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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 Open Channel F
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 Open Channel F
Free surface
B
flow A y
Bottom
(cross-section)
2 Top width, B:
– the width of the channel at the free surface
3 Flow area, A:
– cross-sectional area of the flow
4 Wetted perimeter, P:
– the length of the channel cross-section in contact with the fluid
P.8-1
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
=
Flow area A
R =
Wetted perimeter P
=
Flow area A
yave =
Top width B
– B =b
y
– A = b*y b
– P = b+2*y
b*y
b + 2* y
– R =
– yave =y
– B = b + 2*m*y
y 1
– A = y*(b+m*y) m
b
– P = b+2*y* 1 + m 2
y * ( b + m * y)
b + 2 * y * 1 + m2
– R =
y * ( b + m * y)
b + 2*m* y
– yave =
P.8-2
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
– B = 2*m*y
y
– 2 1
A = m*y m
– P = 2*y* 1+ m 2
m*y
2 * 1 + m2
– R =
y
– yave =
2
– B = 2 * y * ( D − y)
D 2 * (θ − sin θ )
θ D
y
– A =
8
(θ in radian)
θ*D
– P =
2
D ⎛ sin θ ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
4⎝ θ ⎠
– R =
D * (θ − sin θ)
8 * sin θ
– yave =
2
P.8-3
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
1 2 1
V = * R 3 *S 2 (8.1)
n
A 2
3
1
2
Q = * R *S (8.2)
n
P.8-4
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked examples:
Answer
By Manning equation,
V = * R 3 *S 2
1 2 1
with n = 0.013
S = 0.0028
A = 12* 2.5 m2 = 30 m2
∴
P = 12 + 2*2.5 m = 17 m
R = A/P
= 30 / 17 m = 1.765 m
1 2 1
hence V = * (1.765) 3 * (0.0028) 2
0.013
= 5.945 m/s
Discharge, Q = A*V
= 30*5.945 m3/s
= 178.3 m3/s
P.8-5
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
12m
Answer
By Manning equation,
V = * R 3 *S 2
1 2 1
with V = 6 m/s
n = 0.013
S = 0.0028
A = 12* h m2
P = 12 + 2*h m
∴ = = =
A 12 * h 6*h
P 12 + 2 * h 6 + h
R
6*h
6+h
= 1.790
h = 2.551 m
P.8-6
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
14m
2m 1
1.5
3m 8m 3m
Answer
A = (14+8)*2/2 m2
= 22 m2
P = 8 + 2* 2 2 + 32 m
= 15.211 m
A/P = 22 / 15.211 m
= 1.446 m
By Manning equation,
Q=
A 2 1
* R 3 *S 2
n
Q = 56 m3/s, S = 0.0009
22 2 1
56 = * (1.446) 3 * (0.0009) 2
n
n = 0.01507
P.8-7
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
(8+3*y) m
y 1
1.5
8m
Answer
A = (8+8+3*y)*y/2 m2
= (8+1.5*y)*y m2
P = 8 + 2*y* 12 + 1.5 2 m
= 8+3.6056*y m
R = A/P
= (8+1.5*y)*y / 8+3.6056*y
By Manning equation,
Q = * R 3 *S 2
A 2 1
n
Q = 56 m3/s, S = 0.0009
(8 + 1.5 * y) * y ⎡ (8 + 1.5 * y) * y ⎤
∴
2
*⎢ ⎥
3
⎣ 8 + 3.6056 * y ⎦
1
2
56 = * (0.0009)
[8 + 3.6056 * y]2 3
or
P.8-8
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
5. Water flows in the triangular steel channel shown in the figure below.
Find the depth of flow if the channel slope is 0.0015 and the discharge
is 0.22 m3/s. (n=0.014)
y o
60
Answer
A = 2ytan30° * y/2 m2
= y2*tan30° m2
P = 2y/cos30° m
R = A/P = y2*tan30° / 2y/cos30° m
= ysin30°/2 m
By Manning equation,
Q = * R 3 *S 2
A 2 1
⎝ ⎠
0.22 =
0.014 2
8/3
= y * 0.6338
⎛ 0.22 ⎞
y =⎜ ⎟
3
8
⎝ 0.6338 ⎠
or m
= 0.672 m
P.8-9
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
width =b
y
depth =y b
area, A = by
P = b+2*y
= + 2y
A
y
=− 2 +2=0
dP A
Hence
dy y
A
i.e. y= or b = 2y
2
2y
P.8-10
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
B = b+2*m*y
y 1
A = (b+m*y)*y m
b
P = b+2*y* 1+ m 2
By eliminating b from P,
P = + ( 2 * 1 + m 2 − m) * y
A
=0 =0
dP dP
i.e. and
dy dm
= 0,
dP A
From y2 =
dy 3
= 0,
dP 1
From m =
dm 3
It implies the side slope of the channel is 60° to horizontal.
b = − my = 3y − =
A y 2 3
y
y 3 3
y+ y = 2 3y
2 3 4
and P =
3 3
i.e. P = 3*b
o
b 60 b
P.8-11
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
N-side Channel
Æ from the conclusion of the previous two sections
– reflection of the rectangular optimum section about the water
surface will form a square of side b.
– reflection of the trapezoidal optimum section about the water
surface will form a regular hexagon of side b.
φ ⎛ N −1⎞
φ=⎜ ⎟ *180°
b b
b b ⎝ N ⎠
b b
φ = 90°
Triangular Section
Æ N = 2, hence
y o
45
Circular Section
Æ From the result of N-side channel, it can be concluded that the
optimum section of a circular channel is a semi-circle.
Æ It is the most optimum section for all the possible open-channel cross-
section.
P.8-12
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked examples
Answer
A = π*D2/8
For a semi-circular section,
P = π*D/2
R = A/P
= D/4
Q=
A 2 1
* R 3 *S 2
n
π * D2 ⎛ D ⎞ 3
* ⎜ ⎟ * 0.0065
2
8 * 0.011 ⎝ 4 ⎠
i.e. 1 =
−
2 1
8 * 0.011 3
π
8/3
D = * 4 * 0.0065 2
D = 0.951 m
P.8-13
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
2y
Answer
A = 2*y2
P = 4*y
R = A/P = y/2
By Manning equation,
Q=
A 2 1
* R 3 *S 2
n
2* y ⎛ y ⎞
2
* ⎜ ⎟ * 0.0065
2
0.011 ⎝ 2 ⎠
3
1 =
2
3
1* 0.011* 2
y8/3 =
2 * 0.0065
y = 0.434 m
P.8-14
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
y o
45
Answer
A = y2
P = 2 2*y
R = A/P = y
2 2
By Manning equation,
Q = * R 3 *S 2
A 2 1
n
⎛ y ⎞
2
*⎜ ⎟ * 0.0065
2
y
0.011 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
3
1 =
2
3
0.011* (2 2 )
y8/3 =
0.0065
y = 0.614 m
The optimum triangular section is a right angle triangle with depth 0.614 m.
P.8-15
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
energy line
2
v1 /2g hf
v22/2g
E1 fluid surface
y1
E2
y2
channel bed
z1
z2
horizontal datum
Æ
Q
Let q = = v*y (8.6)
b
q - the discharge per unit width of a rectangular channel
∴ +y
q2
E = (8.7)
2gy 2
P.8-16
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ By assuming q is constant
dE q2
=1- 3
=0 (8.8)
dy gy
or y = yc
q 2 13
=( ) (8.9)
g
yc - critical depth at which the energy is minimum.
3
Emin = yc (8.10)
2
Æ
q
From (8.6), v = .
y
Substitute into (8.8),
v c2
1- =0
gy c
v c2
=1 (8.11)
gy c
or vc = gy c (8.12)
Fr2 = 1 (8.14)
Æ For a given discharge, Q, if the flow is such that E is a min., the flow
is critical flow.
– critical flow - flow with Emin
– critical depth, yc - the depth of the critical flow
– critical velocity - vc = gy c
P.8-17
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
y 2
y1 v1 /2g
subcritical
2
vc /2g or slow
y
c
y1 C
yc o supercritical
y2 45 B or fast
2
y2 v2 /2g E
Æ If the flow with E > Emin, there are two possible depths (y1, y2).
- (y1, y2) are called alternate depths.
P.8-18
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ If the channel width varies with y, the specific energy must be written
+y
Q2
in the form E = (8.15)
2gA 2
2Q 2 A −3 dA
1- =0
2g dy
dA gA 3
or = 2 (8.16)
dy Q
Æ
dA
Since = B - the channel width at the free surface,
dy
∴
gA 3
B = 2
Q
BQ 2 13
or A =( ) (8.17)
g
Q
vc =
A
gA 1
=( ) 2 (8.18)
B
Æ For a given channel shape, A(y) & B(y), and a given Q, (8.17) & (8.18)
have to be solved by trial and error to find the A and then vc.
P.8-19
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked examples:
yc
o
30
Answer
B = 2*y*cot 30°
For critical flow,
2Q 2 15
Hence y =( )
3g
2 * 32 15
=( ) m
3 * 9.81
= 0.906 m
= = = 0.453m .
A ( B * y ) / 2 y 0906
The critical depth, yc = yave = =
B B 2 2
P.8-20
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
y
o
30
Answer
B = 2 3 *y
1
A = *B*y
2
P = 4*y
P.8-21
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
supercritical
approach flow
subcritical
v1 approach flow
y2 v
2
∆h
y1
Æ When fluid is flowing over a bump, the behaviour of the free surface
is sharply different according to whether the approach flow is
subcritical or supercritical.
Æ The height of the bump can change the character of the results.
v1*y1 = v2*y2
+ y1 = + y 2 + ∆h
v12
v22
&
2g 2g
3 v12 * y12
2
y2 – E2*y2 + =0 (8.19)
2g
+ y1 - ∆h
v12
where E2 = (8.20)
This equation has one negative and two positive solutions if ∆h is not
2g
too large.
P.8-22
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
∆ hmax
water
depth 1
y1 subcritical
2 bump
y2
∆h
yc
supercritical
bump
Ec E2 E1 specific
energy
The specific energy E2 is exactly ∆h less than the approach energy, E1,
and point 2 will lie on the same leg of the curve as E1.
Æ A subcritical approach, Fr1 < 1, will cause the water level to decrease
at the bump.
Æ If the bump height reaches ∆hmax = E1 – Ec, the flow at the crest will
be exactly critical (Fr = 1).
Æ If the bump > ∆hmax, there are no physical correct solution. That is, a
bump to large will choke the channel and cause frictional effects,
typically a hydraulic jump.
P.8-23
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked example:
Answer
For subcritical approach flow, if ∆h is not too large, the water level over
the bump will depress and a higher subcritical Fr at the crest.
+ y1 + 10
v12 . 2
15
E1 = = . m
2g 2 * 9.81
= E1 - ∆h
= 1.115 m
Hence E2 = 1.115 – 0.1 m
= 1.015 m
Hence y2 = 0.859 m
Checking: v2 = 1.745 m/s (By continuity)
Fr2 = 0.601 (> Fr1 and < 1) (OK)
P.8-24
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
∆hmax = E1 - Emin
= 1.115 – 0.918 m
= 0.197 m
P.8-25
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ Assumptions:
– the bed is horizontal.
– the velocity over each cross-section is uniform.
– the depth is uniform across the width.
– frictionless boundaries.
– surface tension effects are neglect.
1 2
critical
depth level
y2
v 1 v2
y1 eddy currents
Æ By continuity equation,
Q = b*y1*v1 = b*y2*v2 (8.22)
Æ
ρgb 2
Sub. (8.21a, b) and (8.22) into (8.23), then
( y1 − y 2 2 ) = ρQ( −
Q Q
)
2 y 2 b y 1b
ρQ 2 y1 − y 2
= ( ) (8.24)
b y1 y 2
P.8-26
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
∴ 2 2 2Q 2
y1 y2 + y1y2 =
gb 2
( ) +( )− 2 3 =0
y2 2 y2 2Q 2
i.e. (8.25)
y1 y1 gb y1
Solving (8.25),
= [ −1 + 1 + 2 3 ]
y2 1 8Q 2
(8.26)
y1 2 gb y1
This is the hydraulic jump equation.
2 v12 Q2
Fr1 = = (8.27)
gy1 gy13b2
= [ −1 + 1 + 8Fr12 ]
y2 1
then, (8.28a)
y1 2
= [ −1 + 1 + 8Fr2 2 ]
y1 1
or (8.28b)
y2 2
+ y1 = + y2 + h f
v12 v22
2g 2g
v − v2
) + ( y1 − y 2 )
2 2
i.e. hf =( 1 (8.29)
2g
Æ
Q 2 y1 + y 2
Sub. (8.22) into above,
hf = [− ( ) + 1 ](y1 – y2) (8.29)
2gb 2 y12 y 2 2
P.8-27
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ
( y 2 − y1 ) 3
Using (8.25), (8.29) becomes
hf = (8.30)
4 y1 y 2
This is the energy loss equation for the hydraulic jump (y2>y1, hf>0).
Æ
P = ρghf*Q
The power loss in a jump is
Æ This energy loss is useful for getting away with the unwanted energy
of a flow. The energy loss is due to the frictional forces amount the
eddy currents in the pump. It will increase the temperature of the fluid.
P.8-28
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked example:
Answer
q
(a) v1 =
y1
10
= m/s = 8 m/s
1.25
v1
Fr1 =
gy1
8
= = 2.285
9.81 * 125
.
= [ −1 + 1 + 8Fr12 ]
y2 1
Since
y1 2
= [ −1 + 1 + 8 * (2.285) 2 ]
1
2
= 2.77
or y2 = 2.77*1.25 m
= 3.46 m
P.8-29
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
v2
(c) Fr2 =
gy 2
2.89
=
9.81 * 3.46
= 0.496
( y 2 − y1 ) 3
(d) hf =
4 y1 y 2
(3.46 − 125
. )3
=
4 * 3.46 * 125
.
= 0.625 m
+ y1
v12
(e) E1 =
2g
+ 1.25 m
82
=
2 * 9.81
= 4.51 m
hf
percentage loss = * 100%
E1
0.625
= * 100%
4.51
= 14 %
P.8-30
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ It is not always possible to have uniform depth across the flow i.e.
normal flow with normal depth.
Æ The depth of flow can be changed by the conditions along the channel.
– backwater curve
water surface
dy >0
dx
yn dam
– Downdrop curve
water surface
yn1
dy
dx <0
slope change
yn2
Æ In a uniform flow, the body weight effect in balanced out by the wall
friction.
Æ In gradually varied flow, the weight and the friction effects are
unable to make the flow uniform.
P.8-31
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
δx
1 2
2 s
v1/2g THL dh2
f
v2/2g
v1 fluid surface
y1 v2
y2
θ
channel bed
z1
z2
horizontal datum
Æ Denoting v1 = v; v2 = v + dv
z1 = z, z2 = z + dz
y1 = y, y2 = y + dy
p1 = p, p2 =p
p ( v + dv) 2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and 2,
+ +y+z = + + ( y + dy) + ( z + dz) + dh f
p v2
γ 2g γ 2g
When lim dx → 0,
+ + +
dh f dy dz v dv
=0 (8.30)
dx dx dx g dx
P.8-32
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
v dv
- rate of change of velocity head along the channel
g dx
Æ By Continuity equation
v*A = constant
dv dA
i.e. A +v =0
dx dx
dv dA dy
A +v =0
dx dy dx
dv dy
A + vB =0
dx dx
dv vB dy
or =-
dx A dx
v dy
=-
y dx
v dv v 2 dy
Therefore =-
g dx gy dx
dy
= -Fr2 (8.31)
dx
P.8-33
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
dx 1 − Fr 2
sin θ − S
=[ ]
dy
y 2 1 − Fr
∫x1 dx = ∫y1 ( sin θ − S)dy
2
x2
y 2 1 − Fr
x2 = x1 + ∫y (
2
1 sin θ − S
)dy (8.33)
1 − Fr 2
The simplest solution is the direct mid-point solution of the integral.
sin θ − S ( 1 2 2 )
i.e. x2 = x1 + ( ) y + y *(y2-y1) (8.34)
P.8-34
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Worked example:
water surface
yn
5m
dam
θ
Answer
yn = 2.44 m
1 − Fr 2
Hence x2 = x1 + ( ) *(y2-y1)
0.001 −
n 2 v2
R 4/ 3
P.8-35
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
section, I yi (m) dy (m) yave (m) v (m/s) Fr 1-Fr*Fr R (m) So - Sf dx (m) x (m)
1 5 0
0.25 4.875 0.684 0.099 0.990 1.147 0.000812 305
2 4.75 305
0.25 4.625 0.721 0.107 0.989 1.133 0.000787 314
3 4.5 619
0.25 4.375 0.762 0.116 0.986 1.117 0.000758 326
4 4.25 945
0.25 4.125 0.808 0.127 0.984 1.100 0.000722 341
5 4 1285
0.25 3.875 0.860 0.140 0.981 1.081 0.000677 362
6 3.75 1647
0.25 3.625 0.920 0.154 0.976 1.061 0.000622 392
7 3.5 2040
0.25 3.375 0.988 0.172 0.971 1.038 0.000551 440
8 3.25 2480
0.25 3.125 1.067 0.193 0.963 1.014 0.000459 524
9 3 3004
0.25 2.875 1.159 0.218 0.952 0.986 0.000337 707
10 2.75 3711
0.31 2.595 1.285 0.255 0.935 0.951 0.000146 1992
11 2.44 5703
From the table, the water level is not affected by the dam at 5.7 km
upstream.
5m
4m
3m
normaldepth 2m
dam
1m
From the graph, the water depth at any location can be obtained.
P.8-36
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ There are five classes of channel slope giving rise to twelve distinct
types of solution curves.
- So > Sc - Steep (S)
- So = Sc - Critical (C)
- So < Sc - Mild (M)
- So = 0 - Horizontal (H)
- So < 0 - Adverse (A)
Æ There are three number designators for the type of profile relates to
the position of the actual water surface in relation to the position of
the water for normal and critical flow in a channel.
- 1 the surface of stream lies above both normal and critical
depth
- 2 the surface of stream lies between normal and critical
depth
- 3 the surface of stream lies below both normal and critical
depth
M1 S1
M2 S2
yn yc
M3 S3
yc yn
P.8-37
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
yn = ∞
Fr > 1 y<yn; y<yc M3
sinθ = 0 Horizontal (H) Fr < 1 y > yc H2
Fr > 1 y<yn; y<yc H3
sinθ < 0 Adverse (A) yn = Im Fr < 1 y > yc A2
Fr > 1 y < yc A3
Æ For type S
Æ For type C
P.8-38
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
Æ For type M
Æ For type H
Æ For type A
P.8-39
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
500mm
θ
y
(y = 18 mm)
P.8-40
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
P.8-41
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m and side slopes of 1:1.
The depth of flow is 1.5 m at a discharge of 15 m3/s. Determine the
specific energy and alternate depth. (E = 1.59 m, y = 0.497 m)
P.8-42
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
A triangular channel has an apex angle of 60° and carries a flow with a
velocity of 2.0 m/s and depth of 1.25 m.
P.8-43
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
P.8-44
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
P.8-45
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 8 – Open Channel Flow
1 y 1
3 3
4m
(a) the Froude number over the top of the bump, and
(b) the depression in the water surface. (y2 > 0.5 m)
P.8-46