht, Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl,

Adolf. Tar-pitch melts as binders. German patent 1,025,829,
Mar. 13, 1958 (to Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54,
11445h.

137. Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl, Adolf. Binder dispersion
for the briquetting of fuels. German patent 1,007,736, May 9, 1957
(to Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54, 9257e.
 - 36 -

138. Tcarev, M. N. , Shpakhler, A. G., Korchagin, L. V., Pluzhnik, V. I.,

Zel'din, B. B. , and Bul'shtein, B. M. Pitch and pitch distillates as
binding agents for briquetting coal fines. Koks i Khim., 1959, no. 9,
p. 45-49; C. A. 54, 7107i.

139. Golovanov, N. G. Coal-tar residues as binders in the briquetting of

coal fines. Trudy Nauch.-Issledovatel. Inst. Mestn, i Toplivn. Prom.,
1958, no. 12, p. 108-116; C. A. 55, 5913g.

140. Brandes, C E. Briquets. German patent 807,275, Sept. 10, 1951;

C. A. 46, 8832e.

141. Wiszmiowski, Kazimierz. Pitch for briquetting. Koks, Sraola, Gaz,

v. 2, p. 77-81 (1957) (English summary); C. A. 51, 18552i.

142. Frishmelt, Erich. Microscopic observation of pitch in hard-coal

briquets. Brennstoff-Chem. , v. 38, p. 97-102 (1957); C. A. 51, 10029h.

143. McNeil, D. , and Wood, L. J. Coal-tar pitch as an electrode binder.

Ind. Carbon and Graphite Papers Conf., London, 1957, p. 162-172
(pub, 1958); C. A. 53, 10709b „

144. Tadenuma, Hachiro. Effective components as binding material for carbon

powder in coal-tar pitch, J. Chem. Soc. Japan, Ind. Chem. Sec, v. 56,
p. 516-519 (1953); C. A. 48, 11759c.

145. Croy, Friedrich. Electrode pitch. U. S. patent 2,864,760, Dec. 15,

1958; C. A. 53, 7563a.

146. Marukawa, Hideo, Briquet binder. Japanese patent 177,015, Nov, 26,
1948; C. A. 45, 5392f.

147. Dolkart, F. Z. The properties of refractories of calcined dolomite

with a pitch binder. Ogneupory, v. 26, p. 329-335 (1961); C. A. 55,
27825g.

148. Gemmi, Angiolo. Bonding carbon- or graphite -molded bodies together or

with metal parts, German patent 1,107,578, appl. Nov. 21, 1958 (to
Elettrocarbonium S. p. A. Mailand); C. A. 56, 7620h.

149. Bauerfeld, Franz, and Richter, Friedrich. Binders from coal tar pitch.
German patent 968,357, Feb. 6, 1958 (to Gesell, fur Teerverwertung
m. b. H.); C. A. 54, 9259f.

150. Rodman, Hugh, Jr. Activated carbon. U. S. patent 2,648,637, Aug. 11,
1953 (to Rodman Chemical Co.); C. A. 47, 10828c.

151. Grosskinsky, Otto, Meyer, Hermann, and Umbach, Helmut. Briquets.

German patent 807,513, June 28, 1951 (to Bergwerksverband zur
Verwertung von Schutzrechten der Kohlentechnik G. m. b. H.);
C. A. 46, 8832e.

152. Matsunami, Hidetoshi. Binder for solid fuel. Japanese patent

6138(1954), Sept. 25; C. A. 50, 555a.
 - 37 -

153. Swift, A. M. Polyacrylamide —a new synthetic water-soluble gum.

Tappi, v. 40, no. 9, p. 224A-227A (1957); C. A. 52, 6837f.

154. Morton, J. S. Abrasive compositions. U. S. patent 2,980,524, Apr. 18,

1961 (Engis Equipment Co.); C. A. 55, 27836h.

155. Hatte, P. L. M. Magnetic cores. French patent 1,003,831, Mar. 24,

1952; C. A. 51, 6912f.

156. Silver, R. P. Polyester resins in aqueous solutions. U. S. patent

2,884,394, Apr. 28, 1959 (to Hercules Powder Co.); C. A. 53, 136621.

157. Stamicarbon N. V. Fuel briquets. Netherlands patent 99,175, appl.

Feb. 20, 1959; C. A. 56, 1692h.

158. Reuter, F. G. Elastic binders for abrasive articles. German patent

1,010,732, June 19, 1957 (to Lemfb'rder Metallwaren G. m. b. H.);
C. A. 53, 22816a,

159. Ford, J. G. Bonding composition for magnetic metal. U. S. patent

2,372,074, Mar. 20, 1945 (to Westinghouse Electric Corp.); C. A. 39,
5562 3 .

160. Ariano, Raffaele. Binder from prickly pears. Ricerche e studl ist.
sper. stradale C.T.I, e R.A.C.I. v. 6, p. 18-19 (1942); C. A. 42,
,

734c.

161. Dehler, H. Strength and economy of compacted magnets having a

synthetic binder. Elektrotech. Z. v. 65, p. 93-95 (1944); C. A. 41,
,

6179h.

162. Kurth, Herbert, and Oelenheinz, Theodor. Binder for cementing fuel
briquets. German patent 718,469, Feb. 19, 1942; C. A. 38, 24782 .

163. Wille, Hans, Jellinek, Karl, and Stanke, Helmut. Water-resistant

binders for abrasives. German patent 1,116,392, appl. Dec. 7, 1957
(to Gesellschaft fur Teerverwertung m. b. H.); C. A. 56, 4392b.

164. Gadolla, Eugen, and Pruscha, Hans. Fuel briquets. Austrian patent
179,771, Oct. 11, 1954; C. A. 48, 14164h.

165. Zvenigorodskii, G. Z., and Antonova, T. N. Utilization of shales in

coal briquetting. Sbornik Inform, po Gbogashch. i Briketir. Uglei, 1957,
no. 3, p. 23-28; C. A. 55, 4921g.

166. Goepfert, G. J., and Spilsbury, W. A. Shellac -bonded abrasive

articles. U. S. patent 2,709,647, May 31, 1955 (to Carborundum Co.);
C. A. 49, 14290e.

167. Dohmen, Heinrich. Air hardening material from starch and cellulose
ethers. U. S. patent 2,835,610, May 20, 1958 (to N. V. Eldeka);
C. A. 52, 19199c.

168. Briko N. V. Binder for fuel briquets. Dutch patent 97,828, May 15,
1961; C. A. 55, 20393h.
 - 38 -

169. Dohraen,Heinrich. Briquet binder. U. S. patent 2,890,945, June 16,

1959 (to N. V. Briko); C. A. 53, 22342b.

170. Squire, L. R. L. Binders for aggregates such as fuel briquets.

British patent 502,619, Mar. 22, 1939; C. A. 33, 7994 6 .

171. Erickson, J. A. Solid fuel briquets. British patent 566,001, Dec. 8,

1
1944; C. A. 40, 5549 .

172. Mo'ller, F. A., and Lolkema, Jan 4 Starch compositions capable of

forming water-soluble derivatives. U. S. patent 2,451,686, Oct. 19,
1948 (N. V. W. A. 'Scholten's Chemiache Fabrieken); C. A. 43, 1590d.

173. Moes, G., and Zijderveld, A. H„ Application of a water-insoluble layer

on a support. Belgian patent 613,242, Feb. 15, 1962 (to N. V. W. A.
Scholten's Chemische Fabrieken); C, A. 53, 1625b.

174. Lolkema, Jan, and van der Meer, W, A. Starch solutions. U. S. patent
2,575,423, Nov. 20, 1961 (to N. V. W. A. Scholten's Chemische
Fabrieken); C. A. 46, 2324d.

175. Weithbner, Richard, and Brockhausen, Karl, Preparing copolymers of a

vinyl monomer of the styrene group and drying or semi-drying oil.
German patent 929,448, June 27, 1955 (to Glasurit-Werke, M. Winkelmann
A.-G.); G« A. 52, 6849d.

176. Bartke, W.tlhelm. Briquetting the dust of lignite briquets by means of

sulfite waste liquor as a binder. East German patent 18,372, Apr. 1,
1960; C. A. 55, 10852f.

177* Ledent, P., and Marcourt, M. Low -temperature carbonization of coal

briquets containing sulfite liquor or cassava flour as binder. Inst,
natl. ind. charbonniere, Bull. tech. Houille et derives, no. 20,
p. 579-588 (1960); C. A. 55, 2059d.

178. Reznik, L. Ya. Binder for briquetting small coal. U.S.S.R. patent
93,879, July 20, 1962; C. A. 58, 2300g.

179. Eisenhut, Franz, Gobiet, Viktor, and Siegl, Adolf. Binders for briquets.
German patent 1,017,592, Oct. 17, 1957 (to Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks
Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54, 11445tu

180. Douglas, J. F. Adhesion between binders and individual rock-forming

minerals. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., v. 65, p. 377-379 (1946); C. A. 41,
2S71a.

181. Levin, I. S., and Kharlampovich, G. D. New types of bonding agents

for briquetting fuels. Ugol 1 , v. 37, no. 9, p. 48-52 (1962); C. A. 58,
384c.

182. Nyvlt, N. Substitute binders for briquets from anthracite powder.

Paliva, v. 37, p. 375-380 (1957); C. A. 52, 8505e.

J83. Lahr, Georg. Oxidizing additions to binder agents for coal briquets.
German patent 967,066, Sept. 26, 1957 (to Vereinigte Aluminum -We rke
Akt.-Ges.); C. A. 54, 6093i.
 - 39 -

184. Gandusio, G. and Strocchi, P. M. Tar and pitch as binders.

, Riv.
combustibili, v. 12, p. 562-580 (1958); C. A. 53, 4712g.

185. Nadziakiewicz, J., and Rulikowski, G. Ways of reducing the

consumption of binding materials in the briquetting of semi coke . Koks
Smola, Gaz, v. 3, no. 5, p. 180-184 (1958); C. A. 55, 20601.

186. Wataru, Shinjiro, and Yuiki, Nakaharu. Binders for fuel briquets.
Japanese patent 2479(1958), Apr. 10 (to Bureau of Industrial Technics);
C. A. 53, 3665h.

187. Lacau, R. J. Adhesive binder. French patent 1,006,740, Apr. 28, 1952;
C. A. 51, 9132e.

188. Sarkar, A. K. Physicochemical study of the action of lime on coal tar.

Kolloid Z., v. 132, p. 24-30 (1953)(in English); C. A. 48, 346f.

189. Shvarts, I. D. Obtaining compressed calcium carbide from carbide dust.

J. Chem. Ind. (U.S.S.R.), v. 18, no. 7, p. 17-23 (1941); C. A. 38,
5
2473 .

190. Uvarov, I. P., Gordon, L. V., and Gusakov, V. N. Wood tar as adhesive
for charcoal briquets, Gidroliz. i Lesokhim. Prom., v. 10, no. 4,
p. 10-11 (1957); C. A. 51, 15123a.

191. Nagarajan, V., and Thampy, R. T. Bonding agents for abrasive articles.
Research Ind. (New Delhi), v. 6, p. 311-313 (1961); C. A. 56, 2570i.

192. Rupprecht, W. E. F. Binders for abrasives. U. S. patent 2,965,464,

Dec. 20, 1960 (to Dow Chemical Co.); C. A. 55, 11795b.

193* The Carborundum Co. Abrasives. French patent 815,704, July 21, 1937;
C. A. 32, 1890*.

194, Sauvage, E. J. A. Binder for powdered, granular, or fibrous substances.

Belgian patent 558,266, June 29, 1957; C. A. 53, 22620a.

195. Finger, G. C, , Risser, H. E., and Bradbury, J. C. Illinois fluorspar.

Illinois Geol. Surv. Circ. 296, p. 26 (1960).
 - 1+0 -

INDEX

Abrasives 4,5,6,7,8,10,11)- ,15, Amine s , hydroxy- 16

16,1TA9,21,22,23,26 Ammonia 9,18
Absorbents 6 Ammonium acetate 18
Absorption oils 20 Ammonium chloride 8,16
Acetaldehyde 18,22 Ammonium fluoride k
Acetic acid l8,2J,2U Ammonium humate 16
Acetone 9 Ammonium hydroxide 16,18
Acids, aromatic 15 Ammonium ion 16
Acids, hydroxy 17,26 Ammonium peroxydi sulfate 25
Acids, naphthenic Ik Anhydrite (See calcium sulfate)
Acids, polybasic unsaturated 16 Anthracene 11,19,20
Acrylamide, poly- 21 Anthracene oil 11,19,21,25
Acrylic acid l6 Anthracite (See coal, anthra-
Activated carbon (See carbon, cite)
activated) Antimony aluminate 3
Adhesion 12,25 Araldite 11
Aggregates, mineral or rock 12, Argon 9
13,1^25 Aromatic acids (See acids, aro-
Alcohols, polyhydric 10 matic )
Aldehydes 2k Asbestos 3,5,26
Alginic acid 11 Ash, fly 11
Alkali cellulose (See cellulose, Asphalt 11,12
alkali) Asphaltite Ik
Alkoxy silicons 1^,17 Attapulgite k
Alkyl sulfates . 13 Augite 25
Alloys 7
Alnico 7 Barium hydroxide 2k
Alpha component
. 20 Baymal 3
Alumina (See also aluminum Benzene sulfonyl chloride, nitro-
oxide, boehmite, corundum) 3, 21
if, 5,8,22 Benzidine 15
Alumina cement 8 Benzoyl peroxide 16
Aluminates 3 Benzyl alcohol 25
Aluminum 3,7 Beryllium 7
Aluminum borate k Beryllium oxide k
Aluminum humate 16 Beta component 20
Aluminum hydroxide 5 Biotite 25
Aluminum ion 16 Bis ( 2 - chloroethyl) formal poly-
Aluminum nitride 3 sulfide (See sulfides, poly-^
Aluminum oxide (See also 2,2-Bis(4-hydroxy-3-allylphenyl)-
alumina, boehmite) 4,8, 18 propane (See phenol, 4,4'--
Aluminum phosphate k isopropylidenebis -2- allyl-)
Aluminum sulfate 15, 18 Bitumens (See also pyrobitumens)
Amides 13 11,12,13,1^,16,17, 18
Amides, poly- 15,22 Bitumen, shale 23
Amines k, 11,13,14,15 Boehmite 3
 41 -

Boleka oil (See oil, Boleka) Carbowax 19

Borate glass (See glass, Carnauba wax 9
borate) Carob bean (locust bean) gum 14
Boric acid 8,19,22 Carubin 14
Boron 7 Casein 12, 14
Boron aluminate 4 Cassava flour 15,17,24
Boron carbide 4,7 Castor oil, sulfonated 8
Boron oxide, B 2 3 4 ,8 Catalysts 5,6,17,18
Borosilicates 4 Cellulose 21
Bricks, fire ^,5,6 Cellulose, alkali 11
Bricks, lead- containing 26 Cellulose, carboxymethyl ether,
Briquets, fuel 6,10,11,12,13, sodium salt (See sodium car-
15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24, boxymethyl cellulose)
25,26 Cellulose derivatives 15,18,21
Brown coal (See coal, brown) Cement (See also portland
1,3-Butadiene 14,22,26 cement) 5
1,4-Butanediol 22 Cement, alumina (See alumina
Butene 22 cement
tert -Butyl peroxide 24 Ceramic materials 11, 14, 15, 16
Butyl stearate 19 Ceresin 3
Chalk 5
Calcium aluminate 5 Charcoal 11,17,18,26
Calcium carbide 26 o-Chlorophenol (See phenol,
Calcium carbonate (See also o-chloro-)
limestone) 8 Chloroprene 14
Calcium chloride 9 Chromium 7
Calcium chromite 4 Chromium aluminate 3
Calcium fluoride 4,9 Chromium carbide 7
Calcium germanate 4 Chromium chloride, CrCl3 21
Calcium humate 16 Chromium compounds 5,26
Calcium hydroxide 6,15 Chromium ore 5
Calcium ion 16 Chromium oxide, Cr 2 3 4
Calcium oxide (See also lime) 4, Chromium silicide 9
5,6,14 Citric acid 10
Calcium phenolates 14 Clay 4,5,20
Calcium phosphate (See super- Coal 10,11,12,13,14,15,16.17,
phosphates) 18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26
Calcium silicate (See wollas- Coal, anthracite 25
tonite) Coal, brown (See also lignite)
Calcium stearate 19 16,20,23,25
Calcium sulfate (See also Coal, hydrogenation products
gypsum) 5,8 of 15
Carbides (See also names of Coalite 6
various metals) 7,9 Cobalt 7,15
Carbohydrates (See also cellu- Coke 11,14
lose) galactose) molasses; Coke, petroleum 11
polysaccharides; starch; Coke, pitch 11,20
sugar 14 , 18 Collodion 9
Carbon 9, 14, 17, 18,21,25 Colloid, protective 21
Carbon, activated 21,25 Copper 6,8
Carbonyls (See metal carbonyls, Corundum 4,8
and various metals, e.g.., iron) Creosote oil 14
Carborundum (See silicon car- Cresylic acid (cresols) 22
bide)
 - 42

Cyclohexane, 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexa- Florigel (See fuller's earth)

chloro- 9 Flue dust, blast furnace 10
Fluorspar (See calcium fluoride)
Dextrin 23 Fluosilicates, alkali 3
Diamond 4,6,8,21 Fly ash (See ash, fly)
Diatomaceous earth (See also Formal, bis( 2-chloroethyl)- 15
kieselguhr) 5 Formaldehyde 17,18,19,22,24
Dichloroethane (See ethane, di- Formalin (See formaldehyde)
chloro-) Foraamide 9
Diglycidyl terephthalate (See Formic acid 9
terephthalic acid, diglycidyl Foundry cores (See molds)
ester) Fuel briquets (See briquets,
Dilinoleic acid (See linoleic fuel)
acid, dimer) Fuller's earth 6
Dinas 6 2-Furaldehyde 26
Dipentene 24 Furan derivatives 16
Dolomite 6,21 Furfural (See 2-furaldehyde)
Drying oils (See oils, drying) Furfuryl alcohol 16,26
Furnace, electric 6
Electric charge 3
Electric furnace (See furnace, Galactose 14
electric) Gamma component 20
Electrodes (carbon) 9,14,18,20,21 Generator tar (See tar, gener-
Emulsions 13,20,21,22,25,26 ator)
Epichlorohydrin 15 Germanium oxide 4
Epoxy resins (See also Araldite) Glass 3, 6,8
11,15 Glass, borate 4
Esters 12,14,19,22,24 Glass fibers 19
Esters, poly- 22 Glucose 10
Ethane, dichloro- 8
. Glycerol 16
Ethane, tetrachloro- 8 Glycol esters 16
Ethanol 22 Glycol, polyalkylene 21
Ethene (See ethylene) Gold T
Ether, allyl 22 Graphite 5,6,7,17,21
Ethers 12, 14 Graphitic acid 21
Ethylene 22 Gum arabic 3
Ethylenediamine 15 Gums (See also shellac ; carob
Ethylene, 1,1-dichloro- (See bean gum) 16,21
vinylidene chloride) Gypsum 6
Ethylene glycol 15,22
Ethylene oxide 21 Hafnium 7
Ethylene oxide polymers 21 Hafnium carbide 7
Hearth lining 6
Ferric ion (See iron) Hexachlorocyclohexane (See
Ferrous acetate (See iron ace- cyclohexane, 1,2,3,4, 5, 6-hexa-
tate) chloro-)
Ferrous sulfate (See iron sul- Hexamethyleneamine (See hexa-
fate) methylenetetramine
Fibers (See also asbestos; Hexamethylenetetramine 8,19,23
glass) 3>26 Horizontal retort pitch (See
Fibrils 3 pitch, horizontal retort)
Firebrick (See bricks, fire) 5,6 Hornblende 25
Fish oil (See oils, fish) Humates 16
 *3

Humic acids 6,l6 Linoleic acid, dimer 15

Hydrates, crystal 7,9,10 Linseed oil 15, 24
Hydrocarbons, aromatic, deriva- Litharge (See lead oxides)
tives lk Locust bean gum (See carob bean
Hydrocarbons, olefinic 22,26 gum)
Hydrocarbons, paraffinic 12 Low-temperature tar (See tar,
Hydroquinone 8 , 19 low-temperature
Hydroxy acids (See acids, Lupines 17
hydroxy-
Hydroxy amines (See amines, Magnesite 5,6,7,26
hydroxy- Magnesium 7
Magnesium aluminum silicate (See
Inhibitors 4,17 attapulgite
Insulators 5,26 Magnesium carbonate 8
Iron 7,22 Magnesium chloride 6
Iron acetate, Fe(OAc) 2 6 Magnesium oxide 6,7,8,15
Iron car bony 6 Magnesium silicate 12
Iron chloride, FeCl3 ^
21 Magnesium sulfate 7
Iron humate 6,16 Magnets 7,19,22,23
Iron ion (III) 16 Maleic anhydride 16,22
Iron naphthenate lk Manganese 6,7
Iron oleate lk Manganese chloride, MnCl3 21
Iron ore 10,17 Manioc flour (See cassava flour)
Iron oxide, FeO 6 Mannose Ik
Iron oxide, Fe 3 C>4 8 Metal carbides 7
Iron oxide, Fe 2 3 18 Metal carbonyls 7
Iron sulfate, FeS0 4 5,8 Metal nitrides 7
Isano oil (See oil, Isano) Metal oxides 8,19
Metals 6, 7, 8, Ik, 15, 21
Kaolin 5 Methane, dichloro- 22
Kerosene 17 Methane , triphenyl , k ,k ,k -tri
' '
•

Ketones 12,1k isocyanato- 22

Kieselguhr 5,9 Methanol 18
Methylol 26
Labradorite 25 Mica 26
Lactic acid 10 Mineral aggregates (See aggre-
Latex (See also prickly pear gates)
latex) 21,22,26 Mineral fibers (See fibers)
Lead 7,15 Mineral oil 21
Lead naphthenate lk Molasses 10, l6, 17, 21
Lead oleate lk Molding composition 8
Lead oxides 9,12,16,17 Molding sand (See sand, molding)
Lead salts 26 Molecular sieves 4,5
Lignin 18,21 Molds 15
Lignite (See also coal, brown) Molybdenum 7
2k Molybdenum carbide 7
Lignite pitch (See pitch, lig- Molybdenum silicide 9
nite) Mullite k
Lignite tar (See tar, lignite)
Lignosulfonates 17 Naphtha 17
Lime 4,5,6,13,1^,26 Naphthalene 20
Limestone 6 Naphthalene, 1,5-diisocyanato- 22
Lime water (See calcium hy- Naphthalene sulfonyl chloride,
droxide ) nitro- 21
 - kk -

Nickel 7 Phenols (See also phenol-alde-

Niobium 7 hyde resins) 12,19
Nitrides, metal (See also alum- Phenols, nitro- 17
inum nitride 7 Phenyl phosphate, mono- 19
Nitrobenzene sulfonyl chloride Phosphoric acid 4,8,19
(See benzenesulfonyl chloride, Phosphoronitrile dichloride 8
nitro- Phosphorus penta chloride 8
Nitro compounds Ik Pickling wastes (liquors) 8
Nitronaphthalenesulfonyl chloride Pitch (See also next six en-
(See naphthalenesulfonyl chlo- tries) 11,13,14,19,20,21,22,
ride, nitro-) 23,25,26
Nitrophenols (See phenols, Pitch coke (See coke, pitch)
nitro-) Pitch, horizontal retort 20,25
Novolak 23 Pitch, lignite 20
Pitch, petroleum 18,25
Oil, Boleko 15 Pitch, shale 18
Oil, Isano 15 Pitch, vertical retort 20
Oils, drying 15 Platinum 7
Oils, fish 21 Polyacrylamide (See acrylamide,
Olefins 22,26 poly-
Oleic acid 16 Polyalkylene glycol (See glycol,
Oleylamine 12 polyalkylene
Olivine 25 Polyamides (See amides, poly-)
Ores 5,9; ,10,13,17 Polyester resins (See esters,
Organosilicons (See silicones, poly-
organosilicons Polyethylene oxide (See ethyl-
Orthoclase 25 ene oxide polymers)
Polysaccharides 15
Paint 15 Polystyrene (See styrene poly-
Paper 3A5 mers)
Paraffin wax 23 Polyurethanes (See urethanes,
Paving (pavement) 12,25,26 poly-
Peat 6,24,25 Polyvinyl acetal (See vinyl ace-
Pentaerythritol 22 tal polymer)
Petrolatum 2k Polyvinyl acetate (See vinyl
Petroleum 6,11,12,13,18,25 acetate polymer)
Petroleum coke (See coke, petro- Polyvinyl alcohol (See vinyl al-
leum) cohol polymer)
Petroleum oxidation products 17, Polyvinyl chloride (See vinyl
18 chloride polymer)
Petroleum pitch (See pitch, pe- Portland cement 8,14
troleum) Potassium silicate 8,9
Phenanthrene 20 Potassium sulfate 9
Phenol 18 Potato starch (See starch, pota-
Phenol, o-chloro- 19 to)
Phenol, U,4'-isopropylidenebis- Prickly pear latex 22
2-allyl- 15 Propene 22
Phenol-aldehyde resins (See also Pulp liquor (See sulfite liquor)
novolak) 18,19,22,26 Pyrimidines, tetrahydro- 12
Phenol borates 19 Pyrobitumens 23
Phenol- formaldehyde resin (See Pyromellitic anhydride 15
phenol-aldehyde resins)
Phenol phosphates 19 Quartz 8,15,25
 45

Quartz it 6 Sodium hydroxide 5,13,16,17,18,

21,24
Radiation, protection against 26 Sodium ion 16
Refractories 3,4 ,5,6,1 ,10,16,21 Sodium oxide 8
Resins (See also epoxy resins; Sodium phosphate 13
phenol-aldehyde; urea-formal- Sodium silicate 3,6,8,9,10
dehyde) 7,8,17,19,21,23,26 Sodium sulfide, poly 15
Resorcinol 8,19 Soybean oil 15
Roads 12,25,26 Soybeans 17,23
Rock 25 Starch 5,l8,23,2U
Rock aggregate (See aggregates) Starch, potato 23,24
Rubber 19 Stearic acid 16
Styrene 16,22,24,26
Salt (See sodium chloride) Styrene polymers 16,24,26
Salt hydrates (See hydrates, Sugar 12,17
crystal) Sulfides, poly-, of bis(2-chloro-
Sand 9,15 ethyl ) formal 15
Sand, molding 15, 16 Sulfite liquor 15,16,21,2^,25
Sapphire 21 Sulfonic acids 17
Sawdust 23 Sulfur 11,22,24
Shale 13,23 Sulfuric acid 8,17,18
Shale pitch (See pitch, shale) Superphosphates 9
Shellac 23 Surface tension 25
Silanes (See also alkoxysili-
cons; siliconacylates; sili- Talc 9
cones; siliconols) 14 Tantalum
Silica (silicon dioxide, Si0 2 )
(See also quartz) 5,6,7,8,9
Tantalum carbide
Tantalum silicide
M 7

9
Silica, colloidal 5,9 Tar 6,11,12,13,16,17 ,18,19,20,
Silica gel 5 21,25,26
Silicates, alkali (See also Tar acids 18
sodium silicate; potassium Tar, generator 25
silicate) " 3 3,9 Tar, horizontal retort 25
Silicides 9 Tar, lignite 20
Silicon 7,9 Tar, low-temperature 20,25
Siliconacylates IT Tar oils 21
Silicon carbide >*., 5,7,8,9,19,26 Tar, wood 18,25,26
Silicon dioxide (See also sili- Tartaric acid 10
ca) 5,7,8,18 Tartrates 5,26
Silicones (organosilicons) 17,19 Terephthalic acid, dig lycidyl
Siliconols 17 ester 15
Silicons, alkoxy (See alkoxy- Tetrachloroethane (Se e ethane,
silicons) tetrachloro-)
Silver 8 Textiles 15
Soaps It, 25 Thickening agent 21
Sodium aluminate 5 Thorium 7
Sodium bisulfate 17 Thorium carbide 7
Sodium carbonate 6,24,25 Tin 8
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose 15 Tin aluminate 3
Sodium chloride 12 Titanium 7
Sodium chloroacetate 24 Titanium carbide 7
Sodium dichromate 13 Titanium oxide 4
Sodium humate 16 Titanium silicide 9
 U6

p-Toluenesulfonyl chloride 21 Vinylidene chloride 26

Trass 5 Vinyl polymers 16,26
Tr i ( hydroxyalkyl )dialkylenetri Viscosity 20
amines 16
k. k
f
•
,k
'
-Tri-isocyanatotriphenyl-
'
Wash oil (See absorption oils)
methane (See methane, tri- Water glass (See sodium sili-
phenyl- cate)
Tuff, volcanic (See trass) Wetting agents 8,9
Tungsten 7 White spirit 17
Tungsten carbide ^>6,7 Wollastonite 10
Tungsten silicide 9 Wood 21,23
Wood tar (See tar, wood)
Uranium 7
Uranium carbide 7
Xylitol 17
Urea 16,24
Urea -formaldehyde resins 19,26
Urethanes, poly- 22 Zahlit-D 26

Vanadium 7
Zeolite
Zinc aluminate
M 3
Vanadium carbide 7 Zinc carbonate 8
Vermiculite 5 Zinc chloride 7
Vertical retort pitch (See Zinc oxide 8
pitch, vertical retort) Zinc stearate 19
Vinyl acetal polymer 22 Zinc sulfate 10
Vinyl acetate polymer 22,23 Zirconia (zirconium oxide) k
Vinyl alcohol polymer 26 Zirconium 7
Vinyl chloride 26 Zirconium carbide 7
Vinyl chloride polymer 16,26 Zirconium hydride 7
Vinyl cyclohexene dioxide 15 Zirconium oxide k
Vinyl esters 26 Zirconium silicide 9