Unit 2 BIO

3A2. EUKARYOTIC CELLS 1: COMMON CELLULAR STRUCTURES

1. Describe animal cell seen under the light microscope

 Under the light microscope, the features of a eukaryotic animal cell observed are:
 The cell surface membrane forms the boundary of the cell
 Inside is a jelly like substance called cytoplasm
 The nucleus is in the cytoplasm which contains all the information needed to produce all the
chemicals the cell is made of
 The cytoplasm and the nucleus make up the protoplasm

2. List the structures which can be seen in an animal cell under the electron microscope
 Using the electron microscope, the ultrastructure (structure in detail) of the animal cell can be
observed:
 Cell surface membrane
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosome
 Centriole
 Mitochondria
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Nuclear membrane
 Pore in the nuclear membrane
 Thread-like chromosomes inside
 Nucleolus
 Small temporary vacuole
 Cytoplasm
 Plasma membrane
 Gaps between the nuclear called peri-nuclear space
 Tiny granules called glycogen granules
3. what is meant by ultrastructure of a cell? (Cell under an electron microscope)
 The structure of a cell which can be seen in great detail under an electron microscope is known
as the ultrastructure

4. Plant cells under light microscope (223)

5. Describe the structure and functions of the following parts of the animal cell with diagram
where needed:

a) Membrane (diagram for cell membrane later)

 Cell surface membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell and controls the movement of
substances in and out. Intracellular membranes localize enzymes in the reaction pathways like
respiration in mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts. They also keep biological
molecules separate by hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes

b) Protoplasm
 The nucleus and the cytoplasm make up the protoplasm

c) Nucleus
 It is the largest organelle in the cell. the spherical nucleus is surrounded by a double nuclear
membrane with pores. Inside the nuclear membrane (nuclear envelop) are the proteins and
nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 Inside the nucleus, there is another extra dense area of pure DNA and proteins called nucleolus
which is involved in the production of ribosomes and controls cell growth and division.
 When the cell is not actively dividing, the DNA is bonded to proteins to form chromatin (a
granular combination)

d) Mitochondria
 Mitochondria have a rod-like structure and are called the “powerhouse” of the cell. it oxidizes
simple molecules like glucose to produce ATP by respiration. Cells which require less energy like
white fat storage cells, contain less mitochondria. Cells with a high energy-demanding function
like muscle cells and liver cells, contain a lot of mitochondria
 Mitochondria is an elongated oval structure with double membrane. Outer member is smooth
whereas the inner membrane is folded into finger-like projections called cristae. In the cristae
there are stalked particles. Cristae increases surface area in the inner membrane. Respiration
occurs here. Cavity is filled with fluid called matrix which plays an important role in respiration.
Stalk particle are involved in making ATP by converting energy released from respiration. It has
its own DNA and ribosomes. So, mitochondria can synthesize its own proteins and replicate
itself (controlled by the nucleus) when a cell divides.
 e) Centriole
 There is a pair of centrioles near nucleus. Each centriole will contain a set of nine tubules which
is 0.5 nanometer ( ) long and 0.2 nanometer( ) wide and at 90 degrees with one
another. When cell division takes place, the centrioles pull apart to produce a spindle of
microtubules which are then involved in the movement of chromosomes.

f) 80s and 70s ribosomes

 Protein synthesis occurs on the ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm. Ribosomes are made of
ribosomal RNA and protein, and they consist of a large subunit and a small subunit.
 The 80S ribosomes in eukaryotic cells have a 40S small subunit and a 60S large subunit. The
RNA: Protein ratio is 1:1. They are the main ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.
 Another type of ribosomes in eukaryotic cells are 70S ribosomes. They are found in the
mitochondria of an animal cell and chloroplast of a plant cell. they are made from a small 30S
subunit and a larger 50S subunit. The RNA: Protein ratio is 2:1
 The 70S ribosomes are reproduced in the mitochondria and chloroplast before cell division

g) Lysosome
 Lysosomes are bubble-like dark spherical bodies made of a single membrane. They contain
strong hydrolytic enzymes and are located in the cytoplasm of a cell.
 Lysosomes fuse with each other and then a membrane-bound vacuole containing the food
content or a damaged organelle, releasing the hydrolytic enzymes to digest the contents entirely
into molecules that the cell can reuse.
 The lysosome also fuses with the outer cell membrane to release digestive enzymes outside the
cell for extracellular digestion
 Lysosomes can also self-destruct to perform apoptosis. When a cell is worn out (damaged, old,
mutated), the lysosomes rupture. The digestive enzymes destroy all the cell contents.
 Lysosomes also allow unicellular organisms to digest food.

1. Define apoptosis and describe its process

 Apoptosis or programmed cell death is the breakdown of worn-out cells by lysosomes.
 When a cell is old, mutated or is no longer functioning properly, the membrane of the
lysosome’s ruptures, releasing the hydrolytic enzymes into the cell. these enzymes then digest
the contents of the cell into molecules that can be reused.
 2. State advantage and disadvantage of apoptosis

Advantage
 Destroys cells that are old, damaged
and worn out
 Destroys cells in the DNA replication
system which are not functioning
properly
 Destroys cells needed to be removed
during development like the webbing
in the fetus’ fingers and toes in the
uterus before birth
Disadvantage
 Excessive apoptosis can is dangerous
as, in heart attacks, it kills the healthy
cardiac cells along with the damaged
ones
 Excessive apoptosis kills T killer cells in
HIV/AIDS patients
 Some cancer cells cannot be killed by
apoptosis. They reproduce
uncontrollably, passing on their
genetic mutation to more cells.
 Excessive rupturing of ribosomes may
cause rheumatoid arthritis (when cells
attack and destroy the cartilage tissue
in the joints), osteoporosis (bones are
destroyed), and retinitis pigmentosa.

 Scientists think that mitochondria originated as symbiotic eubacteria living inside early
eukaryotic cells as they have their own genetic material

 ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY:

Suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as independent prokaryotic organisms that
began living inside other cells symbiotically as endosymbionts

This theory is suggested as these organelles have their own DNA and ribosomal DNA (genetic material)
which allows replication (controlled by the nucleus) during cell division

 The cristae in the inner membrane of mitochondria provide a large surface area, as a site of
attachment for enzymes taking part in cellular aerobic respiration
 3A3. EUKARYOTIC CELLS 2: PROTEIN TRANPORT

ENDOPLAMSIC RETICULUM is a 3D network of membrane bound cavities that link with the nuclear
membrane and make up a large part of the cellular transport system and also helps in the synthesis of
different chemical substances. It contains membrane-bound cavities called cisternae.

There are two types of ER:

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

 Sac like cavities

 The outside of the RER is covered with 80S ribosomes which make proteins
 The RER has a large surface area for the protein synthesis
 It stores the protein and transports it within the cell
 Cells secreting materials contain a lot of RER like hormone secreting cells or cells lining the gut
which secrete digestive enzymes. This secretion is carried out by exocytosis.

Exocytosis is a process requiring ATP. A large molecule is in a membrane-bound vesicle that fuses with
the cell membrane and releases the molecule outside.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 Tubular structure
 Does not contain any ribosomes as it doesn’t not make proteins
 Mainly transports steroid hormones and lipids
 Found in testes which make the steroid hormone testosterone and in liver cells which
metabolize cholesterol and other lipids

The GOLGI APPARATUS is made of stacks of parallel, flattened membrane pockets formed by vesicles
from the rough endoplasmic reticulum

 Proteins from the RER are brought to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles
 The vesicles fuse together forming a membrane pocket of the Golgi apparatus and the protein
enters the Golgi stacks
 The proteins are modified as they move through the Golgi apparatus. Carbohydrate is joined
with protein to form glycoproteins such as mucus. Some proteins are digestive enzymes
enclosed in vesicles called lysosomes. Some produce materials for plan and fungal cell walls and
insect cuticles.
 Vesicles containing the modified proteins will then pinch off of the Golgi apparatus and fuse
together with the cell surface membrane for the secretion
 3B1. THE CELL CYCLE

3B2. MITOSIS

structure of chromosome
 when a cell is actively dividing, the chromosomes become shorter and denser.
 A chromosome is a mass of coiled threads of DNA and proteins.
 Chromosomes are packed in the nucleus. The DNA double helix coils around histones to form
nucleosome (a cluster of proteins). The diameter increases. Tiny thread joins the nucleosomes
which is called linker DNA (10 nm). This is then coiled (30nm) and supercoiled again (80nm). All
the DNA has been tightly coiled into a short thick structure called chromosome.
 DNA is attracted to the histone because histones have net positive charge and DNA has a net
negative charge. So, they attract each other.

Karyotype – an image of chromosome in a cell to show the pairs of autosome and sex chromosomes
Advantages include:

 Determines the gender of the person

 Determines if there is any chromosomal abnormality
 Determines if the person has down syndrome (the 21 st pair would have 3 chromosomes instead)
 Determines if chromosomes are attached to each other or if they are broken

Cell cycle a regulated process of three stages (interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis) where a cell is
divided into two identical daughter cells

Interphase is a period of non-division where the cell increases in mass and size, and replicates its
DNA, and other organelles (mitochondria, ribosomes, chromosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, etc.) while carrying out normal cellular activities

It consists of three stages:

1. G1 or gap 1 is the time between the end of the previous mitotic cell division and start of the
chromosome replication. The cell will take in food material, grow and develop. In actively diving,
G1 s a matter of hours or days, however, in other cells, it can take months or even year. Cells in
this stage are the most variable.
2. S is the stage where chromosomes replicate and form double stranded chromatids.
3. G2 or gap 2 is where all the other organelles (mitochondria, ribosomes, ERs, Golgi apparatus,
centriole, etc.). ATP formation increases as the cell needs energy for division. New proteins and
cytoplasm are also made. The cell is now ready for mitosis
Mitosis – process by which a cell actively divides into two daughter cells each having the same number
of chromosomes as the parent cell. it occurs in body cells (liver, kidney, etc.)

mitosis consists of the following stages:

1. Prophase – each chromosome in the cell has two daughter chromatids attached to each other
at the centromere. The nucleolus breaks down. The two centromeres pull apart to form a
spindle.
2. Metaphase – the nuclear membrane breaks down and the centrioles move at the opposite
poles of the cell. centrioles form a set of microtubules between them called a spindle. The
chromatids will compete for position in the metaphase plate or equator of the spindle. Each
chromatid is attached to a separate microtubule of the spindle by the centromere.
3. Anaphase – the centromere splits and the two identical linked chromatids become separate.
The spindle is made of overlapping microtubules that consist of contractive fibres. These
overlapping fibres contract and cause the two sets of chromatids to move to the opposite poles
of the cell. this is an energy-requiring process and uses ATP from cell respiration.
4. Telophase – the spindle fibres break down. Nuclear membranes form around the two sets of
chromosomes. The nucleoli and centromeres are reformed. The chromosomes now unravel into
tiny thread-like structures.

how is the cell cycle controlled?

Small proteins called cyclins control the cell cycle. They build up and attach to enzymes called cyclin-
dependent kinases. This cyclin-CDK complex attaches phosphate to other proteins in the cell. This
changes the shape of the protein. The altered shape signals the cytoplasm to end the current cycle and
begin the new one.

Examples:

 Phosphorylation of chromatids in the nucleus causes the chromosomes to condense and

become thicker
 Phosphorylation of the nuclear membrane causes it to break down during metaphase

cancer cells don't have their cell cycle regulated. cancer cells keep eating the food material for other
cells and grow and develop abnormally. they keep dividing for a long time, all of its daughter cells also
divide like this in an uncontrolled cell cycle forming a tumor

cytokinesis – final stage of cell division where the cytoplasm divides to form two identical daughter
cells
  in animal cells, a ring of contractile fibres tightens around the centre of the cell and continue to
contract until the two daughter cells are completely separate.
 In plant cells, remaining spindle fibres guide Golgi vesicles to the equator of the cell. the vesicles
increase in size and merge together with the cell surface membrane to form a vacuole. these
membrane-bound vacuoles fuse to form a structure called cell plate. There are gaps in the cell
plate. Cellulose fibres from both cells are deposited in the sides of the cell plate. A partition
called cell wall is made. Cytoplasm from both cells pass between one another through the gaps
(empty openings) in the cell wall. This interlinking of cytoplasm from both cells is called
plasmodesma.

Permanent cells some cells do not enter the cell cycle once they are formed. As a result, they
cannot be regenerated or replaced. For example, cardiac cells, nerve cells, retinal cells, etc. Once
damaged, they lose all function.

fixed number of brain cells for life

cardiac cell death decreases pumping of heart

3C1. CELL DIFFERENTIATION

Cell differentiation: the process by which a less specialized cell becomes more specialized for a particular
function

 The genes in the DNA will code for specific protein. This causes an active mRNA to be produced
and go to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to synthesize this protein.
 Therefore, the genes that code for this specific protein will be expressed (gene expression)
 As a result, these cells differentiate and develop into different types of tissues and organs

Housekeeping proteins – all differentiated cells have sets of common proteins. These common proteins
are called ‘housekeeping’ proteins. Examples include, enzymes required for cellular respiration and
structural proteins of the cell membranes.

 Every differentiated cell has genes which code for a specific protein which work to perform its
particular function. Therefore, different genes are expressed in different types of cells. An
example would be, enzymes that produce insulin are only found in islet of Langerhans cells
(groups of pancreatic cells secreting insulin and glucagon), in the pancreas.
Varying degree of differentiation in cells

The testes have genes coding for 999 proteins on top of the normal housekeeping proteins. Whereas,
the cerebral cortex of the brain has genes coding for 318 extra proteins while smooth muscle cells only
express the housekeeping proteins.

Locus: the location of a particular gene in a chromosome

Allele: the alternate forms of a gene which can be recessive or dominant

 When a zygote is fertilized, all the chromosomes pair up and the alleles are next to one another.
The individual alleles can either be dominant and recessive (in which case the dominant is
expressed), both can be recessive or both can be dominant. In the case, that both alleles are
dominant, we call them co-dominant as both are expressed in the phenotype. For example, the
blood type AB.

Gene linkage: when genes coding for two different characteristics are on the same chromosome and are
close together, they are linked and inherited as a single unit.

Polygenic inheritance: multiple genes at different loci interacting to express one phenotype or
characteristic; examples include, weight, eye color, skin color, intelligence. Interaction with
environmental factors add further variation in phenotype

Monogenic inheritance: one characteristic expressed that is controlled by one gene; examples include
sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis (sex-linked diseases).

Digenic (dihybrid) inheritance: inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characteristics at the same type;

Monohybrid inheritance: when in a genetic experiment, we trace the inheritance of one characteristic
only. It is known as monohybrid inheritance. Phenotypic ratio for F2 generation of monohybrid
inheritance is 3: 1. Genotypic ratio for F2 generation of monohybrid inheritance is 1: 2: 1

Dihybrid Inheritance: when in a genetic experiment, we trace the inheritance of two characteristics. In
the F2 generation, it is known as dihybrid inheritance. the phenotypic ratio of F2 generation in dihybrid
inheritance is 9: 3: 3: 1

FIG. crossing two heterozygotes in a dihybrid cross  phenotypic ratio = 9: 3: 3: 1

Fruit fly Drosophila:

 grey bodies (G) are dominant to ebony bodies (g)

 long wings (A) are dominant to short vestigial wings (a)

Explanation:
 1. all offsprings have long wings and grey bodies (9)
2. half of the offsprings have long wings and grey body, half have long wings and ebony bodies (3)
3. half of the offsprings have short vestigial wings and grey bodies, half have long wings and grey
bodies (3)
4. some offsprings have long wings and grey bodies, some have long wings and ebony bodies,
some have short wings and grey bodies, others have short wings and ebony bodies (1)

3C2. INTERACTIONS: GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1. DESCRIBE THE BELL CURVE OF CONTINUOUS VARIATION with reference to height.

Ans: when we plot a continuous variation against the number in population, then the shape of the graph
looks like a bell.

Very few people have the shortest heights (below average height), this is represented in the left side of
the curve. As the height increases, so does the number of people with that height. In the middle,
number of people with an average height is the highest. As the height increases beyond the average
height (extremely tall/ taller than average) number of people decreases.

*This is a template for all answers regarding a bell curve*

2. WHAT IS STANDARD DEVIATION

Ans: standard deviation shows how much deviation a reading/measurement has from the average

The smaller the standard deviation of a measurement is, the more accurate the results. If the standard
deviation is too high or low (too varying) then the results are going to be less accurate.

3. Why is there so much continuous variation?

Ans: continuous variation is determined by polygenes and environmental factors. The polygenes
controlling the phenotype and the parents’ alleles also cause variation. Environmental factors like diet,
exercise, stimulus to the brain also causes variation depending on each individual.

4. What precautions should be taken while studying continuous variation?

Ans: a large sample with varying phenotypes should be taken. The samples should be from different
parts of the world as every region as differing environmental factors.

3C3. CONTROLLING GENE EXPRESSION

1. How can one gene produce a variety of proteins? OR Explain RNA splicing.

Ans: RNA splicing is the process by which the same exons are joined in different sequences by
spliceosomes. These different versions of the functional mRNA will code for amino acids in different
arrangements, forming different polypeptide chains and in turn different proteins. Hence, RNA splicing
makes a variety of proteins (phenotypes) being formed from one gene possible.

 How is gene expression controlled?

Ans: chromosomes in each cell of an individual have around 20,000-25,000 individual genes. In
differentiated cells, around 10000 to 20000 genes are actively expressed. The different combinations of
these genes are expressed in different cells. This creates a difference in structure and function in cells.

Gene expression is mainly controlled by:

 Transcription: DNA is copied into the mRNA

 Translation: mRNA is converted into the protein

The different proteins formed and the quantity of those proteins determine the structure and function
of that cell.

 Define transcription factor, promotor sequence, enhancer sequence.

Ans:

Transcription factor: protein that binds to a region in the DNA and affects the process of transcription

Promotor sequence: region of DNA where the transcription factor binds to stimulate transcription

Enhancer sequence: region of DNA where transcription factors can bind to either prevent or stimulate
transcription of a gene

When the transcription factor binds to the enhancer sequence, it affects the structure of the chromatin.
The tightly coiled DNA strands become loose and more genes are exposed to RNA polymerase. This
results in active gene expression. The coiled DNA strands can become even more tightly coiled, where
the closed chromatin structure would result in inactive gene expression.

This way genes can be repressed or expressed in different stages of development

 Define Exons and introns, pre-mRNA, spliceosome, functional mRNA

Ans:

Exons: genes that code for protein

Introns: non coding genes

Pre-mRNA: the DNA is entirely copied without being modified through the process of transcription
Spliceosome: enzymes that remove introns from the pre-mRNA and join all the exons together to form a
functional mRNA (modification done).

The process of joining the same exons in a variety of sequences to form different versions of functional
mRNA is known as RNA splicing

Functional mRNA: the modified mRNA which moves out of the nucleolus through the nucleic pore and
binds with the ribosome. Translation takes place where this functional mRNA is converted to the
protein.

2. Define epigenetics
3. Describe the following methods of epigenetics: DNA methylation, DNA demethylation

Ans:

DNA methylation: addition of a methyl group to a cytosine in a DNA molecule that prevents transcription
from taking place. The addition is done by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase

It causes the structure of the chromatin to be closed, so genes are unable to transcribe. These genes are
silenced or inactivated. This process is used in the embryonic development and X-chromosome
inactivation

DNA demethylation: removal of methyl group from a DNA molecule which activates a gene (gene is
expressed)

 DNA methylation silences cancer genes. When DNA demethylation occurs, then those inactive
cancer genes are allowed to transcribe and growth of tumor occurs.

4. Describe cell differentiation

 Cell differentiation occurs when different genes are activated and silenced through DNA methylation or

demethylation and histone modification. This combination of genes expressed results in the production

of proteins needed within the cell as it differentiates. 

The epigenetic changes maybe in response of internal stimuli like a mutation in the gene sequence, or

from an external stimuli like body mass. For example, when a child reaches a specific body mass,
production of sex hormones is stimulated. These hormones would cause changes in somatic cells

through epigenetic factors.

 Chemical stimuli
 Certain gene activation 
 mRNA production from those genes 
 translation of mRNA to form polypeptide chains 
 permanent modification of the cell

5. Define non-coding RNA (ncRNA) and explain the role of ncRNA in epigenetics with reference to
Barr body

Ans:

90% of the human genome is transcribed into mRNA. 2% of these RNA molecules are transcribed from
the exons which code for proteins. 88% of the RNA molecules are transcribed from the introns which do
not code for proteins, these are called non-coding RNA. ncRNA affect chromatin structure, transcription
of DNA and modify products of transcription.

 An ncRNA called Xist (X-inactive specific transcript produced by the active Xist gene on the
inactive chromosome) coats on of the X chromosomes at random which causes it to supercoil
and condense into a lumpy, stable inactive Barr body. As a result, the X chromosome is
deactivated. This is done to maintain the balance of gene products in males (XY) and females
(XX).
 ncRNA affects chromatin modification. It acts on the histones to make areas of the DNA
available or unavailable for transcription

 Histone: positively charged proteins

 DNA helices coil around the histones to form chromatin. Densely supercoiled and condensed

chromatins make chromosomes

 Active chromatins are more loosely packed so that more genes are available for transcription

 Change in structure of histone causes the activation and inactivation of genes

  Heterochromatin: densely packed, supercoiled and condensed chromatins where the genes are

unable to be transcribed

6. Describe two ways in which one of the two X-chromosomes in females is inactive

Ans: the processes involved are:

Histone acetylation: an acetyl group (-COCH3) is attached a lysine in the histone structure. This
causes the chromatin structure to open up and become loose. This leads to more genes being
available for transcription. The chromatin becomes active.

Histone methylation: a methyl group (-CH3) is added to a lysine in the histone structure.
Depending on the position, the chromatin will either open up and become loose; more genes
will be available for transcription and chromatin will become active. Or it will close up more
tightly, so no transcription can take place. The gene will be silenced and the chromatin will
become inactive.

Histone modification in action:

Experiment is done using the larvae of Drosophila (fruit fly) and the process of
moulting (shedding of the exoskeleton of insects)
These insects have giant chromosomes in their salivary glands which are visible
under the light microscope 
A steroid hormone called Ecdysone controls the moulting. Increase in the
ecdysone levels causes puffs to appear on the chromosomes. These puffs are
opened up areas of genetic material which are made available for transcription. It
can be concluded that steroid hormones have a direct effect on the DNA of a cell.
juvenile hormone controls the kind of moult that occurs. Decrease in juvenile
hormone levels result in more adult characteristics. 

3C.4 STEM CELLS

 1. Describe the early stages of development of the embryo

 Ovum is fertilized by the sperm to form a zygote

 Zygote undergoes mitosis once to form a 2-cell stage embryo, then a 4-cell stage embryo

 After several mitosis, a morula is formed which is a hollow ball of totipotent cells; all the cells

can differentiate into any kind of cells 

 After one day, a blastocyst is formed which is a hollow ball of cells with a cluster of cells on the

side. The inner cells are pluripotent, meaning they can form any kind of cell except for placenta

tissue. This happens because some genes are permanently switched off. The outer layer of cells

(trophoblast) differentiates to form the placenta

2. Define the following terms: totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent

Totipotent undifferentiated cells which can differentiate into any kind of cell needed to make an

organism (216 differentiated cells); example, morula 

Pluripotent undifferentiated cell which can differentiate into any kind of cell except a few select;

example, blastocyst 

Multipotent cells which can differentiate into a very limited range of cells within a mature organism;

example, stem cells from bone marrow can only differentiate to red blood cells and white blood cells

3. Give the different sources of stem cell

Embryonic stem cells can be found in the morula where all the cells are totipotent and, in the blastocyst,

where the inner cells are pluripotent. The pluripotent cells specialize and differentiate into different kind

of cells as the embryo develops. Embryo dies once the cells are extracted 

Umbilical stem cells are found in the blood that drains from the placenta and the umbilical cord after

birth. These are pluripotent cells which can be frozen to be used for stem cell therapy for the baby later
on in life. However, freezing umbilical stem cells is very expensive and it would take a huge storage

space. 

Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells among normal differentiated cells. They are multipotent and

only differentiate when needed to produce a major cell type from that particular organ or tissue. For

example, bone marrow. Organ from where the cells are extracted remain unaffected.

4. Briefly describe how the development of an organism takes place

Ans:

 totipotent cells in the embryo become pluripotent cells in the blastocyst. These cells then mature
into somatic cells of a mature organism.
 This is done by controlling gene expression through the action of DNA methylation, histone
modification and nc-RNA
 Areas of the chromosome become supercoiled so they cannot be transcribed, these genes are
silenced. Some areas uncoil, they can be transcribed, these genes are activated. Cells then mature
and differentiate as a result of this combination of genes
5. With reference to haemoglobin, explain epigenetic control in human development /or/ study
figure C

Ans:

haemoglobin has a quaternary structure so it has 4 subunits. Fetal haemoglobin has 2 alpha and gamma
globin chains while adult haemoglobin has 2 alpha and beta globin chains.

In different periods of pregnancy, different globin genes are expressed and silenced which make up the
different types of haemoglobin.

 Up to 6 weeks, alpha and gamma globin genes are active, so fetal haemoglobin is made. Very
few beta globin genes are expressed, so few beta globin chains ae in the blood. The globin gene
expression occurs in the yolk sac
 Afterwards, until 24 weeks, alpha globin genes are active so maximum alpha globin gene
production is continuous. Gamma genes are slowing becoming silenced so production of gamma
globin chain decreases, while beta globin chain production starts to increase as beta globin
 genes are being activated. Only fetal haemoglobin is present in the blood. Globin gene
expression occurs in the fetal liver and then the fetal spleen
 After birth, there is a transition from fetal to adult haemoglobin. More beta genes are active so
there is more beta globin chains in the blood. Less gamma genes are active, so production of
gamma globin chain is low. For an 18-week-old baby, mostly alpha and beta globin genes are
active, so only adult haemoglobin is present in the blood. Globin gene expression occurs in the
bone marrow now.
6. List some examples of epigenetic control

 DNA acetylation activates gamma globin genes

 DNA methylation and histone methylation silences gamma globin genes in the fetus

 Non-coding RNA molecules activate or silence globin genes throughout development

 Transcription factors activate beta globin genes in the fetal spleen and bone marrow as the fetus

approaches full term and birth

7. What’re the differences between fetal and adult haemoglobin

Fetal haemoglobin Adult haemoglobin

 Contains two alpha and gamma globin  Contains two alpha and beta globin chains
chains
 Has more affinity for oxygen than adult  Has less affinity for oxygen than fetal
haemoglobin haemoglobin
 Produced before birth  Produced after birth

3C.5 USING STEM CELLS

1. Explain stem cell therapy

Stem cells are extracted from the embryo or adults and cultured to develop to the required cells. For

example, embryonic stem cells and umbilical stem cells are pluripotent; these cells can be transplanted

into the patient once they have differentiated. Adult stem cells are multipotent. Bone marrow stem cells

can differentiate into bone, fat, cartilage and fibrous tissue; brain stem cells can differentiate into motor,
relay and sensory neurons when required. Heart stem cells can also be injected into damaged cardiac

muscle to repair the tissue.

2. Describe the process of therapeutic cloning

Therapeutic cloning is an experimental technique used to produce embryonic stem cells
from an adult donor

 Adult cell from patient is extracted and the nucleus is removed

 Human ovum is extracted and the nucleus is removed

 The nucleus of the adult cell is transferred into the empty ovum

 A mild electric shock is given to cause the nucleus to fuse with the cell and trigger

mitosis

 These stem cells are removed and cultured to grow into the organ or tissue required

 The organ or tissue is then transplanted into the patient

The nucleus of the adult cell has to be modified first. Otherwise, the new stem cells
would contain the genetic mutation that caused the problem in the first place

Stem cells contain the same genetic markers as the patient so risk of rejection from the
immune system is rejected

3. Give the advantages and disadvantages of stem cell therapy

Disadvantage:

 Controlling the differentiation of embryonic stem cells is difficult so they can later develop into
cancer
 Extraction embryonic stem cells kills the embryos; hence this is considered unethical and is a
religious obligation

Advantage:
  Adult stem cells from the patient can be cultured to form the required cells on a collagen-based
framework; since the new cells have the same genetic markers as the patient, risk of rejection of
avoided
 Extraction of adult stem cells does not affect the adult and does not kill embryos, so there is no
moral obligation

1. Whate the benefits and pitfalls of stem cell therapy

Benefits Pitfalls
Since stem cells are from patient, the antigens are Gene expression cannot be controlled yet
the same
This avoids risk of rejection from immune system Can develop to cancer
Patient doesn’t have to undergo Sometimes, the adult stem cells stop their work
immunosuppressant therapy midway inside the body
Does not use embryonic stem cells so no embryos
are dying

2. Define IPS cells

Adult cell taken from patient. It is changed to IPS cells. And all the genes are reactivated. The required
genes taken from the IPS cells new administered into the patient using a harmless modified virus which
is then absorbed into the cells.

3. Describe the process of stem cell therapy using ips cells

4. Give advantages and disadvantages of ips stem cell therapy

Advantage
Overcomes ethical objectives
No risk pf infection
Can cure all kinds of disease
No risk of rejection
Can be turned into any type of cell
No embryos can be made/destroyed
Disadvantage
Making them differentiate into cells is very difficult
Don’t know how long it will remain pluripotent
Can turn cancerous
No easy to culture/grow and manipulate

5. What’re the ethical issues of stem cell therapy