Mol1on

FOCUS POI NTS

---- ---- ---- ------- late these and average speed.
• "I'-· <-' s peed and velocity and use the appropriate equations to calcu t different speeds and use the
• Draw , plot :rnd i nter prct d1stancc-t1me or speed-time graphs for obJects a
gra ph s to calculate speed or distance travelled.
- -
• Define accel era t ion and u se the shape of a speed -- time graph to d eter mine constant or changing
accelera t ion and calculate the acceleration from the gradient of the graph . --- /
--- - --- b. ct close to the Earth 's su rface
• Know the approximate value of the acceleration of freefall, g, for an° Je - --
~ c ribe ~ ot1on ~ els falling with and without air/liquid resiS t ance. ~ /

' tie ~ -f.SP..~ ~f1 ~P.:ej,~a ~~~ce_lE![ ation-·are en~~u-nte ri_ed ~~;,.y da}'.! ~ het~e.r. i.ti~~?! levl s ion
monitori~g :of·the,seeed ,offa.'cr:icket-or tennis ball,as\i.ys_o~r:s towarg~S}opp~ g •,onlo r:_' th e
~ccelerat1on _a chieved by an athlete or racing.car. lri,thisft op~~:yo_~ w_i!!.iJea ~ ho~ 9_l d_~fine spe ed
m terms of distance and time. Graphs of distance againsMime,w L[lfe ~able yo~i~ c~ ~-~late-speed
and determine how it changes with time; graphs of speed,against time:allow acce.leration to be
s t ud i~d. Acceleration is also experienced by falling obj~ctsias a iresult of g r;avitationaliattra ction.
All obJects near the Earth"s surface experience the force of gravity, which ·proguc~s a constant
acceleration directed towards the centre of the Earth. L "'-

Speed To find the actual speed at any instant we would

need to know the distance moved in a very short
The speed of a body is the distance that it has interval of time. This can be done by multiflash
travelled in unit time. When the distance travelled photography. In Figure 1.2.1 the golfer is
is ., over a short time period t, the speed v is photographed while a flashing lamp illuminates him
given by 100 times a second. The speed of the dub-head as it
,, = -\" hits the ball is about 200 km/h.
I

Key definition
Speed distance travelled per unit lime

If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average

speed is 300 km/5 h = 60 km/h. The speedometer
Mould certainly not read 60 km/h for the whole
j ourney and might vary considerably from this value.
That is why we state the average speed. If a car
could travel at a constant speed of 60 km/h for
5 hours, the distance covered would still be 300 km.
It is always true that
total dista11c.:1.: tra, clkd
m c ragc speed
total 1i11w t:il-c11

A Figure 1.2.1 Mult11l<15h photoqraph of a golf swing

 I
• • •• ••.•••I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I If I I I I I I I e I e I I I I I I I I I I I I If If I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Velocity f 01 " ste,1dy incre.ise of velocity from 20 m/s to

Spee.! ·~ ;..t <lbt,1nct1 ll i1vellL-d in unit time; vt-loc ity is 50 m/s in 5 ~
the distance tliwdled 111 unit timl' in ,1 qivc11 d1rectio11. (50 20)111 ~
,1crckrn1io11 r,m .,•
If two train" tra11l'l duL' nor th ,1t 20rn/!>, they h,1ve the 5!.
samc- ~pc('d of 20111/, ,111d the same velocrt y of 20 m/s
due north. lf one tra11l'ls 110 1th ,ind the other south, Acceleration is also a vector and both its
their speeds are the same but not their velocities since magnitude and direction should be stated.
their directions of motion are different. However, at present we will consider only motion
in a straight line and so the magnitude of the
di,t.111ce 1111n ed Ill .1 !:!" en drn:1:11011
,t:'10-11\ =-- ~ - velocity will equal the speed, and the magnitude
• t1111e t,11-.en of the acceleration will equal the change of speed
= ,pe~·d Ill a gi\ en <lin:c11on rn unit time.
The speeds of a car accelerating on a straight
Key definition ~ road are shown below.
\ielot1ty crange n displ acement per unit time . j
The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if it
Time/s Ia • 1 2 3 5 6
Speed/mis 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
moves with a steady speed in a straight line. It is
not uniform if it moves in a curved path. Why? The speed increases by 5 m/s every second and
The units of speed and velocity are the same, the acceleration of 5 m/s 2 is constant.
km/h, m/s. An acceleration is positive if the velocity
increases, and negative if it decreases. A negative
60km h = 60000m = 17ms
3600s acceleration is also called a deceleration or
retardation.
Distance moved in a stated direction is called the
displacement. Velocity may also be defined as
. change in displaccmcnl
\ CIOC ll \, = ----=---'-----
• lime taken Test yourself
What Is the average speed of
Speed is a scalar quantity an d velocity a vector a a car that travels 400m m 20s
quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike distance b an athlete who runs 1500 m In 4 minutes?
which is a scalar. 2 A train increases Ils speed steadily from 10m/ s to
20 m/s m 1 minute.
a What Is Ils average speed during this time.
in m/s?
Acce leration b How far does 11 travel while IncreasIng its
When the velocity of an object changes, we say speed'
the object accelerates. If a car starts from rest
3 a A molorcycl1st c;tarts from rest Jnd reaches
and moving due north has velocity 2 m/s after
a speed of 6 rn/s ,1ftt?r t, avell1ng w1lh
1 second, its velocity has increased by 2 m/s in c:onslant ;icceler atron tor 3 s What ,s his
1 s and its acceleration is 2 m/s per second due acceleration?
north. We write this as 2 m/s 2• b The moto1 cvcl1st then decelerates
Acceleration is defined as the change of ill ,1 constirnt rate to, 2 s . What 1s his
I velocity in unit time, or ,1Lcelerc1t10"?
4 An Jirc1 ,1ft 11 avelling JI 6001-.m/h accelerates
acceleration change of\clocity slead1ly .it 10 km/h per second Taking the
t11nc la1-.cn lur l hanµc L\t speed ol sound as 1100km/h al the a11crafl\
ult1tude, how long will It take lo reach the
'c;ound bJ1r1rH '

l
/
Key definition
Acceleration chn11r1e ,n ~r1l<K1 ty pcI u111t l11nP

I
 ~
...........................................................................
·········.......................... d of the object at 1 s intervals
Speed-time graphs V,iluec; for the speeh
b ad from t e gr
aph and are given in Table
.
It the' L __ of an, bJt:cl 1s plotted .1q.1111st th e ct1n e re
2 The data s hows that the speed increases by
2
time, the graph obtaint'd is .i speed-time graph . 1.
the ·
same amoun t (4 m/s) every second.
It prm. ides a way of solving motion problems. ,.- Table 1.2.2
In Figure l.2.2, AB is the <,peed time graph
20 24 28 37 3(, 40
for an object moving \\ith a constant speed of Speed/m / s
20m s. 1 2 3 5
T1me/s O '•
Values for the speed of the object at 1 s intervals
can be read fro~ the graph and are given in h data to plot the speed-time graph.
Table 1.2.1. The data shows that the speed is
You can use t e 1·nts on the graph paper with
Join up the d_a~t ~-~ e to give the line PQ shown in
constant over the 5 s time interval.
t~e best stra1g D ~ails for how to plot a graph are
'Y Table 1. 2. 1
F1_gure l.2.3a.2~7~8 in the Mathematics for physics
given on pp.
Speed/m/s 20 20 20 20 20 20 section.) f d t·
T1me/s
..__ 0 2 3 4 5
. 1 2 3 b shows the shape o a spee - ime
or an· ·o bJ·ect accelerating from restd over time
grapFihgufre ·
· t l QA travelling at a constant spee over time
in erva , . ( h th d
interval AB and then decelerating w en e spee
· decreasing) over the time interval
1s · t steeper
· The
• BC. l
gradient in time interval BC tha~ in time in erva
QA shows that the deceleration 1s greater than the
acceleration. The object remains at rest over t_he
time interval CD when its speed and acceleration are
zero.
I
0
2 3 4 5
tlme/s constant
~peed
A Figure 1.2.2 Constant speed

The linear shape (PO) of the speed-time graph

shown in Figure l.2.3a means that the gradient, and
hence the acceleration of the body, are constant at rest
over the time period OS. 0 B C D

40 ~
• - - - - - - - --------- 0
t 1me/s

A Figure 1.2.Jb Accelerat ion. constant speed an d

deceleration

Figure 1.2.3c shows a speed-time graph for a

changing acceleration. The curved shape OX means
that the gradient of the graph, and hence the
acceleration of the object, change over time period
10 -
OY - the acceleration is changing.
s Va_lues :or the speed of the object at 1 5 intervals
0 7 3 4 are given rn Table 1.2.3. The data shows that the
time/\ speed is increasing over time interval OY, but by a
.
smaller amount each second so the acceleration is
A Figure 1 2 •Ja Constant accelerat1011 decreasing.

I
 'I I ,(
t ■ • • • • • • • • • • • ■ • • • • • • e • • • • • a••• e et t t • ■ ■ t t t t t • e ■ t t t t t ■ t It t t t t ■ ■ t t t t t t t t t t t t • t t t t 1 • • t t t • • t t t t t • t t t ■ t t t ■
• • • • • • • • • e• • • • t t t t t t t I t t t t t t t

T Table 1.2.3 LM/OM 40 m//4 s 10 m/s, which is the ,alue o' the
17 r, l. ! U /.6 0 /.8 ~ Jn U
speed. The following statement is true in general:
Speed/mis ,l
The gradient of a distance-time graph represents
i J
T1me/s 0 the speed of the object.
Values for the distance moved by the object
You can use the data to plot the speed time graph. recorded at 1 s intervals are given in Table 1 2.4.
Join up the data points on the graph paper with a The data shows it moves 10 m in every second so the
smooth curve as shown in Figure l.2.3c. speed of the object 1s constant at 10 m/s.
Note that an object at rest will have zero speed
T Table 1.2.4
and zero acceleration; its speed time graph is a
straight line along the horizontal axis. Distance/m 10 20 30 40
I
Time/s ? 3 4
---x
You can use the data to plot the distance-time
graph shown in Figure 1.2.4a.

10

y
40 -f-------- L

0 2 3 4 5 E 30 7 - -- - - -
11me/s

A Figu re 1.2.Jc Changing acceleration ]-6 201------ I

I
10 - - I
I
Using the gradient of I
M
a speed - time graph to 0
2 3 4
t1me/s
calculate acceleration
• Figure 1.2 .4a Constant speed
The gradient of a speed-time graph represents
the acceleration of the object. Figure 1.2.4b shows the shape of a distance-time
In Figure 1.2.2, the gradient of AB is zero, as is graph for an object that is at rest over time interval
the acceleration. In Figure 1.2.3a, the gradient of OA and then moves at a constant speed in time
PQ is QR/PR = 20/5 = 4: the acceleration is constant interval AB. It then stops moving and is at rest over
at 4 m/s 2 • In Figure 1.2.3c, when the gradient along time interval BC before moving at a constant speed
OX changes, so does the acceleration. in time interval CD.
An object is accelerating if the speed
increases with time and decelerating if the
speed decreases with time, as shown in Figure
1.2.3b. In Figure 1.2.3c, the speed is increasing
with time and the acceleration of the object is at rest
I decreasing.

Distance-time graphs 0 A B (. D
An object travelling with constant speed covers equal
ume/s
distances in equal times. Its distance-time graph is
a straight line, like OL in Figure 1.2.4a for a constant A Figure 1.2.4b Constant speed
speed of 10 m/s. The gradienl of the graph is
 ........... ..... ... .. .. f th'' tirr ing t h e ;,.,- ;
nPP,j r '?_{) " / '

At the 5tarl o - d'l to 40 m/r., af+v ; ,.

\J)eC'd of thi' ol)Jf'C.l I'> h1qh11r wlrl'll till! qradient but 1t inuea,;es 5lea ~y ual~ the area ur:C"' P
of the grc1ph l'i .. t('Cl)C'I. I IH' ohject I'. I r,1vell111q If th" distance c.u1ere eq
taster in tune 111terv,1l All than it ,., i11 t inw i11t 1•rvt1l . t7,1e shaded ar<•a OPOS, t}lPn
,.e. f
• i.an•,'e OPI' ~ area o 'ui.-~ PC,>V
,.i..
CO· 1t ,sat rest in tinw int1•rvah 0A and BC when f
dr~wncc area o rel- t>'
the d1stanc<' docs not cha1191'. I / f>P / 01'
When the speed of ttw obj1•c t is (hanging, the ()f' / ()~
gradient of the distc111cf'-lime gr.iph variP',, as in (a rea ofa trian~Jc
Figure 1.2.'1, wherl~ the upwclrd curve of inc.reasing I / c; / 20m
gradient of the solid green line shows the object 20rn .,/ c;
accelerating. Tht' opposite, upward curve of JO<Jm t;()m J50m
decreasing gradient (indicated by the dashed green
line) shows an object decelerating above T. Note that when calculating the area from t.:- e gr~v.,
the unit of time must be the same on both_ a,.es.
40
• A The rule for finding dis~ances :.ra ,elled 1s t· .e
even if the acceleration is not constant. In Figure
1 2.3c, the distance tra·,elled equals the shaded
30
~ area OXY.
~
:>o
.,~
Test yourself
10
5 The ,;peedc;; of a bus travellrng rJ"' a .-tra 11-t •,:; 1 ~
's g ver belot1 it suc.cess 'IC nter ,al5 o' • .,c":, d
""'"''"':/. T i- T -►
0
:z 4 5 .,,
3
Trme/s 2
t1me/s
Speed/mis rJ 4 8 l.
.t. Figure 1 2.5 Non-constant speed
a SJ.-etctr a speed tIrr e 'J' apt using the val... e!>
~ -- - - b Choose twlJ of the> folio II ng tr•rm., wr. c.r
I ;~::~:t any point equals the gradient of the des"1be 1he a<.celPr citror ,,, the tiu ...
tangent. For example, the gradient of the tangent ronstant changing positr ,e negat 'le
at T is AB/BC - 40 m/2 s 20 m/s. The speed at
the instant corresponding to T is therefore 20 m/s. , Calculate the accel~rat,on of •he bus
:____i /
d Calcul ate the ar ea unde r your g ra ph
e How far does the bu•, tra ve1 1r1 4 s 7
Area under a speed-time 6 The distance of'" wat:.-.er from the start of her wa I".
is g1vel"' below at successive rntervals cf , second
a S~.etcti a d•stanle time graph of the following
graph values
-. • :re.a under a speed-time graph measures the
distance travelled. T1me/s 0 1 2 3 I. 5 b
In Figure 1.2.2, AB is the speed-time graph for D1stance/m 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
an object moving with a constant speed of 20 m/s.
Since distance average speed x lime, after 5 s it b How would you d
walks? escrroe the speed at whrcn she
will have moved 20 m/s :✓ 5 s 100 m. I Iii-, is the
shaded area under the graph, i.P. rectangle> OABC. constant changing 1ncreas1ng
In Figure 1.2.3a, PO is the speed-l irne qraph c1cc eler,1trnq
c C,1lculc1te her ave
for an object moving with constant acceleration. rage speed.

I
 l qu 1f1nfl f JI r r I nl , r Jf
.. .... ..... ............ ..........................................................................................
)f

Equations for constant '!►.- Going further

acceleration Third equation
Problems involving bodies moving with const,rnt
I, nrp equ,111011 Ill,, 11 t 111
acceleration m d straight lml' c,rn often be solved
quickly 1..ismg some equations of motion. f r 0111 equc1t1on ft.I.
11 I I

First equation 2
II I II ➔ /I(
If an object 1c; moving with constant acceleration 211 t "'
am a straight line and its speed increases from 11 2
to , m time t, then I
- II i · {I/
2
,hOnJ!C' of ,peed /I
and so
11111<." wl-.cn I ,
I II/ f - at · (3)
ul I II 2
or Fourth equation
This 1s obtained by eliminating t from equations (1) and
II lll (])
(3] Squaring equation 11) we have
Note that the initial speed II and the final speed ,,
I ' == (11 + al)~
refer to the start and the finish of the timing and
do not necessarily mean the start and finish of v 2 == u~ + 211a1 + a~,~
the motion. • I ,
== u- + "2a(111 + -at·) .,
I , -
But \ - Ill+ -al
2
Second equation ,.2 == 11~ + 2as
The speed of an object moving with constant If we know any three of 11,,, 11,, and,. the others can
acceleration in a straight line increases steadily. be found from the equations.
Its average speed therefore equals half the sum
of its initial and final speeds, that is,
UT\ ? Worked example
-
a,craQe speed= - - .,
A sprint cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1 m/s'
Ifs- is the distance moved in time t, then since for 20 seconds Find her final speed and the distance she
average speed = total distance/total time = s/t, travelled
Since u = 0 LI = I Ill /~ I 20 s
Using , = 11 + at, we have her maximum speed
or , = 0 + I rn 1s~ • 20, = :w m ·~
and distance travelled
(11 + \)
- ., I (2)
,=--/
( I/ ➔ I )

(0 t 20)m \ X 20, 400

200m
2

Now put this into practice

An athlete a,cclerate lrom Pst at a constant rate of
0 8m/c/ for 4s C.ilculcltc the final speed of the athlete
2 A c.ycl1st rncre,,:,cs his speed from 10m/s to lOm/s n 5-;
C.-ikulate lw, ,1VN,1ge speed over this time •ntenal
3 Cnlc.11l,1t~• tlle d1stan1 e moved by a rnr accelerating from
rest c1t .i constant rate of 2 rn/<:. for 5 s
 ······························································· ································· . ······

ling bodies
In air, a ~ ~a s ras,t.r _uan a small piece of paper.
In a vacuum they fall at the same rate. as may
be shown with the apparatus of Figu e 1.2.b.
The difference in air is due to air resistance having
a greater effect on light bodies than on tieav>y
bodies. The air resistance to a light body is large
when compared with the body's weight. With a
oense piece of metal, the resistance is negligible
at low speeds.
There is a story. untrue we now think. that in the
sixteenth century the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
dropped a small iron ball and a large cannonball ten
times heavier from the top of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa (Figure 1.2.7). And we are told that, to the
surprise of onlookers who expected the cannonball
to arrive first, they reached the ground almost
simultaneously.

~ rubber
-r ~ ~ stopper

- - Perspex or
Pyrex tube

paper

l 51'1" r£-coin
I
--'-
pressure
tubing
to vacuu·n
pump
screw c1 p

• Figure 1 2.6 A :om ond" piece ol paper I all at the same

• Figure 1· 2 •7 Troe Leaning Tower of P sa whece Gal lee
rate 1n a n
said to have experimented\\ ith fallmo• ~bJ ec. ts
• ••I•• •• •••••••• I. I• I I• I• I 1
I. I.• I I I I I I I I I I•. I I I I I I I I • •II I I• 1 I • I• I• I I It• I I I. I I.• I I I I I I I• I ■ I I I I • I I I• I I I. I I I• I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I•

Practical work

Motion of a 1all1ng obiect 3 v. '1 .V' 1.11 I I I- ,. • ~ ,, •I

IT' J II •!. I I
r • ,([_ ,
• ''l ' I I

Safety 4 II WW 1,, Jy t. t 1t I I PY' • l

• 1 '1:.' m ·•t 1" ,oft ,'!l thl' fl '-1 !{) 1b"otl' tlw )[ llq lllU IT,J • , f
r •i-,- ., .. r. i•
r l ._· ,,, l,ll IUJ::- ·p ' c.i.[f I
• , 1k l 111.. •.- k\;.cp ft'Cl well clWd'y fhm, lhE' }.Var
td;.,.ng mas,t?:
Arr.mo~ ,~·u1 e::q..1e11111E'n1,1l irp,11c1tu:: 1s ;hewr,
. m l-'.-JU11? ~ m.i ll vestl':.ldlP U1,' 111\Jt!,)l} e,,f cl
h..L ~ n1ns. tc1llmg f1um d ht'1qht of ,1bout ~m t1&er

A uckemapetlffier h.1s d ma1ke1 that v1brc.1te.; dt

~0 tlmes J second and ma.kes dots c1t :,50s
m:er;.-als 011 J pdpet t.=ipe bemg pulled through lt
Igno1i? the start of the tape where the dots are too
dose
Repeat the c>xperiment with a 200g mass and tickertape - - - + ' - - - - - retort
compare yow- results v,1th those for the 100 g stand
mass
1 The spacmg between the dots on the hckertape
~creases as the mass falls. What does this tell
you about the speed of the fallmg mass?
2 The tape has 34 dots on 1t by the time the mass
falls ihrough 2 m Estimate how long it has 100 g - -~----'111
taken ;he mass to fall through 2 m mass ! to fl oor
A Figu re 1.2.8

Acceleration of free fall Key definition

All bodies falling freely under the force of gravity Acceleration of free fall g for an ob1ect nea r to tl-ie
do so with uniform acceleration if air resistance is surface of the Earth, th is 1s approximately constant and ;;
negligible (i.e. the 'steps' on the t ape chart from the approximately 9.8 m/ s'
practical work should all be equally spaced).
This acceleration, called the acceleration of In calculations using the equations of motion, g
free fall , is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value replaces a. It is given a positive sign for fa lli ng
varies sli ghtly over the Earth but is constant in bodies (i.e. a = g = +9.8 m/ s2) and a negative sign
each place; on average it is about 9.8 m/s2, or near for rising bodies since they are decelerating
enough 10 m/s2 • The velocity of a free-fa lling body (i.e. a = -g = - 9.8 m/s 2).
therefore increases by about 10 m/s every second.
A ball shot straight upwards with a velocity of
30 m/s decelerates by about 10 m/s every second and
reaches its highest point after 3 s.
 -'~i! iiliiiiiiiiiiii~~==------------.........-1
.N......................................................................................•..•......•....•..•......•.....
. ~~­
~ ...
" ~
:..i....--

A rough estimate for g can be made by timing the fau o•

rr angement In Figure 1 2 9, the time for a
aring to fall a known distance Is measured
on1c timer
o-way switch Is changed to the 'down·
electromagnet releases the ball and
sly the clock c;tarts At the end of its fall the
e "trap-door on the impact switch and the
found from the third equation of motion
here , is the distance fallen lin ml r Is the
s), 11 0 lthe ball starts from rest) and
or
g= 2s't2
Air r esistance 1s negligible for a dense obJect such as a
steel ball- bearing falling a short distance
e lectromagnet
top of a bu1ld1ng It w,ll only take
a rubber b a ll f rom the f5
round from a height o m, sc
a secon d to reac h the g
ou will need fast reactions if you use a stopwatch for
ihe measurement. Watch out that you do not hit anybody
below I
Distance-time graphs for a falling object
For an ob1ect falling freely from rest in a uniform
gravitatio nal field without air resistance, there will be
constant acceleration y, so we have
I
~ ~,-,
A graph of distance , against time t Is shown In Figure
121Qa The gradually increasing slope 1nd1cates the
speed of the obiect increases stec1d1ly A graph of,
agaI'lSt r' ,s shown in Figure 1 2 10b, It Is a st, a1ght line
through the or g-n since, x r' (g being constant at one
place)
80

I ~
V
C
~
60

40
/
ball- - 1 . L 7
bearing
!!?
-0
20
/
/
r -,-- r- ►
0 2 3 4
time/s
electronic timer • Figure 1.2.10a A graph of distance against time for a
body falling freely from rest

two-way
switch 80 j
! 60 J
/
=l//
u
C
magnet 12 V a.c. ;
I __ ad1ustable
-0

~I terminal
I 0
I
►
hinge trap-door of 4 8 12 16
impact switch
(t1me) 2/s2

• Figu re 1.2.10b Agra h O f .

body falling Ire 1 p diS t ance against (t1mel' for a
e Y 1rom rest

A Figure 1.2.9
 ' ,'
.......................... .........................................................................................
~
/;,
...............
Test yourself
7 ;\n ,'hli'l 11,,11,, f, om ,1 hovr.r 111q twirl ople1 ,rnd hrts
th~ qr, ,n,,i ,11 ,l <.Jlh'd ol ,lll ml-:, Ilow lonq dof'S 1l
t..ii..,, lht' (1h1~'l t !1~ 1<',h h lhP qr ound .:incl how 1;11
d1,c", 11 ll' ~l..ctd, ,, speNI lrnw qr nph tor the
ob1c, I I lJn,,,, Jrr r c-c,1•;t,rn,el
8 ,\ :.Ion,, IJlh t, ,,•n I l'"t 1, ,11n thr top of a high
i.,,,c-1 lq 11-)rC! ,rn n'~1~t;inu' Jnd t,1kc ,1.; - 9.8m/sl
CJI, ul.it,,
a th,, •-pc0d ,,1 the ~tonr alter 2 seconds
b ''-'\\ ta~ 1hc .,,tonr ha!> fallen after 2 seconds
9 ..\t J , ,,r tarn 111stant J bait ha5 J horizontal velocity
ot 1~ m :, .ind J \'ertrcal vetoc 1ty of 5 m/s
C.JI, ut,,tl' the resultant velocity of the ball at that
11,~t,rnt

Proiectiles
T~e photograph 111 Figure 1 2.11 was taken while a
lamp emitted regular flashes of light. One ball was
dropped from rest and the other, a projectile, was thrown
s1dewa1s at the same time Their vertical accelerations
ldue to gravity] are equal, showing that a projectile falls
like a body which 1s dropped from rest Its horizontal
,eloc,ty does not affect its vertical motion.
The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are
111dependent and can be treated separately.
For example, 1! a ball is thrown honzon,ally ;rorn tne
top of a cliff and takes 3 s to reach the beacn celow, we
can calculate the height of the cliff by consideri;-ig me
vertical motion only. We have 11 = 0 (s1"ce the ball nas no
vertical velocity 1111t1allyl. a= g = - 9.8 m :;: and 1 = 3 ~-
The height .1 of the cliff is given by
I ,
s = 111 + -ar-
l
I
= 0 x 3s - -(-'-9. 8 m ~-)3-s-
, , '
2
= -l-lm
Projectiles such as cricket balls and exolosr)e shells
a re projected from near ground leve, and at an angle
The horizontal distance they travel, 1.e their range,
depends on
• the speed of projection - the greater this is. tne
greater the range, and
• the angle of projection - it can be showri tnat,
neglect111g arr resistance, the range s a maximum
when the angle rs 45 !Figure' 2.121

• Figure 1.2.12 The range 1s greatest for an angle of

proJectron of 45

4. Figure 1.2.11 Cornpurrny lree fall and projectile matron

ll II g rnulttlltsh pholog, aphy

I_
 .. ······················ ·················· ············· ······ ···· ····················· ····················
Objects falling in liquids oehave similarly to
nee: terminal ~hose falling in air.

ls in a uniform gravitational
ance (fluid friction) opposing
as us speec rises, so reducing
ntually, air resistance acting
v.eight of the object acting
lt,mt force on the object is
gravitatio"a~ force balances
The ob}eG ~a lls at a constant
nninal velocity, wnose value
shape arid .\eight of the

, such as a steel ball-

rminal velocity ana falls a
with a constant acceleration
resistance equals its v.eight.
raindrop, or an object .•:ith
such as a parachute, has a • Figure 1.2.13 Syr::".ornsec sl-..yc ve~;;
and only accelerates 01,er a
• ance before air resistance In the absence of air resistance, an object falls
skydiver (F;gure 1.2.:3 lias a in a uri~orm gravitational field wi th a constant
more than 50 m/s (180 km/h) acceleration as shown in the distance-time graah
of Figure 1.2.lOa. ·
is opened.

·:hecklist
✓ oe:ine and calculate accelera:,cn and use
:ne fact :ha: deceler at ron ,s a :iega:tVe
accelerat r;:,r in calcJlailo"'ls
✓ that a negat ve a,::eleratron s a decelera:,on
or retarca· O"
✓ state that the acG
object near te the
g,ven value of 9 8
✓ desc ri be the motion oi obJec:s :allrng n a
1a111RJ111,a1U1 am11mce-t me Lnrform gravitational 11eld