Basic electronic

Laboratory
EC2700

Student name : karubothu venugopal

Roll no. : 119CH0485
Experiment no. Experiment title Date of experiment Date of submission Remarks

1 Introduction and 14-08-2020 04-10-2020

familiarization of
electronic
components
2 study of electronic 21-08-2020 04-10-2020
equipment ,
measurement of AC
and DC voltages and
currents and
resistances by digital
multimeter , study of
Digital storage
oscilloscope and
Function generator.
3 study of static V-I 28-08-2020 04-10-2020
characteristics of
semiconductor
diode and zener
diode.
4 Study of half wave 04-09-2020 04-10-2020
and full wave
rectifier

5 Input and output 11-09-2020 04-10-2020

characteristics of
BJT

6 Design a RC 18-09-2020 04-10-2020

coupled CE
amplifier

7 Design a low pass 25-09-2020 04-10-2020

and high pass
filter
Experiment no. Experiment title Date of Date of Remarks
experiment submission

8 Design of 09-10-2020 19-10-2020

inverting and
non-inverting
amplifier using
OPAMP

9 Study of diode as 16-10-2020 19-10-2020

clipper and
clamper
10 Verification of 23-10-2020 01-11-2020
basic logic gates

11 Design of active 06-11-2020 13-11-2020

low pass and
high pass filter
using op amp
Experiment no. - 01
Aim : Introduction and familiarization of electronic components .
Components used :
Sl.no. Component Specifications Quantity
1 Resistor 100*10^3 +5% kohm 1
47*10^3 +5% kohm 1
39*10^3 +5% kohm 1
15*10^3 +5% kohm 1
10*10^-1 +5% kohm 1
2 Variable resistor Potentiometer 1
3 Capacitor Ceramic- 0.01microfarad 1
Electrolytic 1
4 Diode Normal(germanium&silicon) 1
Zener diode 1
LED 1
5 Transistor BJT 1
JFET – BFW10 1

Theory and observation :

Resistor : A resistor is a component of an electrical circuit that resists the flow of electrical current.
A resistor has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and is designed to drop the voltage of the current
as it flows from one terminal to the next. A resistor is primarily used to create and maintain a known safe current
within an electrical component. It is bidirectional that is current can flow from both the directions.
 Resistor. Symbol

Resistor Calculation First band Second Third Fourth Calculated

band band band value(in
ohm)
Sample 1 Colour Brown Black Yellow Gold 100*10^3
Position value 1 0 4 +-5% +-5%
Sample 2 Colour Yellow Violet Orange Gold 47*10^3
Position value 4 7 3 +-5% +-5%
Sample 3 Colour Orange White Red Gold 39*10^2
Position value 3 9 2 +-5% +-5%
Sample 4 Colour Brown Green Orange Gold 15*10^3
Position value 1 5 3 +-5% +-5%
 Sample 5 Colour Brown Black Gold Gold 10*10^-1
Position value 1 0 -1 +-5% +-5%

Variable resistor:
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as
you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available.

Variable resistors may be used as a potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions
called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment.
Potentiometer:
an instrument for measuring an electromotive force by balancing it against the potential difference produced by passing a
known current through a known variable resistance.

Potentiometer

Capacitor:
A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest
form, a capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Capacitance
is directly proportional to the surface areas of the plates, and is inversely proportional to the plates' separation.
Capacitance also depends on the dielectric constant of the dielectric material separating the plates.

There are two types of capacitors.

1. Ceramic capacitor:
A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or
more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the
The capacitance of the capacitor can be
calculated using the number code on the
capacitor. The capacitance will be equal to ‘
the product of the first two digits of the
code and ten raised to the power of the
third digit ‘ and the answer will be in pico-
farad.
 electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behaviour and therefore applications.

Ceramic capacitor. Symbol

(103 = 0.01microfarad)

2. Electrolytic capacitor:
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating
oxide layer through anodization. This oxide layer acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. Longer leg is positive and other is
negative.

Electrolytic capacitor. Symbol

Diode :
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction; it has low resistance in one
direction, and high resistance in the other. So, it is uni-directional. The side containing silver coat is negative and the other side
is positive.

Diode. Symbol
We have different types of diodes .
 Zener diode. Symbol

Light emitting diode

Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. There are so many transistor
like NPN and PNP.

Transistor. Symbol

There are also transistors like BJTs and JFET (BFW10)

Bread board:
A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally the word referred to a literal bread board, a
polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. In the 1970s the solderless breadboard became available and nowadays the term
"breadboard" is commonly used to refer to these.
 Experiment- 02
Aim : study of electronic equipment , measurement of AC and DC voltages and currents and resistances by
digital multimeter , study of Digital storage oscilloscope and Function generator.

Apparatus and components used : Power supply (dc ), Multimeter , Function generator and Digital
storage oscilloscope , universal workstation .

Theory : Functioning of above mentioned components in detail .

Multimeter : A multimeter or a multitester, also known as VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can
measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multi-meters use a micro-ammeter with a moving pointer to
display readings.

Function generator : A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to
generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth
shapes.
Digital storage oscilloscope : A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which
stores and analyses the signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most common type
of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement features which it
typically provides. The digital storage oscilloscope is defined as the oscilloscope which stores and analysis the
signal digitally, i.e. in the form of 1 or 0 preferably storing them as analogue signals. The digital oscilloscope
takes an input signal, store them and then display it on the screen. The digital oscilloscope has advanced
features of storage, triggering and measurement. Also, it displays the signal visually as well as numerically.
Universal workstation : It has a mother board in it where connections are made between electronic
components such that they make circuit with voltage supply from power supply and we can measure the
voltage and current all the circuit variables with measuring devices and also contains many logic gates for the
circuit purpose.

Observation and calculation :

Given, 1ms per division ,

Also given , one cycle is completed in one division

Then , frequency = 1khz

Given, one volt per division,

And also given, amplitude raised up to 2 divisions,
Then, Vpp = 1*4 = 4v

Given, 0.5v per division,

Also given, amplitude raised up to 2 divisions,
Then, Vpp = 2v

Given, 1ms per division,

Also given, one cycle is completed in 2 division,

Then, frequency = 500hz

Given, 0.5ms per division,
Also given, one cycle is completed in 2 divisions,
Then, frequency = 1khz

Given, 0.5ms per division,

Also given, one cycle is completed in one division,
Then, frequency = 2khz
Given, 0.5v per division,
Also given, amplitude raised upto 1.5 divisions,
Then, Vpp = 1.5v

Given, 2v per division,

Also given, amplitude raised up to 2.5 divisions
Then, Vpp = 10v

Experiment-03
Aim : study of static V-I characteristics of semiconductor diode and zener diode.
Equipment required : voltmeter, ammeter, power supply, bread board.
Components required : silicon diode, zener diode, 1kohm resistor, 470ohm resistor.
Theory :
Diode : it is a two terminal electronic component that conducts current in only one direction the term
semiconductor diode refer to semiconductor crystal connected between two terminals.

I=Is(e^(Vd/nVt)-1)
Vt=KT/q
Where Is is reverse bias saturated current
Vd=voltage across diode
Vt=terminal voltage

N=ideality factor
Zener diode:
It is a type of diode that permits current not only in forward direction like normal diode but also but also in
reverse direction when voltage is greater than break down voltage when it is in reverse bias increases the
current increases rapidly opposite to the applied positive region voltage.

Procedure :
Silicon diode :
1.The circuit is connected in the fig below
2. the voltage supplieds is increased first in .1 and increased by 1v upto 5v

3. the values are taken by Id and Vd and collected in a table and graph is drawn using those values

Sl.no. Supply voltage Voltage Current

1. 0.1 115mv 0
2. 0.2 0.2 0
3. 0.3 0.4
4. 0.4 0.4
5. 0.5 0.453 0.065
6. 0.6 0.496 0.168
7. 0.7 0.504 0.195
8. 0.8 0.524 0.299
9. 0.9 0.539 0.397
10. 1 0.547 0.473
11. 2 0.604 1.463
12. 3 0.628 2.937
13. 4 0.645 3.415
 14. 5 0.658 4.432

Y-Values
0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03 Y-Values

0.02

0.01

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-0.01

On x-axis : Id values in mA.

On y-axis : Vd values in volts.

Zener diode : (forward bias)
1.The circuit is connected as shown in the figure

2.The supply voltage is increased in .1 voltages and then by 1 voltages and the resistance
connected across the diode is 470Ω
3. The voltage and current across the zener diode is taken down by ammeter and voltmeter.

Sl.no. Supply voltage Vd Id

1. 0.1 169mV 0
2. 0.2 0.238 0
3. 0.3 0.32 0
4. 0.4 0.428 0.001
5. 0.5 0.508 0.007
6. 0.6 0.590 0.039
7. 0.7 0.64 0.130
8. 0.8 0.673 0.258
9. 0.9 0.708 0.485
10. 1 0.742 0.681
 11. 1.5 0.755 1.669
12. 2 0.775 2.586
13. 3 0.774 4.649
14. 4 0.785 6.759
15. 5 0.794 8.827

Y-Values
0.008

0.007

0.006

0.005

0.004
Y-Values
0.003

0.002

0.001

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-0.001

On x-axis : Vd in volts.
On y-axis : Id in mA.

Zener diode : (reverse bias)

The circuit is connected as shown in the figure
1.the supply voltage is increased by 0.1 and 1 voltages
2.A resistor of 1kΩ is connected
3. the voltages and currents are taken down with the help of voltmeter and ammeter connected in parallel
and in series with the zener diode

Supply voltage Vd Id
1. 1.02 0
2. 2.01 0
3. 3.01 0.03
4. 3.744 0.250
5. 4.172 0.912
6. 4.335 1.691
7. 4.437 2.643
8. 4.497 3.555
9. 4.534 4.508
 Y-Values
10

2
Y-Values
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-2

-4

-6

-8

On x-axis : Vd in volts.
On y-axis : Id in mA.

Conclusion : By performing the experiment we learnt about the VI characteristics of semiconductor

diodes and the cutting voltage of silicon diode is known as 0.698volts and the breakdown voltage of taken
zener diode is approximately 4.63volts.

Experiment no. 4

Aim : study of half wave and full wave rectifier.

Components required :
Sl.no. Name of component Specification Quantity
1 Diode 1N4002 4
2 Resistor 1 kohm 1
3 Capacitor 100 microfarad 1

Equipment required : bread board, voltmeter, DSO.

Theory : A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is
blocked. A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output.
 While half-wave and full-wave rectifiers deliver a form of DC output. In order to produce steady DC from a
rectified AC supply, a filter circuit is required. In its simplest form this is achieved by shunting the resistor with
a capacitor.There will still remain an amount of AC ripple voltage where the ripple voltage is defined as the
deviation of the load voltage from its average or dc value.

Procedure :
1. The circuit should be constructed on bread board as shown in the figures.
2. 5 V rms sinusoidal supply with 50hz frequency should be taken from CDS.
3. DSO probes should be connected at input and input wave form should be recorded.
4. DSO probes should be connected across resistor and output wave form should be recorded.
5. Capacitor should be connected across the resistor and filtered output voltage should be measured.
6. Ripple voltage should be recorded as well.

Circuit diagram of half wave rectifier. Circuit of full wave rectifierrectifier

Expected input wave form

Expected output wave form of half wave rectifier without filter

Expected output wave form of full wave rectifier without filter

Observation table :
Type of rectifier Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier
Input AC voltage Vrms = 5.4v, Vpp = Vrms = 5.4v, Vpp = 15.4v,
(Vrms,Vpp,Vmax) 15.4v,Vmax = 7.8v Vmax = 7.8v
Rectifier output Vmax = 7v, Vmean = Vmax = 6v, Vmean=
(Vrms,Vmax,Vpp,Vmean) 2.15v, Vrms= 3.41v 3.45v, Vrms= 4.05v
Form factor 1.586 1.174
Vrms/Vdc
Ripple factor 1.231 0.615
√(Vrms/Vdc)^(2) -1
Measure output dc 6v 5.65v
voltage dc voltage with
filter multimeter in ac
mode
Ripple output voltage 0.335v 0.142v
with filter multimeter in
ac mode
Theoretically calculate Vdc =7-(2*√3*0.335)/2 Vdc= 6-(2*√3*0.142)/2
the dc value expected. = 6.45 = 5.754
Vdc = Vm - ∆/2
 Experiment no. : 05

Aim : input and output characteristics of BJT

Components required :
Sl.no. Components Specifications Quantity
1 Resistor 1k 1
470k 1
2 Transistor BC547 1
3 Wires Single strand As required

Equipment required : power supply, voltmeter, ammeter, bread board.

Theory : The three terminals of a BJT are Emitter (E), Collector(C) and Base (B). The Common Emitter (CE)
configuration is most frequently encountered configuration. In this the emitter is common or reference to
both the input and output terminals (in this case common to both the base and collector terminals). Two sets
of characteristics are necessary to describe fully the behaviour of the CE configuration: input
and output characteristics.

Procedure :
Input characteristics :
1. Circuit should be constructed as shown in figure.

Input characteristics circuit diagram.

2. Set Vce at 1V.
3. Increase the input voltage VBE in steps of 0.5V and note the corresponding I B.
 4. Repeat for VCE = 2V

Observation table no.1.

VCE=1V Vce = 2V

V1 Vbe Ib Vbe
Ib

0 0 0 0 0

.5V 0 0.49 0 0.49

1V 0.261 0.74 0.299 0.74

1.5V 0.785 0.78 0.733 0.755

2V 1.202 0.79 1.3 O.756

2.5V 1.703 0.80 1.729 0.76

3V 2.197 0.81 2.238 0.76

3.5 2.677 0.82 2.786 0.77

4V 3.195 0.828 3.22 0.77

4.5V 3.728 0.835 3.781 0.78

5V 4.194 0.84 4.246 0.78

Output characteristics :
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram.

2. For R1=1MΩ IB is set at 4.3uA.

3. Vary V2 in steps of 1V and note the corresponding IC and VCE

4. Repeat for R1 = 470k and Ib = 10uA

Output characteristics circuit diagram

Observation table no. 2

R1 = 1Mohm R1 = 470kohm

V2 Vce Ic Vce Ic

0 0 0 12mV 0

1 141mV 0.891 23mV 0.979

2 0.419V 1.601 44mV 1.913

3 1.484 1.619 60mV 2.848

4 2.39 1.631 0.51 3.477

5 3.432 1.645 0.51 3.519

6 4.4 1.657 0.63 3.558

7 5.419 1.667 0.82 3.598

8 6.416 1.677 1.03 3.629

9 7.362 1.687 1.24 3.668

10 8.341 1.699 1.49 3.698

Input characteristic graph :

Output characteristic graph :
 Experiment no. : 06
Aim : To design a RC coupled CE amplifier

Components required :
Sl.no. Components Specification Quantity

1 Transistor BC548 1

2 Resistor 68kohm 1

18kohm 1

1.2kohm 1

1kohm 1

3 Capacitor 1nF 2

33nF 1

Equipment required : function generator, DSO, voltmeter, Ammeter, Bread board

Theory:-
An amplifier is a device that is used to amplify input voltage or current. The RC coupled CE transistor amplifier is
a popular scheme of cascading two or more amplifiers to achieve the required levels of amplification. The inter-
stage coupling is done by using a RC network, hence the name.The variation of gain with frequency of an
amplifier is called the frequency response characteristics of the amplifier.

The bandwidth of the RC amplifier is the difference between upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off
frequency. It represents the range of frequencies that the amplifier is most effective in amplifying. The cut-off
frequency points are determined from the frequency response graph, where the gain (dB) is 3 dB lower than
the maximum gain.

For a transistor to act as an amplifier, it must be properly biased. i.e. its emitter base junction must be forward
biased & collector base junction must be reverse biased. The transistor is operating in the active region, is
verified by measuring the dc bias conditions.
Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:- Connect the components as shown in the diagram

1. Apply a 50mv peak-to-peak signal from the function generator to the input of the amplifier and
measure output voltage in the CRO. Note down the Vpk-pk readings for different frequencies
keeping the input signal constant.
2. Calculate the voltage gain in dB for each frequency and plot the frequency response curve in a
semi-log graph paper. From it find the bandwidth.
3. Signal Handling Capacity:- In the mid frequency, select any frequency, go on increasing the input,
observing the output in the oscilloscope. At some value of input, the output waveform starts
showing distortion. That input value in volts or mv is called the signal handling capacity.

Observation table :
Input frequency Output Gain = Vout÷Vin Gain in dB

50 mv 50 hz 504 mv 10.08 20.06

100 hz 848 mv 16.96 24.48

500 hz 2.16 v 43.2 32.70

1 khz 2.64 v 52.80 34.45

5 khz 2.82 v 56.40 35.02

10 khz 3v 60.00 35.56

20 khz 3.2v 64.00 36.12

50 khz 3.2 v 64.00 36.12

100 khz 3.2 v 64.00 36.12

200 khz 3.2 v 64.00 36.12

500 khz 2.96 v 59.2 35.44

700 khz 2.56 v 51.20 34.18

1 Mhz 2.32 v 46.40 33.33

2 Mhz 1.44 v 28.80 29.18

5 Mhz 720 mv 14.4 23.16

7 Mhz 560 mv 11.20 20.98

8 Mhz 540 mv 10.80 20.66

9 Mhz 480 mv 9.60 19.64

Experiment no. : 07
Aim : To design a low pass and high pass filter.

Components required : 10kohm resistor, 0.01micro farad capacitor.

Equipment required : function generator, bread board, CRO

Theory : A filter is a circuit that passes a specific range of frequencies while rejecting other
frequencies. A passive filter consists of passive circuit elements, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors. The
most common way to describe the frequency response of a filter is to plot the filter voltage
gain (Vout/Vin) in dB as a function of frequency (f). The frequency at which the output power gain drops to 50% of
the maximum value is called the cut-off frequency (fc). When the filter dB voltage gain is plotted as a function
of frequency on a semi log graph using straight lines to approximate the actual frequency response, it is called
a Bode plot. A Bode plot is an ideal plot of filter frequency response because it assumes that the voltage gain
remains constant until the cut-off frequency is reached.

Low pass filter : A low-pass filter (LPF) is designed to pass all frequencies below the cut-off frequency and reject
all frequencies above the cut-off frequency. It is simply an RC series circuit across the input, with the output
taken across the capacitor. At the cut-off frequency, the capacitive reactance of capacitor C is equal to the
resistance of resistor R, causing the output voltage to be 0.707 times the input voltage (-3 dB).

High pass filter : A high-pass filter (HPF) is designed to pass all frequencies above the cut-off frequency and
reject all frequencies below the cut-off frequency.It is simply an RC series circuit across the input, with the
output taken across the resistor.

Circuit diagram :
 Procedure :
1. Set up the circuit as shown taking the output across the capacitor (For HPF set the circuit as shown and take the
output across resistor). The input for the filter is taken from output of function generator. The input to filter is
also connected to channel 1 and the output is connected to channel 2 of the CRO
2. Vary the frequency of the input signal over a wide frequency range (but keep the input amplitude fixed). Note
the Values of Vout for each frequency and calculate the corresponding Gain.

Observation table :
Low pass filter :

Vin = 10Vpp
Frequency (fin) (in hz) Vout Gain in db

50 10.1 0.086

100 10.1 0.086

500 9.46 -0.482

1k 7.6 -2.384

2k 5.4 -5.352

3k 4 -7.959

4k 3.12 -10.117

5k 2.56 -11.835

6K 2.16 -13.311

7k 1.92 -14.334

8k 1.76 -15.09

9k 1.60 -15.918

10k 1.44 -16.833

High pass filter :
Vin = 10Vpp
Frequency (fin)(in hz) Vout Gain in db

50 480mV -26.375

100 950mV -20.446

500 3.84 -8.313

1k 6.24 -4.096

2k 8.16 -1.766

3k 9.28 -0.649

4k 9.2 -0.724

5k 9.76 -0.211

6k 9.92 -0.069

7k 9.92 -0.069

8k 10 0

9k 10 0

10k 10 0
Experiment no. : 08
Aim : Design of inverting and non-inverting amplifier using OPAMP
Components required :
Name of the component Specification Quantity
OPAMP IC741 1
Resistor 1kohm 1
3.9kohm 1

Equipment required : Multimeter, CRO, Bread Board, Function generator for input source, Power Supply
±15.

Theory : An OPerational AMPlifier or OPAMP is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input
impedance and low output impedance. The basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having two inputs
and one output. The plus (+) input produces an output that is in phase with the signal applied, whereas an input
to the minus (-) input results in an opposite polarity output.

Most existing OPAMPs are produced on a single semi-conductor substrate as an Integrated Circuit (IC741).

Procedure :
1.The OPAMP was set up as per the circuit diagram (inverting or non-inverting as the case may be).
2.Power supply was provided and the gain of the amplifier was measured by noting down the output voltage
with a multimeter.
3.The gain was determined with the value of feedback resistor(Rf) keeping the input resistance constant (Rin).
Circuit diagrams :
Observation and results :
Type of Input AC Output Calculate Measure Measure
amplifier voltage voltage theoretical practical phase
gain gain difference
(Degree)
Inverting 1v 4v -3.9 -3.96 180
Non-inverting 1v 5.52v 4.9 4.84 0

Conclusion : from this experiment we came to know how to design an inverting and non- inverting using
OPAMP.
Experiment no. : 09
Aim : study of diode as clipper and clamper.
Components required :
Component name Specification Quantity
Resistor 1kohm 1
680kohm 1
Capacitor 1microfarad 1
Diode 1N4007 2

Equipment required : power supply, function generator, DSO, multimeter, universal workstation.
Theory :
Study of diode as a clipper :
For a clipping circuit at least two components—an ideal diode and resistor are required and sometimes a dc
battery is also employed for fixing the clipping level. The diode acts as a closed switch when forward biased
and an open switch when reverse biased. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative
region of the input signal is “clipped” off and accordingly the diode clippers may be positive or negative
clippers. Half wave rectifier circuits can also be called the basic clippers.

Biased clipper : The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a bias voltage v2, in
series with the diode. Biased clippers are employed for this purpose. The circuit diagram for a biased positive
clipper (that is for removing a small portion of positive half cycle) is illustrated in figure. When the input signal
voltage is positive but does not exceed DC voltage V2, the diode D remains reverse biased and most of the
input voltage appears across the output. When during the positive half cycle of input signal, the signal voltage
exceeds the DC voltage V2, the diode D is forward biased ,i.e. conducts heavily.

Study of diode as a clamper :

Clamper is a circuit that "clamps" a signal to a different dc level. The different types of clampers are
positive and negative clampers.A clamping network must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant RC is large enough to ensure that the
voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is non- conducting.
Positive Clamper The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle of the
input signal, the diode conducts and acts like a short circuit. The output voltage V0 =0V.The capacitor is
charged to the peak value of input voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During the positive half of the
input signal, the diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit. Hence the output voltage V0 =Vm + Vm. This
gives a positively clamped voltage.

Procedure :
1) Components should be connected according to the circuit diagram given. Take VIN=5V rms , VBIAS=2.5v

2) CRO should be connected across the load R and input source.

3) Simultaneously measure both the input and output waveform in CRO ch-1 and ch-2 respectively.

Circuit diagram :

Vmax = 3.4 and Vmin = -7.4 for the above circuit.

Vmax = 7.4 and Vmin = -3.4 for the above circuit.

Vmin = -6.8. and Vmax = 4.8 for above circuit.

Vin = 10v peak to peak .

Conclusion : from this experiment we came to know how a diode works as clipper and clamper of different
types.
Experiment no. : 10
Aim : verification of basic logic gates.
Components required : 2mm banana connectors, logic gates ICs, wires.
Equipment required : 5v power supply, universal workstation, bread board.
Theory : Logic gates are electronic circuits which perform logical functions on one or more inputs to produce
one output. When all the input combinations of a logic gate are written in a series and their corresponding
outputs written along them, then this input/ output combination is called Truth Table.

Procedure :
1. The VCC +5v should be connected to the IC pin 14 w.r.t Ground pin 7.
2. The inputs of logic gate should be connected to the logic switches and its output to the logic
indicator (LED).
3. Various input combinations should be applied and output should be observed for each one.
4. The truth table should be verified for each input/ output combination.
5. The process should be repeated for all other logic gates.

Observations :
For 7408 IC :
A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

For 743T IC :
A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

For 7404 IC :
Input Output
0 1
1 0
For 7400 IC :
A B Output
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

For 7402 IC :
A B Output
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

For 7486 IC :
A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

For half adder circuit :

A B
0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
Sum Carry
0 0
1 0
1 0
0 1

For full adder circuit :

Conclusion : from this experiment we can verify the logic gates.
Experiment no. : 11
Aim : Design of active low-pass and high-pass filter using opamp

Components required :

Name of the component Specification Quantity

Resistor 1kohm 2
Capacitor 79.2nF 1
Op amp 1

Equipment required : function generator, DSO, power supply.

Theory : A filter is a circuit that passes a specific range of frequencies while rejecting other
frequencies. A passive filter consists of passive circuit elements, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors. The
most common way to describe the frequency response of a filter is to plot the filter voltage
gain (Vout/Vin) in dB as a function of frequency (f). The frequency at which the output power gain drops to 50% of
the maximum value is called the cut-off frequency (fc). When the filter dB voltage gain is plotted as a function
of frequency on a semi log graph using straight lines to approximate the actual frequency response, it is called
a Bode plot. A Bode plot is an ideal plot of filter frequency response because it assumes that the voltage gain
remains constant until the cut-off frequency is reached.

Low pass filter : A low-pass filter (LPF) is designed to pass all frequencies below the cut-off frequency and reject
all frequencies above the cut-off frequency. It is simply an RC series circuit across the input, with the output
taken across the capacitor. At the cut-off frequency, the capacitive reactance of capacitor C is equal to the
resistance of resistor R, causing the output voltage to be 0.707 times the input voltage (-3 dB).

High pass filter : A high-pass filter (HPF) is designed to pass all frequencies above the cut-off frequency and
reject all frequencies below the cut-off frequency.It is simply an RC series circuit across the input, with the
output taken across the resistor.

Circuit diagram :
 Active low pass circuit diagram

Active high pass filter circuit diagram

Procedure :
1. Set up the circuit as shown taking the output across the capacitor (For HPF set the circuit as shown and take the
output across resistor). The input for the filter is taken from output of function generator. The input to filter is
also connected to channel 1 and the output is connected to channel 2 of the CRO
2. Vary the frequency of the input signal over a wide frequency range (but keep the input amplitude fixed). Note
the Values of Vout for each frequency and calculate the corresponding Gain.

Observation :

Low pass filter :

Frequency Vout(in v) Gain in db

 2khz 0.707 -3.0116

3khz 0.554 -5.1298

5khz 0.371 -8.6125

10khz 0.196 -14.1549

20khz 0.099 -20.0873

30khz 0.067 -23.4785

50khz 0.040 -27.9588

100khz 0.020 -33.9794

200khz 0.010 -40

High pass filter :

Frequency Vout(in v) Gain in db

2khz 0.705 -3.0362

3khz 0.830 -1.6184

5khz 0.926 -0.6678

10khz 0.979 -0.1843

20khz 0.995 -0.0435

30khz 0.998 -0.0174

50khz 0.998 -0.0174

100khz 0.998 -0.0174

 200khz 0.998 -0.0174

High pass filter :

Low pass filter :