Science

Grade 7

Unit 1: Diversity of
Materials

Janicah A. Canete
 Contents
Module 1: solutions
Module 2: Substances and mixtures
Module 3: elements and compound
Module 4: acids and bases
Module 5: metals and nonmetals
MODULE 1: SOLUTIONS
Overview

Heterogeneous mixture refers when the different parts of the mixture can be identified. Example is
an ice cube. Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions. When you put sugar into the water, the solid becomes
part of the liquid and cannot be seen. You can say that the sugar dissolves in water or the sugar is soluble in
water. Solutions may be solids dissolved in liquids or gases dissolved in liquids. There are also solutions where
gas is dissolved in another gas, a liquid in another liquid or a solid in another solid.
Key Question for this Module:
What common properties do solutions have?
Are solutions always liquid?
Will all solids dissolve in water?
How fast do solids dissolve in water?

SOLUTE AND SOLVENT

 The solutions that we commonly observed in our homes consist of two components called the solvent
and the solute. Generally, the component present in small amount is called the solute. The solute and the
solvent dissolve in each other. Usually the solvent is the component present in greater amount. So in a sugar
solution, sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
Solution is not always a liquid, it can be solid, liquid or gas. In addition, solutions may either be found in
nature or are manufactured.
NATURALLY OCCURING SOLUTIONS
Examples of solutions that occur naturally are natural bodies of water like the seas and ocean, blood
plasms, air and some mineral ores.
Many materials in nature can be used efficiently only when they are in the form of solutions. For
example, plants cannot absorb minerals from the soil unless these minerals are in solution. Component of the
food you eat go into solution during digestion. The nutrient particles in solution can pass through the digestive
tract and dissolve in the blood.
Seawater is a solution having a higher percentage of salt and minerals than other sources of water like
ground water or rivers. Rainwater is a solution containing dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
water you drink contains dissolved minerals like sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium and dissolved
gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air consists of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, about 1%
water vapor, 0.04% carbon dioxide and traces of argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon. Water vapor is
present in different amounts depending on the location. Air above big bodies of water contains more water
vapor than air above deserts. Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in air.
Useful solutions are found not only in nature, many solutions are made for a specific purpose.
MANUFACTURED/ PROCESSED SOLUTIONS
Almost every household uses vinegar for cooking and cleaning purposes. Vinegar usually contains about
5% acetic acid in water. Some vinegars are clear homogeneous mixtures (solutions). Other kinds of vinegar are
colloidal.
Gasoline is a solution made up of different substances called hydrocarbons. It is important that gasoline
contains no solid particles that may clog the vehicle engine.
A metal alloy is a solid solution made up of two or more metals or non metals. For example, steel is an
alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Other examples of solutions that are processed include wine and liquor, brewed coffee and tea.
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a single phase that appears uniform
throughout. A solution is clear. In a solution, the particles are too small that they cannot be seen by the unaided
eye.
Each part of a solution retains its characteristic properties. When a sugar solution is filtered, the filtrate
tastes sweet. The sweetness of sugar is present in any part of the sugar solution.
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
 The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye.
 A solution does not allow beams of light to scatter.
 A solution is stable.
  The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration (or mechanically).
 It is composed of only one phase.
(Activity of the Learner)
1.) It is homogeneous. It is a mixture of one phase only. The components are so well mixed that all
parts of the solution appear the same. Solutions have the same composition and properties
throughout.
2.) The solute cannot be separated from the solvent through filtration because these are so small that
they pass through the filter paper or cheesecloth.
3.) A solution is often clear and transparent.
SOLUBILITY
You have observed that there is a maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a certain temperature. This is what is called the solubility of the solute. From your everyday
experience, you also observed that there is a limit to the amount of sugar you can dissolve in a given amount of
water.
SATURATED SOLUTION
The solution that contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved by a given amount of solvent is
called saturated solution. If you add more solute to the solvent, it will no longer dissolve. The solution has
reached its saturation point. The presence of an excess solid which can no longer dissolve is evidence that the
solution is saturated.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION
A solution is unsaturated when it contains less solute than the maximum amount it can dissolve at a
given temperature. In activity 3 Part A, it is difficult to conclude that the containers with all solids dissolved are
unsaturated simply by observing them. Some of these may already hold the maximum amount of solute, which
cannot be observed by the unaided eye. If they do, then these are classified as saturated solutions.
The difference between saturated and unsaturated solution is saturated solution contains the
maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at that temperature. While unsaturated contains less than the
maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved at that temperature.
A more measurable way to find out the solubility of a solute is to determine the maximum amount that
can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent at a specific temperature. There are available data from chemistry books
that give the solubility of common solutes at particle temperatures.
30.0 g table salt + 100 ml = Unsaturated solution containing 100 ml water and 30.0 g table salt at 25 C
40.0 g table salt + 100 ml = Saturated solution containing 100 ml water and 36.0 g table salt at 25C. The
additional 4.0 g table salt remains undissolved.
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
The concentration described the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a given volume of solution.
When there is a large amount of dissolved solute for a certain volume of solvent, the solution is concentrated A
dilute solution has a small amount of dissolved solute in comparison to the amount of solvent.
You will be able to distinguish between concentrated and dilute solutions from a simple demonstration
your teacher will perform. You will describe the concentrations of solutions qualitatively (by simply observing
their appearance) and quantitatively (by comparing the number of drops per volume of water).
 Now that you have distinguished dilute from concentrated solutions qualitatively and quantitatively from
your teacher’s demonstration, you can express concentration in other ways such as:
(1) Percent by volume, which is the amount of solute in a given volume of solution expressed as grams
solute per 100 milliliter of solution (g/100ml), and
(2) Percent by mass, which is the amount of solute in a given mass of solvent expressed as grams
solute per 100 grams of solution.
Labels of products sold often show the concentration of solutes expressed as percent (%) by volume or
mass. The alcohol used as a disinfectant is a solution of 70% ethyl of isopropyl alcohol, meaning 70 ml alcohol.
There are also solutions sold as 40% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol.
Vinegar is often labeled as “5% acidity”, which means that it contains 5 grams of acetic acid in 100 g of
vinegar. The common antiseptic, agua oxinada is a 3%solution, that is 3 grams hydrogen peroxide in 100 ml
water.
The concentration of solid solutions, like gold jewelry, is expressed as karat. Pure gold is referred as 24
karats. Jewelry that is said to be 18 karats contains 18 grams of gold for every 24 grams of the material, 6 grams
consist of the other metal like copper or silver. This material has a concentration of 75% gold, that is [18/
24(100)]. A 14 karat (14K) gold contains 14 grams gold and 10 grams of another metal, making it 58.3% gold.
The following sample problems show you that there is a way to know the exact ratio of solute to solvent,
which specifies the concentration of a solution.
Sample Problem 1
How many ml of ethyl alcohol are present in a 50 ml of rubbing alcohol?
Calculation for sample problem 1
Since rubbing alcohol contains 70% ethyl alcohol, it means that 100 ml of rubbing alcohol contains 70
ml ethyl alcohol. So, the following calculations show that in 50 ml of rubbing alcohol, there is 5 ml ethyl
alcohol.
50 ml rubbing alcohol x 70 ml ethyl alcohol = 35 ml ethyl alcohol
100 ml rubbing alcohol
All portions of a solution have the same concentration. The composition of one part is also the same as
the composition of the other parts. But you can change the concentration of solutions. This means you can
prepare different solutions of sugar in water of different concentrations (for example, 10%, 20% or 30%). In
that way, you can prepare different solutions of salt in water.
Sample Problem 2
A one peso coin has a mass of 5.4 grams. How many grams of copper are in one peso coin containing
75% copper my mass?
Calculation for sample problem 2
75% by mass means 75 grams of copper in 100 grams of one peso coin.
So, 5.4 grams one peso coin contains,
75 g copper x 5.4 g coin = 4.0 g copper
100 g coins
FACTORS AFFECTING HOW FAST A SOLID SOLUTE DISSOLVES
 In activities 4 to 6, you will investigate factors that affect how fast a solid solute dissolves in a given
volume of water.
The factors that can affect how fast a solid solute dissolves are the surface area of the solid, temperature
and shaking/stirring. If more area is available to interact with the solvent, the solid will dissolve faster.
Typically at higher temperatures, solids will be more readily dissolved than at a lower temperature.
THE EFFECT OF STIRRING
Stirring makes the solid dissolve faster in solvent. Were you able to know why?
Stirring the solution will let the solvent particles come in contact faster with the corners and edges of
solute particles. Therefore, the solute dissolves faster. Keep in mind that stirring does not affect the amount
(how much) of solute that dissolves in solution.
THE EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE
To help you explain the process of dissolving, imagine that in a solution, the particles of the solute (table salt)
and the solvent (water) are constantly moving. Water particles collide everywhere along the surface of the
particles of table salt, especially on the corners and edges. This occurs at the surface of the solid solute when it
comes in contact with the solvent. The particles on the corners and edges then break away from the crystal and
become surrounded by the water particles. So the solute particles are separated by the solvent particles.
The particles of the solute (table salt) and the solvent (water) are constantly moving. Water particles
collide everywhere along the surface of the particles of table salt.
When the water particles come close to the salt particles in the solution than the container with bigger
crystals of salt. So water particles could more easily removed than those which are within the solid.
The container with crushed salt has much smaller particles in the solution than the container with bigger
crystals of salt. So water particles could more easily surround the smaller particles of crushed salt than the
surface of the big salt crystal. Therefore, the crushed salt dissolves faster. Thus, the smaller particles of salt, the
easier they mix with the water.
The surface area is the area of the solute particles exposed to the solvent (water in this case). Since the
crushed table salt has a bigger the surface area, then it dissolves faster. Therefore, crushed table salt dissolves
faster than the bigger granules of salt.
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature affects how fast a solid solute dissolves in water. Your solutions in Activity 3 were at room
temperature. In activity 5 you will investigate how fast coffee dissolves in cold and in hot water at what
temperature will sugar dissolve faster?
Most solids, like coffee powder, dissolve faster in hot water than in cold water. At higher temperature,
the water particles in move faster and come in contact more frequently with the solute particles (the coffee
powder).
THE NATURE OF SOLUTE
In activity 6, you will found out if: (1) sugar dissolve faster in hot than in cold water, and (2) salt
dissolves faster in hot than in cold water.

A solute dissolves faster in water when you increase the temperature. But the effect of temperature is not
that simple. They type of nature of the solute will affect how fast it dissolves in water.
 Increasing the temperature either makes a solid dissolve faster or slower in water. For some solutes,
increasing the temperature does not have any effect on how fast the solute dissolves.
Properties of solution, the wars of reporting its concentration, as well as the effects of stirring, particle
size, temperature, and type of solute on how fast a solid dissolves in water.

MODULE 2: SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

Many things around you are mixtures. Some are solid like brass and rocks, or liquid like seawater and
fruit juices, or gas like air. Mixtures contain two or more components. These components may vary in size. The
variation in size may tell whether a mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
How are mixtures different from substances? How are they similar?
The difference between pure substance and mixture is pure substance cannot be separated into any
other kinds of matter, while a mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances. A pure substance
has constant physical and chemical properties, while mixture have varying physical and chemical
properties. (boiling point and melting point).
SEPARATING COMPONENTS OF MIXTURES
Different separation techniques make components of a homogeneous mixture more distinguishable, that
is, those “unseen” components when they are in a solution become “seen”. Just like in the activity below,
distillation and evaporation will help you “see” the two major components of seawater ---water and salt.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXTURES
 May be solid, liquid or gas
 May be homogeneous or heterogeneous
 Made up of two or more components
 Components may be separated/ recovered by physical means such as filtration, and distillation
  Amount of components may vary
DISTINGUISHING SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
Seawater is a solution of many different solids, including table salt, in water. Since the solids are
dissolved in water, decantation or filtration will not work in separating water from the dissolved solids. Other
separation techniques are needed.
You were able to separate the components of seawater through distillation and evaporation. One of these
is distilled water. It is considered as a substance. But what makes distilled water a substance?
In the next activity, you will observe how a substance behaves while it is being boiled or melted. You
will also find out that these behaviors will help you differentiate substances from mixtures
There are mixtures that are homogeneous which may be mistaken as substances. Being so, appearance
may not be the best basis to differentiate substances from mixtures. However, there are ways to tell by noting
how a sample behaves during boiling and melting.
During boiling, the temperature of a substance changes at the start then it becomes the same; while the
temperature of a mixture is different at different times.
During melting, a substance melts completely/ smoothly within a short time; while a mixture has portions
that seem to be not melting.

MODULE 3: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

All substances are homogeneous. Some mixtures are also homogeneous. Being so, it is difficult to
distinguish mixtures and substance based on appearance.
There are ways to tell if a sample is a mixture or a substance The temperature of a liquid mixtures varies
during boiling but for a liquid substance, it does not. A solid mixture has portions that do not melt, but a solid
substance melts completely within short time.
How are elements different from compounds? How are they similar?

COMPOUNDS
Like mixtures, compounds are also made up of two or more components.
Electrolysis decomposed water, a compound, into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen are
elements. Compounds are substances that consists of two elements. As you encounter more compounds, you
will find out that there are compounds that may be composed of more than two elements.
ELEMENTS
There are 118 elements. Each element has different set of properties. No two elements have the same set
of properties. Just like the two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Even though they are both gaseous state at room
temperature, they behave differently when exposed too flame or spark of flame Hydrogen gives off a “pop”
sound when ignited; while oxygen induces a brighter spark. This difference in behavior implies a difference in
property.
Periodic Table of Elements or simply referred as the table of elements.
Every element has a name. Scientist agreed to give symbols for each element. There are symbols that
use letters that were taken from the ancient name of the element. Example of ancient are ferrum (iron),,
argentum (silver) hydrargyrum (mercury) and plumbum (lead).
Elements that are in the same column, have similar properties. For this, each column is called a family
and has a family name. However, at this point, you will refer first to each family with their corresponding
group number. Notice that the columns are numbered 1 to 18 from left to right.
As you have learned, elements in food are in combination with other elements and the resulting
compounds are referred to as minerals. Thus, you are not eating the elements themselves.
As you have seen, elements are part of almost anything around us – food, clothes, rocks, and even this
paper you are currently reading from. Elements are said to be the building blocks of matter. They are like blocks
that you can put together and build something new. When you build something new from these elements, you
call them as compounds.
Compounds are made up of elements.
Elements are simplest form of matter. Both elements and compound are substances.

MODULE 4: ACIDS AND BASES

In module 4, you will study a special and important class of compounds called acids and bases.
Examples of acids are acetic acid in vinegar and citric acid in fruit juices. These acids in these mixtures make
the mixtures acids. We can say the same about bases and basic solutions. An example of base is sodium
hydroxide used in making soaps and drain cleaners used in most home in the Philippines is called sosa. Another
base is aluminum hydroxide used in antacids. The base in these mixtures make the mixtures basic.
You will investigate the properties of acidic and basic mixtures using an indicator, a dye that changes
into a specific color depending on whether it is placed in an acidic solution or in a basic one. Aside from
knowing the uses of acidic and basic mixtures, you will also find out action of acid on metals and think ways to
reduce the harmful effects of acids.
How acidic or basic are common household materials?
Does water from different sources have the same acidity?
What is the effect of acid on metals?
HOW CAN YOU TELL IF A MIXTURE IS ACIDIC OR BASIC?
You will distinguish between acidic and basic mixtures based on their color reaction to an indicator. An
indicator is a dye that changes into a different color depending on whether it is an acid or in base. There are
many indicators that come from plant sources. Each indicator dye has one color in an acidic mixture and a
different color in a basic mixture. A common indicator is litmus, a dye taken from the lichen plant. Litmus turns
red in acidic mixtures and becomes blue in basic mixtures.
Using plant extract allowed you to further determine the degree of acidity of basicity of a mixture, that
is, you were able to find out how strongly acidic or basic the mixtures were.
 Another method can be used to distinguish acidic from basic mixtures. It is through the use of the Ph
scale, which extends from 0 to 14. The ph scale was proposed by the Danish biochemist S.P.L. Sorensen. In this
scale, a sample with Ph 7 is neutral. An acidic mixture has a ph that is less than 7. A basic mixture has a ph that
is greater than 7. In general, the lower the ph, the more acidic the mixture and the higher the ph, the more basic
is the mixture.
IMPORTANCE OF PH
Ph and the Human Body
Acids and bases perform specific function to balance the Ph levels in the body. When your body has too
much carbon dioxide, the blood becomes too acidic. You breathe slowly. Breathing is slowed to increase the ph
in the blood. If ph in the body is too basic, you will hyperventilateto lower the ph. This acid and base control is
an important part of biological homeostasis (balance) in humans. In fact, human life is sustained only if the Ph
of our blood and bolu tissues is within a small range near 7.4.
Use of pH in Food Processing and Fruit Preservation
During food processing, pH is closely followed. Changes in pH affect the growth of microorganisms,
which cause food spoilage. Most bacteria grow best at or near pH 7. To prevent the growth of harmful bacteria,
pickling is an effective food preservation method because it lowers Ph.
The control of pH is also needed in wine and jam preparation. A few species of bacteria grow in basic
medium of pH 9-10. This is the pH range of stale eggs. Most molds grow within the pH range of 2-8.5. In acidic
conditions, many fruits and products made from fruits are easily attacked by molds unless the fruits are properly
protected.
Control of pH in Soil
The pH soil is very important. Some plants grow well in acidic soil while others prefer basic soil.
Farmers need to know the pH of their soil since plants will grow in a narrow pH range. The pH also affects how
much nutrients from the soil become available to plants.
Most plants in the Philippines grow in acidic soils. These plants are banana, kaimito, durian, pineapple,
soybean, coffee, eggplant, squash, kamote, and rice. Other plants like grapes and pechay requires basic soils.
Some plants grow best in almost neutral soil like orange, peanut, watermelon, beans, cabbage, tomato, corn
garlic, and onion.
pH of Rainwater
The average pH of rain is 5.6. This slightly acidic pH is due to the presence of carbon dioxide in the air.
In many areas of the world, rainwater is much more acidic, sometimes reaching pH 3 or even lower.
Rainwater with a pH below 5.6 is called “acid rain”. The acidic pollutants in the air that come from the
burning of fuels used in power plants, factories, and vehicles produce gases which are acidic. These gases enter
the atmosphere and dissolve in water vapor in the air. Some acid rain is due to natural pollutants like those from
volcanic eruptions and lightning.
Maintaining pH of Personal Care Products
Most personal care products have pH kept at specific levels to avoid harmful effects on the body. This is
true for hair products. For example, at pH 12, hair is already dissolves, that is why hair removers usually have
pH range from 11.5 to 12. Most shampoos are within the pH range 4 to 6. This is because the pH of the product
must be compatible with that of the hair, which is in the range pH 4 to 5. Hair is least swollen and is strongest at
this pH range. But very often, using shampoo leaves the hair basic. So in order to avoid eye irritation and
stinging, shampoo for infants and children have a pH similar to that of tears (pH 7.4).
 Hair has a protective covering called sebum. The use of conditioners after using shampoo puts back this
oily coating and penetrates the hair shaft itself.
EFFECTS OF ACIDIC MIXTURES ON METAL
What do you think will happen when an acid and a metal come in contact with each other? What
happens after the metal has been in contact with acid for some time? What changes take place?
SAFETY IN HANDLING ACIDS AND BASES
Acids and bases with high concentrations can cause serious burns. For example, hydrochloric acid
(commonly called muriatic acid) is used in construction to remove excess mortar from bricks and in the home to
remove hardened deposits from toilet bowls. Concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid (about 38%) cause
severe burns, but dilute solutions can be used safely in home if handled carefully.
Acidic mixtures can easily “eat away” your skin and can make holes in clothes. However, since vinegar
is only 5% acetic acid, it will not irritate the skin and destroy clothes.
Sodium hydroxide (commonly called lye or liquid sosa) is used to open clogged kitchen and toilet pipes,
sinks, and drains.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN ACIDS AND BASES COMBINE?
Mixtures that are nor acidic or basic is called neutral. When an acid mixed with a base, water and salt
are produced Such as process called neutralization.
If a basic mixture is added to an acidic mixture, the resulting mixture will no longer have the properties
of the acidic mixture. In the same way, if enough acidic mixture is added to a basic mixture, the properties of
the basic mixture are changed. This is because the acid and the base in each of the mixtures neutralize each
other to produce a mixture with a different set of properties.
The process of neutralization has some uses in everyday life. The following are some examples:
 Treating Indigestion- The acid in our stomach, gastric juice, is hydrochloric acid with low
concentration. It helps in the digestion of food. If we eat too much food, the stomach produces more acid
which leads to indigestion and pain. To cure indigestion, the excess acid must be neutralized by tablets
called antacids. These contain bases to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
 Using toothpaste to avoid tooth decay- Bacteria in the mouth can change sweet types of food into acid.
The acid then attacks the outermost part of the tooth and leads to tooth decay. Toothpaste contains bases
that can neutralize the acid in the mouth.
 Treating Soil- You will recall in the earlier part of this module that some plants grow well in acidic soil
while others prefer basic soil. Farmers need to know the pH of their soil. Most often, the soil gets too
acidic. When this happens, the soil is treated with bases such as quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) or calcium carbonate. The base is usually spread on the soil by spraying.
 Treating Factory Waste- Liquid waste from factories often contains acid. If this waste reaches a river,
the acid will kill fish and other living things. This problem can be prevented by adding slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) to the waste in order to neutralize it.
MODULE 5: METALS AND NONMETALS
Elements ae the simplest form of substances. This means that whatever you do with an element, it
remains to be the same element. Its physical state can change but the identity of the element will not. It may
form compounds with other elements but the element will never form anything simpler than it already is.
In this module, you will find out more about the elements. You will see that majority of them are
metals, while some are nonmetals. In addition to these are the metalloids, so called because they exhibit
properties of both metals and nonmetals.
How are metals different from nonmetals?
How are they similar?
PROPERTIES OF METALS
 Metals are shiny. They exhibit a luster which is the reason that they used as decorations.
 Many metals are ductile. This means that metals can be draw into wires. An example is copper. The
ductility of copper makes it very useful as electrical wires.
 Some metals are malleable. This means that they can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without
breaking. An example is aluminum. It is passed into mills and rolled thinly to produce the aluminum foil
used to wrap food.
 Some metals are magnetic. This meant that they are attracted by a magnet. The common ones are iron,
nickel, and cobalt.
The general properties of metals are luster, ductility, malleability, and magnetic properties. Metals
exhibit these properties in varying degrees.
OTHER PROPERTIES EXHIBIT BY METALS
Electrical conductivity of different materials. This property allows electricity to pass through a material.
You will find out whether this property is exhibited by metals and nonmetals.

The metallic probe, one that comes in contact with the sample. It will measure then display the electrical
conductivity value in the liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
The electrical conductivity values are written at the bottom line of each box. It is expressed in x106 Ohm-
1
cm -1. What do you notice about the elements with electrical conductivity values?

WHERE ARE THEY LOCATED IN THE PERIODIC TABLE?

One amazing feature of the periodic table is that all of the metals are placed in one side. Those that are
on the other side (grayish shade) are the nonmetals.
 Notice that there is a stair step line formed by some elements which somewhat divides the metals and
nonmetals. These elements are the metalloids They are elements exhibiting properties that are intermediate to
metals and nonmetals. Name the metalloids. Name some metals. Name some nonmetals.
Which are electrically conductive, metals or nonmetals? Which element has the highest electrical
conductivity value? What could be the reason for using copper as an electrical wire more than this element?
You might wonder why some metals do not have electrical conductivity values when supposedly all of
them possess such property. Notice that these metals are the ones mostly found at the last rows of the periodic
table. Elements in those rows are mostly radioactive. This means that the element is very unstable and exists in
a very short period of time. In effect, it would be difficult to test for their properties. In the higher grade levels,
you will kearn that there are ways to infer the electrical conductivities of these elements.
Electrical conductivity clearly distinguishes metals from nonmetals but there Is one exception. Refer to
the periodic table. Which element is electrically conductive even if it is a nonmetal?
One form of carbon is graphite. It is commonly available as the black rod in your pencils. Get your
sharpened pencil. Place the black rod in between the end tips of you improvised conductivity tester. Make sure
that the black rod is in contact with the tips of the tester. What happened?
In the higher grade levels, you will learn why carbon (graphite) though a nonmetal is electrically
conductive.
Thermal conductivity is the ability of an element to allow heat to pass through it. The higher the
value, the better heat conductor an element is. Find the elements that are mainly used for the cooking pots.
METALS AND NONMETALS IN AND AROUND YOU
In the figure below, you will find the elements that your body is made up of. What element are you
made up of the most? Is it a metal or a nonmetal? Of all the elements reported in the graph, how many are
metals? How about nonmetals?
Interestingly, even with the fewer number of nonmetals, their abundance is higher than metals. As you
have seen above from the two graphs, both living and nonliving systems are mainly composed of nonmetals.
OXIDES OF METALS AND NONMETALS
Similarly, oxygen accounted in the graphs may also be in compounds. Some of these compounds are
called oxides. These oxides may be formed when an element is burned. These oxides exhibit different acidities.
PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NONMETALS
Most of the elements are metals. They are shiny, malleable and ductile but just in varying degrees
—like electrical and thermal conductivity. Nonmetals are electrically nonconductive except for some
forms of carbon.

PRE/ POST TEST.

1.) Which of the following is an example of a solution? (Choose more than one.)
a. Vinegar
b. Mud in water
c. Food coloring in water
 d. Sugar dissolved in water
e. Ice cream

2.) Which statement described the solute?

a.) It is the solid formed in solution.
b.) It is the liquid part of the solution.
c.) It is the component of a solution in smaller amount.
d.) It is the component of a solution in bigger amount.

3.) Which is more concentrated, a solution containing 5 grams of salt in 10 grams of water or a solution
containing 18 grams of salt in 90 grams of water? show your calculations.

4.) The label of the 200-mL rubbing alcohol that Mrs. Herrera bought shows that it contains 40% ethyl
alcohol. What is the volume of ethyl alcohol does the rubbing alcohol contain? Show your calculations.

5.) Joel and Ben wanted to find out how much salt is needed to make saturated solution in 100 mL of water.
Use the following data to answer the questions below the table.
Step Amount of salt added Observations
Number
1 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved
2 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved.
3 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved.
4 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved.
5 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved.
6 6 grams After stirring, salt completely dissolved.
7 6 grams After stirring, some salt is seen at the bottom of the container.
a.) Which is the solute of the solution? Which is the solvent?
b.) In which step is the solution described as saturated solution? Explain your answer.
c.) What the concentration of the solution in step 4?

6.) Give one reason why people stir coffee or juice in water after they have added sugar.

7.) Why do you think that it is easier to dissolve powdered brown sugar than a big whole piece or chunk of
brown sugar (the size of a small ice cream cup) in water?

For items 8-10: A group of students was asked to investigate how fast sugar dissolves in cold and in hot water?
8.) If this is going to be a fair test, what variable should they control?
a.) Amount of water and sugar in each cup, method of stirring, time when the solid is added to water, how
long each solution is stirred?
b.) Amount of water and sugar in each cup, method of stirring, how long each solution is stirred.
c.) Amount of sugar in each cup; method of stirring, time when the solid is added to water, how long each
solution is stirred.
d.) Amount of water in each cup, method of stirring, time when the solid is added to water, how long each
solution is strired.
 9.) How is the dependent variable (what is being measured)?
I.) The temperature of water
II.) The amount of sugar
III.) The length of time that sugar completely dissolves in hot water.
IV.) The length of time that sugar completely dissolves in cold water.
a.) I only c.) II and III
b.) II only d.) III and IV

10.) How is the independent variable in the investigation?

a.) I only c.) I, II, and III
b.) II and III d.) II, III, and IV

ANSWER Key:
1.) (a), (c), (d); Vinegar, food coloring in water, and sugar dissolved in water are all solutions since each
appears to be in one phase only (homogeneous) and transparent.
2.) (c) The component in smaller amount is the solute. The component present in greater amount in the
solvent. The solid formed in a solution is called a precipitate.
3.) Grams salt in 10 grams water is more concentrated.
CALCULATION:
5 grams salt/10 grams water x 100% = 50% salt
18 grams salt/ 90 grams water x 100% = 20% salt
4.) % volume = volume solute/ volume solution x 100%
40% = volume solute/ 200 mL x 100%
Volume solute = 40% x 200 mL
= 80 mL ethyl alcohol
5.)
a.) Salt is the solute; water is the solvent.
b.) The solution is saturated at the step 6. The solution is saturated when all (maximum amount) of the
solute was dissolved. At step 7, some salt already came out of solution and did not dissolve anymore.
c.) 24 grams/ 100 mL

6.) Stirring will increase the movement or allows faster spreading of solute particles in the solvent. This in
turn hastens the contact between the surface of the solute and the solvent particles.

7.) Powdered brown sugar has more corners and edges since the particles of the powder are smaller. So
there will be more particles of brown sugar that can attach or some in contact with the water, making it
dissolve faster in water.

8.) (a)

9.) (d)
10.) (a)
 Unit 2: Living
Things and Their
Environment
Module 1: From Cell to Organism
Module 2: Plant and Animal Cells
Module 3: Reproduction: The Continuity of Life
Module 4: Interactions
MODULE 1: FROM CELL TO ORGANISM
OVERVIEW
There are different materials in the environment. There are also diverse kinds of living things.
Organ systems work together to help organisms meet their basic needs and to survive. The digestive
system helps organisms get energy from the food they eat. The circulatory system moves the nutrients that come
from digested food, along with blood, to the different parts of the body.
Organs systems are made up of organs that have related functions and are grouped together. For
example, the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are organs of the digestive system. The heart, arteries
and veins are some parts that make up the circulatory system. Are there organisms that do not have organs?
This module introduces you to the different structures that make up an organism. These structures are
formed from the grouping together of parts whose functions are related. You will also discover in this module
that organs themselves are made up of even smaller parts. Anything that happens to these small parts will affect
the functioning of the organs, organs systems, and the whole organism.
What are organisms? What makes them up?

ACTIVITY 1: WHAT MAKES UP AN ORGANISM?

The function of one organ system is related to the function of the others. The skeletal system relates to
the function of the others. For example, the skeletal system, along with the muscular system, functions for
movement. The bones move according to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the muscles. These
movements of the skeletal and muscular systems are coordinated by the nervous system. All these happen
because of energy that comes from the nutrients transported by the circulatory system to the different parts of
the body.
Organ systems are made up of functionally related organs.
The circulatory system is one of the organ systems that make up an organism. It is made up of the heart,
blood vessels and blood. Your heart is about the size of your fist. It pups and circulates blood to the different
parts of the body through the blood vessels. Certain diseases affect the heart and cause it to function improperly.
The human heart is made up of muscles and blood vessels: the veins and arteries. If they had advanced
readings, they would probably mention auricles, ventricles, and valves in addition. An injury to any of the parts
of the heart is an injury of the heart. This means, the heart will suffer in the same way that its parts suffer. An
injury to any of the parts of the heart affects the organisms—the person.
The excretory system is another organ system that makes up an organism. It is made up of different
organs that help the body eliminate metabolic waste and maintain internal balance. These organs include a pair
of kidneys.
Like the heart, the kidneys are made up of muscles and blood vessels. The kidneys are made up of even
smaller parts. Some parts eliminate wastes that are no longer needed by the body; other parts function in the
reabsorption of water and nutrients. Like the heart, certain diseases also affect the kidneys and their function.
An injury to any parts of the kidneys is an injury to the entire organ. This means, the kidneys will suffer in the
same way that its parts suffer.
Organs are made up of tissues. The heart, kidneys and the parts that make them up are made up of
tissues. This tissue is made up of cells—the basic units of structure and function of organisms.
 If any of the tissues are injured or diseased, the organ, organ system and even the organism will suffer
too. For example, a cut on the tissues of the skin is felt by the whole organisms. Anything that happens to the
tissues will affect the bigger structures they make up.
Plants are also made up of organ systems: the root and shoot systems. The root system absorbs water
and nutrients; the shoot system moves them to the different parts of the plant.
Like the organ systems of animals, those of plants have parts that work together. For example, the shoot
system of plants is composed of the stem, leaves and flowers. The stem has tissues that allow for the transport
of water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves. The leaves on the other hand serve as the structures for
photosynthesis through which they manufacture their food. The flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
Plants have only two organ system: the root and shoot systems; whereas, animals have complex organ
systems that work directly with the other organ systems. For example, plant do not have a nervous system that
coordinates the functions of the other organ systems of animals. Plants also do not have a nervous system that
coordinates the function of the other organ systems of animals. Plants also do not have circulatory and respirator
systems that move oxygen and nutrients to the different parts of the body.
Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. Together with the leaves and the stems, they make up the
shoot systems. Like the reproductive organs of animals, complete flowers have male and female parts. These
parts work together to bear seeds from which new plant germinate.
Plants can dispense with their flowers—their reproductive organs—to generate their kind for they can
also reproduce asexually. Animals that reproduce sexually make use of only their reproductive organs to do so.
Plants are able to manufacture their food through photosynthesis. They use their leaves to carry out this
process. The stem provides support to the leaves, flowers and fruits. They also serve as channels for the
transport of water and nutrients from the roots to the different parts of the plant.
Anything that happens to any of the parts that make up the shoot system of plants will certainly affect
the plant as well. You can ask them to cite examples to highlight this connection. The root system is another
organ system of plants. In some plants, it is made up of the primary root, the secondary roots, and the root hairs.
Roots also provide anchorage to the plant.
Plants have tissues, too. You can peel off the skin of onion bulbs to show your students what tissues
look like. Tissues of onion bulbs would look like a transparent plastic. Roots are also made up of tissues. When
you get a small section of a root tip and view it under a microscope, you will see that it is made up of many
layers of tissues. You will also see that these tissues are composed of similar cells that are arranged and grouped
together to perform specific functions.
Cells are the basic units of structures and function of all organisms. These cells are grouped together
to form more complex structures: tissues, organs, and organ systems. All organisms are made up of cells; they
ae the smallest level of organization at which the properties of life can be carried out.
Animals and plants are very different organisms and yet they are both made up of parts that are
organized similarly.
The different parts that make up an organism each perform a specific function. Anything that happens to
the smallest of parts that make up an organism will most likely to affect the whole organism.
ACTIVITY 2: LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN AN ORGANISM
 Organisms are made up of parts: organ systems, organs, tissues, and cells.
 Whatever happens to any of these parts will affect the other parts and the whole organism.
 We need to keep our cells and tissues healthy to make our organs, organ systems, and the whole body
healthy.
  To stay healthy, we need to eat nutritious food; they include plants in our backyard and the animals in
our farm.
 Like us, these plants and animals are also organisms. They have basic needs that include proper care for
them.

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) The heart pumps blood that carries oxygen and nutrients to the different parts of the body. To which
organ system does the heart belong?
a.) Circulatory
b.) Digestive
c.) Excretory
d.) Reproductive

2.) Cancer starts from cells that start to grow uncontrollably fast. They destroy tissues and organs. What
does this say about the effects of diseased cells on the higher levels of organization in an organism?
a.) Cancer involves only certain kinds of cells and does not affect any other kind of cell.
b.) Diseased cells affect only the next higher levels of organization that hey make up—tissues.
c.) Diseased cells damage the higher levels of organization they make up: tissues, organs, organ
systems, and eventually, the whole organism.
d.) Diseased cells do not affect the other parts of the organism.

3.) Each part of an organ system plays a specific function. Which of the following structures does not match
its function?
a.) Eyes : Sight
b.) Kidneys : Respiration
c.) Heart : Circulation
d.) Stomach : Digestion

4.) Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. How are flowers different from the reproductive organs of
animals.
a.) Flowers have male and female parts; animals have either male or female parts.
b.) Flowers need pollinators like bees to reproduce; animals do not.
c.) Flowers are shed from time to time; nothing is shed from animals.
d.) There is no difference between flowers and the reproductive organs of animals.

5.) The organ system of plants consists of the root and shoot systems. Why is it important for these organ
systems to work together?
a.) To grow and survive
b.) To avoid pests and other animals
c.) To survive floods and strong winds
d.) To survive droughts and earthquakes.

6.) Which of the following differentiates organs from tissues?

a.) Organs make tissues; tissues make up organs.
b.) Tissues make up organs; cells make up tissues.
c.) Organs and tissues are made up of cells.
d.) Organs and tissues make up an organ system.
 7.) At which smallest level of organization in an organism can the characteristics of life be carried out?
a.) Organ system c.) tissue
b.) Organ d.) Cell

8.) Which is the correct sequence—from the biggest to smallest—of the levels of organization in an
organism?
a.) Cell Organ Organ System Tissue
b.) Organ  Organ System  Tissue  Cell
c.) Tissue  Cell  Organ  Organ System
d.) Organ System  Organ  Tissue  Cell

ANSWER KEY
1.) A
2.) C
Note: When cancer cells metastasize, they spread to the cells of other tissues and organs. But even in the early
stages, they start affecting nearby cells and tissues and making them cancerous.
3.) B
4.) B
Note: Some animals are hermaphroditic like the earthworms. They have both male and female parts; hence A is
not the answer. Egg and sperm cells are shed from the reproductive organs of animals from time to time; hence,
C is not the answer. Option B shows a difference between flowers and the reproductive organs of animals; D is
not the answer.
5.) A
6.) B
7.) D
8.) D
MODULE 2: PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
OVERVIEW
All organisms, big or small consist of cells. Some organisms are single—celled, composed of only one
cell. Others are multicellular, possessing many cells that work together to form an organism. The moss plant for
example, may be made up of hundreds or thousands cells. Your body has billions of cells while very large
animals like elephants have trillions.
Most cells are so small that they can only be seen using the microscope. It is a special equipment to
make small objects like cells look bigger. One kind of microscope used to study cells is called a light
microscope. Light microscope use diffused or artificial light to illuminate the object to be observed. From the
simplest to the most powerful and sophisticated microscopes, scientists were able to gather information about
cells. What you will see and learn about cells later have been revealed by microscopes. If your school has
microscope, your teacher will teach you how to use it through activities you will perform.
Are all cells the same?
If not, in what ways are they different?

CELL PARTS
Organisms have organ systems composed of
organs. These organs are made up of even smaller parts
namely, tissues and the smallest of which are the cells.

ACTIVITY 1: COMPARING PLANT AND ANIMAL

CELLS
A cell has three basic parts: the nucleus, plasma
membrane and cytoplasm.
 The nucleus is a part of cells which is easily seen.
It is very important because it controls all the
activities of the other parts that occur within the cell. The nucleus contains materials that play a role
in heredity. You will discuss about these materials in the later modules and grade levels.
 The plasma membrane encloses the cell and separates what is inside it from its environment. It also
controls what goes into and out of the cell. The plasma membrane allows entry of materials needed by
the cell and eliminates those which are not needed.
 The cytoplasm consists of jelly-like substance where all the other parts of the cell are located. It
does not however, include the area where the nucleus in located. Many different activities of the cell
occur in the cytoplasm.
You have seen that plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts that are not found in animal cells. The
cell wall is made of stiff material that forms the outermost part of plant cells. This gives shape and
protection to them.
Chloroplast are important in plant cells because it is where food is made. It contains chlorophyll
which absorbs energy from the sun to make food for plants.
 Vacuoles are present in both plant and animal cells. In plant cells, they are large and usually occupy
more than half of the cell space. They play a role in storing nutrients and increasing cell size during
growth. Some plants vacuoles contain poisonous substances. Vacuoles also store water, thereby maintaining
rigidity to cells and provide support for plants to stand upright. Plant cell vacuoles are responsible for the crisp
appearance of fresh vegetables.
Vacuoles in animal cells are small and are called vesicles. They serve as storage of water and food
and also function in the excretion of waste materials.
You have observed that centrioles are only found in animal cells and they have a role in cell
reproduction.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL PARTS
 Mitochondrion - Convert energy in food to a form usable to the cell.
 Golgi Body/ Apparatus - Sort, modify, package and distribute cell products to where they are needed.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Carry proteins to different parts of the cell.
 Rough ER- With attached ribosomes that manufacture proteins.
 Smooth ER- Contains no ribosomes; make lipids (fats)
 Ribosomes- produced in the nucleus, occurs in large numbers and can be free floating in the cytoplasm,
involved in the manufacture of protein, can be attached to the ER, thus there is a rough ER.
 Nucleolus- The prominent round structure in the nucleus that produces ribosomes.

 If the plasma membrane isn’t functioning properly, any substance can go in and out of the cell.
The cell may be affected by the exit of needed substances or entrance of unneeded or poisonous
substances that may lead to death of the cell.
 The purpose of the cell wall is being made tough or rigid material gives shape and protection to
plant cells.
 The chloroplast in cells of plants is where food is made. The greater the number of chloroplast in
them makes them efficient in making more food for the plant.
 Vacuoles in some plants may contain poison or toxic substances. These substances can harm these
animals, once eaten. So this serve to protect them.

INVESTIGATING PLANT CELLS

Cell make up all organisms. And that organisms can be made up of just one cell or billions of cells.
Microscope contributed to the valuable information about cell structure and function.
Fundamental parts of the cell which are the nucleus, plasma membrane and cytoplasm. These parts
play very important roles in the survival of cells.
The similarity and differences in parts of plants and animal cells and the functions of these parts.
Other than the three parts first mentioned, the mitochondrion, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
body, vacuole/ vesicle, ribosomes and lysosome are common to them. In fact, these are also present in fungi and
protists which you will study in the next module.
Plant cells have cell wall, and chloroplasts which are not found in animal cells. These have something
to do with the nature of plants having tough stems and their being able to produce their own food. On the other
hand, animal cells have centrioles which are not found in plan cells. You have seen too the rectangular shape of
plant cells as compared to the more or less rounded one in animal cells shown in the illustration you have
studied.
  Plant cells are rectangular or angular or rigid in
shape, while animal cells are rounded and somewhat
irregular or spherical or cylindrical.
 The cell parts that are found in both cells are nucleus,
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, the mitochondrion,
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
body, vacuole/ vesicle, ribosome/s and lysosome.
 The cell part that is only present in animal cells is the
centrioles.
 The cell parts that are present in plant cells only are the
cell wall and chloroplast.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELLS:
 Plant and animal cells differ in shape and in some parts. Plant cells are rectangular or angular or rigid
in shape, while animal cells are rounded and somewhat irregular.
 Plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts which animal cells do not have. Animal cells have centrioles
which plant cells do not have.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS:
 Both plant and animal cells have common parts namely: the nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, the
mitochondrion, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, vacuole/ vesicle, ribosome and
lysosome.
Microscope plays an important role in the study of cells. The microscope makes one see objects that
are not seen by just using the eyes. It enables one to see enlarged images of specimens such as cells for a
thorough study of their structure and thus, infer their function.

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) Which of the following parts allow different activities of the cell to happen?
a.) Vacuoles c.) cytoplasm
b.) Lysosome d.) vesicle

2.) If the chloroplast of a plant cell were damaged, which will it be unable to do?
a.) Protect the cell c.) excrete waste materials
b.) Make food for the cell d.) give instruction for cell to reproduce
3.) Which part allows or prevents substances to go into and out of this cell?

4.) What part of this cell store water and maintain its rigidity?
The table below enumerates the parts that are present or absent in two kinds of cells.
Structure Cell A Cell B
Cell Wall X /
Plasma Membrane / /
Chloroplast x /
Vesicle / X
Nucleus / /
5.) Which is a plant cell? Explain your answer.
6.) Which is an animal cell? Explain your answer.
Use the following options to answer the next question
I. Absence of centrioles
II. Irregular Shape
III. Presence of cell wall
IV. Angular and rigid shape
V. Absence of chloroplast
7.) You are asked to identify an unknown slide. Which could help you identify it to be an animal cell?
a.) I and II c.) I and IV
b.) II and V d.) III and IV

8.) Which part of this cell function in the excretion of waste materials?
9.) Which is the control center of this cell?
10.)It is the part of this cell which play a role during cell division?

The following question can be given if Activity 2 was performed:

I. Adding iodine solution to the onion cell preparation makes the cells _____.
a.) Big c.) less visible
b.) Small d.) more visible
II. Which of the following part cell parts is not found in onion cells?
a.) Chloroplast
b.) Cell wall
c.) Vacuole
d.) Mitochondrion
ANSWER KEY:
1.) C
2.) B
3.) 2
4.) 11
5.) 2 pts - B is a plant cell because it has a cell wall and chloroplast
1 pt - B is a plant cell but no explanation
0 pt - Wrong answer or no answer at all.
6.) 2 pts - A is an animal cell because it has no cell wall and no chloroplast
1 pt - A is an animal cell but no explanation.
0 pt - Wrong answer or no answer at all
7.) B
8.) 1
9.) 8
 10.) 7

I. D
II. A

MODULE 3: REPRODUCTION: THE

CONTINUITY OF LIFE
OVERVIEW
The beginning of a new life is truly a remarkable event. The ability of an organism to produce new
individuals is one of the characteristics that distinguishes living things from nonliving things. The ability is
called reproduction.
Organisms bring about the continuation of their own kind through reproduction. And although these
organisms have different methods of reproduction, every method leads to the beginning of a new life.
What are the different modes or reproduction?
How can we use think knowledge in growing plants?

MODES OF REPRODUCTION
 In order to continue their own kind, organisms must reproduce. Organisms may reproduce either
asexually or sexually.
I. Asexual Reproduction
There are several ways by which organisms reproduce asexually.
Potatoes are propagated vegetatively. From a single potato, several new potato plants can be produced.
Potato “eye” are axillary buds where shoots can emerge
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
Vegetative reproduction is a kind of Asexual reproduction where a new individual, known as the
offspring, is produced from a single parent.
Aside from potatoes, many economically importance plants can be propagated vegetatively. The
kalanchoe, a medicinal plant, can reproduce through its leaves. Plantlets can grow around the leaf margin.
During production, certain traits are passed on from parent to offspring. These traits are in the form of
codes contained in genes. Genes are found in chromosomes which are in turn located in the nucleus of cells.
In asexual reproduction, the parent and the resulting offspring have the same genes and this is the reason
why they have the same traits. We can say that they are genetically identical.
Vegetative propagation results in plants that reach maturity faster than plants grown from seeds.
Another good thing about vegetative propagation is that the same good agricultural traits such as taste, yield and
resistance to pests will be passed on from generation to generation. But one disadvantage is that the population
might be wiped out if environmental conditions become unfavorable.

FISSION
Another type of asexual reproduction is called fission. The cell divides to form two identical
daughter cells. Each daughter cell continues to grow until it becomes as large as the parent cell.
BUDDING
Budding is another type of asexual reproduction. Yeast, hydra and sponges reproduce this way. In
budding, a new individual may form as an outgrowth of the parent. The outgrowth separates from the parent
and become a new individual.
SPORE FORMATION
Have you seen a piece of bread with mold growing on it? The black round structure at the tip of a stalk
is called spore case which contains the spores. When the spore case opens, the tiny spores are released and
may be carried by wind or water. Once the spore lands on a favorable environment, it develops into a new
organism.
Formation of spore is another type of asexual reproduction common among molds or fungi.
REGENERATION
Animals can also reproduce by regeneration. Did you know that when a hydra is cut into several pieces,
a process known as fragmentation, each piece can grow into another hydra? In certain types of starfish, an arm
that breaks off from the body can develop into a new individual.
Reproduction is different from regeneration. Through regeneration lizards, crabs and lobsters can
replace missing parts like tails, or legs but their tails or legs cannot regenerate the missing heads.
 II. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction that involves two parents. Parents produce reproductive
cells called gametes through a type of cell division meiosis.
Gametes from the two parents unite in a process called fertilization. The fertilized cell is referred to as a
zygote which develops into a new organism.
Organisms reproduce sexually in a number of ways. Let us take a look at the different ways how
representative microorganisms, plants, and animals reproduce sexually.
CONJUGATION
Some microorganisms undergo sexual reproduction by a process called conjugation. An example of a
microorganism that reproduces by conjugation is Spirogyra, a green alga. Spirogyra can be found in freshwater
habitats such as ponds and rivers.
During conjugation, a bridge forms between two cells of two Spirogyra filaments lying side by side.
The contents of one cell pass into the other cell through the bridge, emptying the other cell. The contents of both
cells, combine in the other cell and form the zygote. This zygote is able to secrete a substance that forms a wall
around itself for protection against unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g when the pond dries up). When
the conditions become suitable for growth and development, the zygote grows into a new individual.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTIO IN FLOWERING PLANTS

The flower is the reproductive organ in flowering plants. Flowers have structures that produce the
gametes necessary for reproduction. Let us take a look at the parts of a gumamela flower.
Pollination brings together the gametes of a flower and it occurs when a pollen grain of the right kind
lands on the stigma of the pistil. Each pollen forms a tube that grows down through the pistil and reaches the
ovule in the ovary. One of the nuclei in the pollen tube unites with the egg nucleus in the ovule to form a
zygote. The other sperm nucleus combines with another bigger nucleus in the ovule which develops into the
endosperm.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS
Humans (and all animals that produce sexually) have cells called gametes. Gametes are formed during
meiosis and come in the form of sperm (produce by males) or eggs (produced by females). When conditions
are right, sperm and egg unite in a process known as fertilization. The resulting fertilized egg, or zygote,
contains genes from both parents.
COMPARISON OF ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In asexual reproduction, a single organism is the sole parent and the offspring is genetically identical
to the parent.
In sexual reproduction, two parent produce offspring that have unique combinations of genes.
Offspring of sexual reproduction differ genetically from their siblings and both parent.

SUMMARY
 1.) Organisms must reproduce to continue their own kind.
2.) There are two major modes of reproduction: asexual and sexual reproduction.
3.) Asexual reproduction gives rise to offspring that are identical to the parent.
4.) Individuals that reproduce through sexual reproduction need two parents, a male and a female, that
produce egg cell and sperm cell.
5.) Sexual reproduction gives rise to offspring that are in combination of the traits of its parents.

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) Which of the following structures are NOT involved in asexual reproduction?
a.) Gametes c.) Stem
b.) Tuber d.) Root

2.) A farmer grew only one type of onion. All of the onion plants died from the same disease. What can be
said of this onion plants population?
a.) Only a few plants were resistant to the disease
b.) All of the onion plants were resistant to the disease
c.) The onion plants were genetically identical.
d.) The onion plants were genetically different from each other.

3.) A farmer wants a propagate a good variety of a crop in a way which maintained all its desirable traits.
Which of the following methods should be used?
a.) Self-pollination
b.) Vegetative Propagation
c.) Growing seeds produced from this variety
d.) Cross-pollinating this crop with another good variety and growing the seeds resulting from the cross

4.) A sperm cell unites with an egg cell to form a zygote. Which process is taking place?
a.) Pollination c.) Asexual reproduction
b.) Fertilization d.) Vegetative propagation

5.) In sexual reproduction, what is the source of the genetic material in a zygote?
a.) An egg cell only c.) A pollen and a sperm cell
b.) A sperm cell only d.) An egg and a sperm cell

6.) Which species can produce offspring that are genetically different form their parents?
a.) A species that has few variations
b.) A species that reproduces asexually
c.) A species that reproduces sexually
d.) A species that competes with a similar species.
 7.) What is not a characteristic of sexual reproduction?
a.) Gametes from two parents untie to form a zygote
b.) Offspring are genetically identical with the parent
c.) Offspring are different from their parents and siblings
d.) Genetic variability of offspring helps to ensure survival in changing environmental conditions.

ANSWER KEY:
1.) A
2.) C
3.) B
4.) B
5.) D
6.) C
7.) B
8.)
MODULE 4: INTERACTIONS
OVERVIEW
The environment is a collection of living and nonliving things. Mosses growing on rocks, garden snails
on garden fences, and fish swimming in water are just a few examples of how living and nonliving tings
interact. The living components of the environment are also called organisms. The nonliving components make
up the physical environment of these organisms.
Organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same place form a population. The moss that
grows on rock makes up a population. Populations that live in the same place and interact with each other form
a community; goat grazing on grass, chickens feeding on grains, lizard preying on insects make up a
community.
Interactions between organisms and their environment are also familiar sight: carabaos helping farmers
till the soil, earthworms burrowing in the ground, and birds using twigs to build their nests. Organisms interact
with each other and their environment to meet their basic needs and survive.
Some interactions are beneficial; other are harmful. There are also interactions in which populations of
organisms are neither benefitted nor harmed. All these interactions take place in ecosystems.
How do organisms interact with each other and with their environment?

How is energy transferred from one organism to the other?

Your environment is a home to many kinds of living and nonliving things. You also see interactions
between them like in the rocks and fences that are inhabited by small plants and algae. These rocks that are
usually found in wet places provide anchorage and nutrients to the small plants and algae.
The plants give off oxygen in the presence of light. The fishes and snails need oxygen to survive. Plants
need carbon dioxide given off by the fishes and snails to survive.
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
There are microorganisms such as protozoa—they are single-called organisms that have a true nucleus
enclose by a membrane. Some protozoa have animal-like behavior such as movement (e.g., amoeba and
paramecium). Some protozoa have plant-like behavior, they are able to photosynthesize, and these include the
algae.
 In the environment, there are plants, animals and microscopic organisms such as bacteria and fungi. A
group of organisms of the same kind living in the same place at the same time is called a population.
Populations that interact in a given environment form a community. In a community, interactions within
and among populations may have important influences to death rate and birth rates of the organisms and, in
turn, on population growth and size – these interactions may have positive, neutral or even negative influences
on interacting populations.
MUTUALISM
Aphids are small insects that suck liquid containing sugar from the conducting tissues of plants. These
aphids get a certain amount of sugar and other nutrients from this liquid. However, much of the liquid called
honeydew is released through the aphids’ anus. The ants consume this honeydew as food. The ants, in turn,
protect the aphids from their insect predators. Thus, both species benefit from each other. This interaction
between the populations of ants and aphid is referred to as mutualism.
Some interaction among organism are easier to determine than others, and some effects can easily be
observed.
COMMENSALISM
Epiphytes are plants that depend on other plants for support. Usually, epiphytes grow on trunks and
branches of trees. Such as an epiphytic fern that attached itself on a trunk of a Narra tree without harming the
tree. The Narra tree is a host that provides a place for the fern to live. When it rains, the ferns get nutrients from
rotting leaves and other organic materials that collect at the root base of the fern plant. This relationship is
called COMMENSALIMS—one organism benefits from the host organism, while the host organism I
neither positively nor negatively affected.
 Barnacles and Other Seashells
- Barnacles adhering to the shell of oysters or mussels (talaba ot tahong): they are crustaceans whose
adults are sedentary. The motile larvae find a suitable surface and then undergo a metamorphosis to
the sedentary form. The barnacle benefits by finding a habitat where nutrients are available. In the
case of lodging on the shell of other organisms, living organisms, barnacle populations doesn’t
hamper or enhance the survival of the animals carrying them. However, some species of barnacles
are parasitic.
 Orchid plants and trees
- Orchid plant is an epiphytic plant species that grows on certain woody plants (trees). Orchid draws
its nutrients from the atmosphere, not from the host tree. Thus the orchid has no harm effect to the
coody plant.
PARASITISM
The insect larva (the parasite) gets its nutrients by eating the leaves—thereby, damaging the plant (the
host). This relationship is called PARASITISM. A parasite gets its nutrients from a living host harmed by the
interaction. Another example of parasitism is the flea that thrives on a dog. The dog is harmed by the flea that
feed on its blood.
PREDATION
Animals kill and eat other animals. This interaction is called PREDATION. An animal that kills and
eat other animals is called a predator. An animal that is killed and eaten by its predator is called a prey. Prey
animals are usually smaller and less powerful than the predator that eats them.
 In a given community, predators compete with other predators for prey animals. In the wild, a predator’s
prey may be another prey’s predator. This means that while an animal hunts and feeds upon another animal, it
can also become prey to a larger and stronger predator.
COMPETITION
When two populations use the same resources, they participate in a biological interaction called
COMPETITION. Resources for which different populations compete include food, nesting sites, habitat, light,
nutrients, and water. Usually competition occurs for resources in short supply.

ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE ECOSYSTEMS

Why does an organism eat another organism?
Plant, animals, and microorganisms must obtain energy to enable them to move, grow, repair damaged
body parts and reproduce.
Plants are capable of converting energy from the Sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose
(food). The process is called photosynthesis; it uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight. Most plants make
much more food each day than they need. Excess glucose is converted into starch by the plants and is stored
either in the roots, stem, leaves, tubers, seeds, or in fruits.
There are also microorganisms that can photosynthesize such as spirogyra (algae), cyanobacteria
(anabaena), Euglena, Diatoms that are present in ponds, in rice paddies or any fresh water ecosystem.
Humans and other animals are not capable of making their own food. They are dependent on the organic
matter made by photosynthetic organisms. These organisms that include the plants and some microorganisms
are considered as producers.
Animals and humans must eat either plants or other animals to obtain energy. Organisms that feed on
other organisms are called consumers. Those that get their energy be eating plants only are called first order
consumers.
Some energy in the first-order consumer is not used by the consumer itself. This energy is made
available to another consumer A consumer that eats the plant-eaters for energy is called a second-order
consumer, examples of which are snake that eats mice, chicken that eats caterpillar.
A second-order consumer gets only a fraction of energy from the first-order consumer that it fed upon. A
part of this energy is stored and may be passed on to another consumer. A consumer that eats a second-order
consumer is called third-order consumer, example of which are crocodile eats a chicken.

FOOD CHAIN
 The transfer of energy can be sequenced. The sequence of energy transfers among organisms to obtain
energy and nutrients is call a FOOD CHAIN. A food chain starts with the energy source, the Sun. The next
link in the chain is the group of organisms that make their own food—the photosynthetic organisms
(producers). Next in the sequence are the organisms that eat the producers; they are the first-order consumers.
The next link in the chain is the group of animals that eat the first-order consumers; they are called the second-
order consumers. These organisms, in turn, are eaten by larger animals—the predators; they are also called,
third-order consumers Each food chain ends with a top predator-an animal with no natural enemies.
SCAVENGERS and DECOMPOSERS
When plants and animals die, the energy in their bodies can be transferred to another group of
organisms. Consumers that look for and eat dead animals or plants are considered scavengers. House flies,
cockroaches, maggots and ants are scavengers.
Once the scavengers are done with eating a dead organism, the decomposers (microorganisms) take
over and consume whatever was left by the scavengers. Decomposers consume any dead plants and animals.
There are different kinds of decomposers performing different functions in the ecosystem. Some groups
of bacteria prefer breaking down meat or waste from the consumers that eat meat.
Breads that had been kept for some time can have molds. Sometimes, you see a trunk of tree with
mushrooms growing on it. These are fungi and they are decomposers; they prefer to grow on starchy food,
fruits, vegetables and dead plants.
Microorganisms that include bacteria and fungi break down proteins, starches and other complex
organic substances that were once part of living things. During the process of decomposition, decomposers
release nutrients from the organic material back into the soil, making the soil available to plants and other
producers.

Energy transfer in an ecosystem follow a process. The ultimate source of energy for all living things is
the Sun. The producers of the ecosystem take energy from sunlight and convert it to chemical energy. This
energy is passed on to consumers and then to decomposers. The energy flow only in one direction and is not
cycled back.
In contrast, the materials in the form of nutrients needed by living things are cycled between organisms
and the environment. These materials are used up by the producers to make other forms of materials that are
cycled among the consumers and finally returned to the environment by the decomposers. Energy flows and
materials are cycled in the ecosystem. We live in a dynamic world, indeed!

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) A plant needs water, radiant energy, minerals, oxygen and carbon dioxide to live. This is statement
shows that an organism depends on which of the following?
a.) Abiotic components c.) Climate
b.) Biotic components d.) Minerals
2.) Which of the following represents an abiotic component of the environment?
a.) Sprouting mongo seeds
b.) Dugong nursing its young
c.) Grass on mountain slopes
d.) Flowering lava
 3.) Setting up an aquarium that represents a mini ecosystem has to have which of the following
requirements?
a.) Fish and water only
b.) Water, sand, soil and light only
c.) Populations of fish, snails and plants only
d.) Communities of different species of organisms, water, san, soil and sunlight.

4.) Frogs feed on insects. Which type of consumer is the frog?

a.) Producer
b.) First Order Consumer
c.) Second Order Consumer
d.) Third Order Consumer

5.) Which of the following is the correct food chain?

a.) Grass grasshoppermaya birdhawk
b.) Grassgrasshoppersnakefroghawk
c.) Grassmousesnakehawk
d.) Grassmousecrocodile

6.) Which of the following describes parasitism?

a.) Barnacle sticking on the shell of an oyster
b.) Fern plant growing on a trunk of a tree
c.) An orchid living on a truck of a mahogany tree
d.) An insect larva staying on the leaves of a plant.

7.) In a given environment, which of the following refers to a population?

a.) Any organisms that live together and eat in one place
b.) Several numbers of organisms living in the same place
c.) Different organisms live together in the same place and in the same time.
d.) Group of organisms of the same kind living in the same place and at the same time.

8.) Why are plants considered as producers?

a.) Plants produce fruits that can be eaten by animals.
b.) Plants produce root crops that supply carbohydrates to animals.
c.) Plants provide vegetable for animals and human consumption
d.) Plants convert energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose (food).

ANSWER KEY:
1.) A
2.) D
3.) D
4.) C
5.) C
6.) D
7.) D
8.) D
 Unit 3:
Module 1: Describing Motion
Module 2: Waves around you
Module 3: Sound
Module 4: Light
Module 5: Heat
Module 6: Electricity
MODULE 1: DESCRIBING MOTION
OVERVIEW
Many of the things around us move. Some move slowly like the turtles and clouds, others move much more
quickly like the satellites. Because motion is so common, it seems to be very simple. But in science, describing motion
actually entails careful use of some definitions.
When can we say than an object is in motion?
How do we describe the motion of an object?

WHERE?
Before you will be able to describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to tell exactly where it is
positioned. Describing exact position entails two ideas: describing how far the object is from the point of reference and
describing its direction relative to that point of reference.
HOW FAR?
In science, motion is defined as the change in position for a
particular time interval. You can then start describing motion with the
question, “How far did the object travel?”. There are actually two ways to
answer this question.
First is by getting the total length of the path travelled by the object.
Example, a dog ran 10 m to the east, then 5 to the south and another 10 to the
west. So it has travelled a total of 25 meters. The other way is measuring by
the distance between the initial position and final position of the object. The
dog has travelled 5 meters to the south.
In science, the first measurement gives the distance travelled by the object (represented by broken lines) while the
second measurement gives its displacement (represent by continuous line).

 DISTANCE refers to the length of the entire path that the object travelled.
 DISPLACEMENT refers to the shortest distance between the object’s two positions, like the
distance between its point of origin and its point of destination, no matter what path it took to get to the
destination.

When a graph is plotted in terms of the distance travelled by the object and
the time it took to cover such distance, the graph can be called distance-time
graph. If the graph is plotted in terms of displacement and time, it is called
displacement-time graph.

 Displacement is defined as measurement of length plus direction

while distance is defined as measurement of length only.
- Displacement always follow a straight line. Distance does not
always follow a straight line.
- Displacement measures the length of the straight line that
connects the object’s point of origin and its point of destination. Distance measures the length of the path
travelled by the object
- Displacement can be equal to the distance if the path travelled is a straight line.
 - Displacement can only be shorter but it can never be greater than the distance. Displacement is the shortest
length between the object’s point of origin and its point of destination.
HOW FAST?
- Acceleration is introduced as due to the change in the speed of the moving object.
- Acceleration may also be due to the change in the direction of the object.
- Acceleration by definition, is the change in velocity over a time interval and velocity as mentioned earlier is
speed plus direction.
- Even if there is no change in speed, but there is a change in direction, acceleration is achieved.
After determining how far the object moves, the next question will be “How fast did the object move?”. This information
can be provided by the object’s speed or velocity.
Are you familiar with the traffic signs below? These signs tell us the maximum or minimum speed limits allowed by law
for road vehicles. In general, the minimum speed limit in the Philippines is 60 km/h and the maximum speed limit is 100
km/h.
SPEED
Speed is defined as distance travelled divided by the time travel
SPEED = Distance Travelled
Time of Travel
The units of speed can be miles per hour (mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or meters per second (m/s).
SPEED and DIRECTION
In describing the motion of an object, we do not just describe how fast the object moves. We also consider the direction
to where it is going. Speed with direction is referred to as velocity. The sample weather below will show you the
importance of knowing not just the speed of the storm but also its direction.
Whenever there is a storm
coming, we are notified of its impending
danger in terms of its speed and direction.
Aside from this, we are also informed about its
strength. Do you know that as the storm
moves, its wind move in circles? The circular
speed of the winds of the storm determines its
strength. Different storm signals are given in
places depending on the circular speed of the
winds of the storm and the distance from the
center.
Constant speed vs Instantaneous speed
If you solved for the distance travelled by each participant over the time he took to cover such distance,
then you have computed for his average speed. But why average speed and not just speed? It is considered average speed
because it represents the speed of the participant throughout his travel. During his travel, there were instants that his speed
would vary. His speed at an instant is called instantaneous speed. Similarly, the velocity of a moving body at an instant is
call instantaneous velocity. The instantaneous speed may be equal, greater than, or less than the average speed.
When an object’s instantaneous speed values are always the same, then it means that the object is
moving the constant speed. We refer to this as constant motion. Where you will be and what time you will reach your
destination is easily predicted when you move at constant speed of velocity.
Are you familiar with the speedometer? Speedometer is a device used to measure the instantaneous
speed of a vehicle. Speedometers are important to the drivers because they need to know how fast they are going so they
know if they are already driving beyond the speed limit or not.
HOW FAST IS THE VELOCITY CHANGING?
In reality, objects do not always move at constant velocity. Storms
like “Juaning” also do not change their speeds, direction or both.
Acceleration is the change in speed or velocity for a time interval
of 1 second.
SUMMARY

 If an object does not change its position at a given time interval, then it is
at rest or its speed is zero or not accelerating
 If an object covers equal distance at equal intervals of time, then it is
moving at constant speed and still not accelerating.
 If an object covers varying distances at equal intervals at time, the it is moving with changing speed or
velocity. It means that the object is accelerating.

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) When an object considered to be in motion?
I. When its position changes with respect to a point of reference.
II. When its distance changes with respect to a point of reference
III. When its direction changes with respect to a point of reference.

a.) I and II only c.) II and III only

b.) I and III only d.) I, II, and III

For questions 2 and 3, refer to the table below. Data were obtained from a 200-meter dash competition.

Female Athlete Recorded Time Male Athlete Recorded Time

1 26.5 1 22.4
2 26.1 2 21.9
3 25.3 3 23.0
4 26.7 4 22.6

2.) Which of the following statements is/are true?

I. The male athletes are faster than the female athletes.
II. Compared to the speed of the fastest male athlete, the average speed of the fastest female athlete is
slightly less.
a.) I only c.) Both I and II
b.) II only d.) Neither I nor II

3.) How do you compute for the average speed of each athlete?
a.) Multiply 200 meters by the recorded time of travel.
b.) Divide 200 meters by the recorded time of travel.
c.) Divide the recorded time of travel by 200 meters.
d.) Divide 200 meters by a twice the recorded time of travel.

4.) Which of the following is true about an object that travels 5 meters to the left, then 2 meters up, then another 5
meters to the right?
a.) The displacement of the object is equal to 12 meters.
 b.) The total distance travelled by the object is equal to 12 meters.
c.) The displacement of the object is equal to 12 meters down.
d.) The total distance travelled by the object is equal to 12 meters down.

5.) Which of the following statements is NOT true about the object moving with constant speed?
a.) The object is not accelerating
b.) The speed of the object is equal to zero
c.) The distance travelled by the object increases uniformly
d.) The speed of the object remains the same all throughout the travel

MODULE 2: WAVES AROUND YOU ANSWER KEY:

1.) D
OVERVIEW 2.) C
3.) B
Waves occur all around you in the physical world. When you throw a stone into a 4.) B
lake, water waves spread out from the splash. When you strum the strings of a guitar, sound waves
5.) B
carry the noise all around you. When you switch on a lamp, light waves flood the room. Water, sound,
and light waves differ in important ways but they all share the basic properties of wave motion. For instance, you can see
water waves and surfers would say that they enjoy riding the waves. On the other hand, you don’t see sound waves and
light waves but you experienced them in other ways. Your ears can detect sound waves and your skin can get burned by
ultraviolet waves if you stay under the sun for too long.
A wave is a periodic disturbance that moves away from the source and carries energy with it. For
example, earthquake waves show us that the amount of energy carried by a wave can do work on objects by exerting
forces that move objects from their original positions.
1.) Explain how waves carry energy from one place to another;
2.) Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves;
3.) Distinguish between mechanical and electromagnetic waves; and
4.) Demonstrate the relationship among frequency, amplitude, wavelength and wave velocity.
WARM UP. WHAT ARE WAVES?
Vibration is the repetitive motion such as what you do with your hand while waving. A vibration causes
wave motion. When you observe a wave, the source is always a vibration.
TRANSVERSE WAVES
Transverse wave is a moving wave whose oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
A simple example is given by the waves that can be created on horizontal length of string by anchoring one end and
moving the other end up and down.
Another example is the waves that are created on the membrane of a drum. The waves propagate in
directions that are parallel to the membrane plane, but the membrane itself gets displaced up and down, perpendicular to
that plane.
Light is another example of a transverse wave, where the oscillation are the electric and magnetic fields,
which point at right angles to the ideal light rays that describe the direction of propagation.
Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids; the oscillation in this case are displacement of the
solid particles away from their relaxed position, in directions perpendicular to the propagation of the wave. Since those
displacements correspond to a local shear deformation of the material, a transverse wave of this nature is called a shear
wave. In seismology, shear waves are also called secondary waves or S-waves.
Transverse waves are contrasted with longitudinal waves, where the oscillations occur in the direction
of the wave.
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Longitudinal wave, wave consisting of periodic disturbance or vibration that takes place in the same
direction as the advance of the wave. A coiled spring that is compressed at one end and then released, experiences a wave
of compression that travels its length, followed by a stretching; a point on any coil of spring will move with the wave and
return along the same path, passing through the neutral position and then reversing its motion again.
Sound moving through air also compresses and rarefies the gas in the direction of travel of the sound
wave as they vibrate back and forth The P (Primary) seismic waves are also longitudinal.
In a longitudinal wave, each particle of matter vibrates about its normal rest position and along the
axis of propagation, and all particles participating in the wave motion behave in the same manner, except that there is
progressive change in phase of vibration. Each particle completes its cycle of reaction at a later time. The combined
motions result in the advance of alternating regions of compression and rarefaction it the direction of propagation.

 PERIODIC WAVE – can be regarded as a series of pulses. One pulse follows another in regular succession.
SURFACE WAVES
Surface wave is a mechanical wave (oscillation of matter, and therefore transfer energy through a
medium) that propagates along the interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the
surface of liquids such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occur within liquids, at the interface between two fluids
with different densities. Elastic surface waves can travel along the surface solids, such as Reyleigh or Love waves.
Electromagnetic waves can also propagate as “surface waves” in that they can be guided along with a refractive index
gradient or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground
wave is guided wave that propagates close to the surface of the earth.
SUMMARY
1.) Waves can be typified according to the direction of motion of the vibrating particles with respect to the direction
in which the waves travel.
a.) Wave in a rope are called TRANSVERSE WAVES because the individual segments of the rope vibrate
perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel.
b.) When each portion of a coil spring is alternatively compressed and extended, LONGITUDINAL WAVES
are produced.
c.) Waves on the surface of a body of water are a combination of transverse and longitudinal waves Each water
molecule moves in a circular pattern as the waves pass by.
2.) Waves can set objects in motion, which means that the waves carry energy.
3.) When waves pass by, the particles vibrate alternatively to transport the energy of the wave.
ANATOMY OF A WAVE
How can you measure the wavelength of a wave?
1.) The wavelength of a wave refers to the distance between any successive identical parts of the wave. For
instance, the distance from one crest to the next is equal to tone full wavelength. In the
How can you measure the frequency of a wave?
If you increase the frequency of vibration
by jerking the end of the rope at a faster
rate, the wavelength becomes shorter.
The frequency of a series of periodic
waves is the number of waves that pass a
particular point every one second.
Period = 1
frequency
How can you measure the speed of a wave?

Wave speed = distance travelled per

second = frequency x wavelength

SUMMARY
1.) Wave speed, wavelength, and frequency is related by their equation.
a. Wave speed = frequency x wavelength.
The frequency of the wave is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
2.) Suppose you observed an anchored boat to rise and fall once every 4.0 seconds as waves whose crests are 25
meters apart pass by it.
a. What is the frequency of the observed waves?
The frequency of the observed waves is 0.25 Hz.
Frequency = 1/period
= 1/ 4.0 seconds
 = 0.25 Hz
b. What is the speed of the waves?
The speed of the waves is 6.3 m/s
Wave speed = (frequency)(wavelength)
= (0.25) (25m)
= 6.3 m/s
MECHANICAL VS ELECTRICAL WAVES
WHAT ARE MECHANICAL WAVES?
Mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter, and therefore transfers energy through a
medium. While waves can move over long distances, the movement of the medium of transmission—the material—is
limited. Therefore, the oscillating material does not move far from its initial equilibrium position. Mechanical waves
transport energy. This energy propagates in the same direction as the wave. Any kind of wave (mechanical or
electromagnetic) has a certain energy. Mechanical waves can be produced only in media which possess elasticity and
inertia.
A mechanical wave requires an initial energy input. Once this initial energy is added, the wave travels
through the medium until all its energy is transferred. In contrast, electromagnetic wave requires no medium, but can still
travel through one.
One important property of mechanical waves is that their amplitudes are measured in an unusual way,
displacement divided by (reduced) wavelength. Some of the most common examples of mechanical waves are water
waves, sound waves, and seismic waves. The three types of mechanical waves are transverse, longitudinal waves and
surface waves.
Characteristic
They can be generated by vibrating a medium. A medium is required because vibrating particles are
needed for the wave to travel. An application of this is such as the earthquake. Earthquake waves are caused by a vibration
due to colliding tectonic plates. The medium of propagation of earthquake waves is the earth.

WHAT ARE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES?

Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an
electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric fields.
Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic field. They
are hence known as ‘electromagnetic’ waves. They electric field and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are
perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They are also perpendicular to the direction of the EM wave.
EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in
Examples of EM Waves;
vacuum. They are deflected neither by the electric field, nor by the magnetic field.
However, they are capable of showing interference or diffraction. An electromagnetic  Radio waves
wave can travel through anything—be it air, a solid material or vacuum. It does not
need a medium to propagate or travel from one place to another. Mechanical waves
 Microwaves
(like sound waves or water waves), on the other hand, need a medium
to travel. EM waves are ‘transverse’ waves. This means that they are  Infrared waves
measured by their amplitude (height) and wavelength (distance  Visible light
between the highest/lowest points of two consecutive waves).  Ultraviolet waves
 X-rays
The highest point of a wave is known as ‘crest’,
whereas the lowest point is known as ‘trough’. Electromagnetic  Gamma Rays
waves can be split into a range of frequencies. This is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
CHARACTERISTICS
  Among the electromagnetic waves, the higher the frequency, the shorted the wavelength.
The electromagnetic spectrum shows the various types
of electromagnetic waves, the range of their frequencies and wavelength.
The wave speed of all electromagnetic waves is the same and equal to the
speed of light which is approximately equal to 300 000 000 m/s
The sun is an important source of ultraviolet (UV) waves,
which is the main cause of sunburn. Sunscreen lotions are transparent to
visible light but absorbs most UV light. The higher a sunscreen’s solar
protection factor (SPF), the greater the percentage of UV light absorved.
Compare the frequency and energy carried by UV waves to that of visible
light, UV waves have higher energy and frequency compared to visible
light which is harmful to the skin.
SUMMARY
1.) Mechanical waves like sound, water waves, earthquake waves, and waves in a stretched string propagate
through a medium while electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, visible light and gamma rays, do not
require a material medium for their passage.
What happens when waves pass by?
1.) Transverse waves occur when the individual particles or segments of a medium vibrate from side to side
perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel.
2.) Longitudinal waves occur when the individual particles of a medium vibrate back and forth in the direction in
which the waves travel.
3.) The motion of water molecules on the surface of deep water in which a wave is propagating is a combination of
transverse and longitudinal displacements, with the result that molecules at the surface move in nearly circular
paths. Each molecule is displaced both horizontally and vertically from its normal position.
4.) While energy is transported by virtue of the moving pattern, it is important to remember that there is no net
transport of matter in wave motion. The particles vibrate about a normal position and do not undergo a net
motion.
How can you describe waves?
1.) The crest and trough refer to the highest point and lowest point of a wave patter, respectively.
2.) The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a particle of the medium on either side of its normal
position when the wave passed.
3.) The frequency of periodic waves is the number of waves that pass a particular point for every one second while
the wavelength is the distance between adjacent crests or troughs.
4.) The period is the time required for one complete wave to pass a particular point.
5.) The speed of the wave refers to the distance the wave travels per unit time. It is related to the frequency of the
wave and wavelength through the following equation.
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
How do waves propagate?
1.) In mechanical waves, some physical medium is being disturbed for the wave to propagate. A wave traveling on a
string would not exist without the string. Sound waves could not travel through air if there were no air molecules.
With mechanical waves, what we interpret as a wave corresponds to the propagation of a disturbance through a
medium.
2.) On the other hand, electromagnetic waves do not require a medium to propagate; some examples of
electromagnetic waves are visible light, radio waves, television signals, and x-rays.
PRE/ POST TEST
1.) The amplitude of the wave in the diagram above is
given by letter ___.
 2.) Indicate the interval that represents a half wavelength.
a.) A to E c.) A to B
b.) B to F d.) C to E
3.) Mechanical waves transport energy from one place to another through
a.) Alternately vibrating particles of the medium
b.) Particles traveling with the wave
c.) Vibrating particles and traveling particles
d.) None of the above.
4.) In a transverse wave, the individual particles of the medium
a.) Move in circles c.) move parallel to the direction of travel
b.) Move in ellipses d.) move perpendicular to the direction of travel
5.) The higher the frequency of the wave,
a.) The lower its speed c.) the greater its amplitude
b.) The shorted its wavelength d.) the longer its period
6.) Waves in a lake are 5.00 m in length and pass an anchored boat 1.25 s apart. The spped of the wave is
a.) 0.25 m/s c.) 6.25 m/s
b.) 4.00 m/s d.) impossible to find from the information given
7.) Energy from the sun reaches the earth through
a.) Ultraviolet waves c.) mechanical waves
b.) Infrared waves d.) electromagnetic waves
PART B: SOUND
8.) Which of the following objects will produce sound?
a.) Soft objects c.) vibrating objects
b.) Radio stations d.) objects under pressure
9.) Which of the following best describes a high frequency sound? It has ________.
a.) Low pitch c.) low energy
b.) High pitch d.) A and C
10.)Compare to a thin string of the same length and tightness a thick string produces sounds of _______.
a.) The same pitch c.) higher pitch
b.) Lower pitch d.) lower than higher pitch
11.)A sound wave is a ________________.
a) Longitudinal wave c.) standing wave
b) Transverse wave d.) shock wave
12.)Which of the following is not capable of transmitting sound?
a.) Air c.) steel
b.) Water d.) a vacuum
13.)Which of the following would most likely transmit sound best?
a.) Steel in cabinet c.) Air in your classroom
b.) Water in the ocean d.) water in a swimming pool.

PART C: LIGHT
1.) Which of the following is NOT an electromagnetic wave?
a.) Infrared c.) Sound
b.) Radio d.) X-ray
2.) How does the wavelength of infrared (IR) compare with the wavelength of ultraviolet (UV) waves?
a.) Infrared wave shave longer wavelength
b.) Infrared waves have shorter wavelength
c.) IR waves have the same wavelength as the UV waves.
d.) IR is not comparable in wavelength with the UV waves.
3.) Among all the electromagnetic waves (EM), which has the highest frequency?
a.) Infrared radiation c.) Ultraviolet
 b.) Radio Wave d.) Gamma Rays
4.) ROYGBIV is the basic component of white light. Which color of light carries the most energy?
a.) Blue c.) Orange
b.) Green d.) Red
5.) Light is an electromagnetic wave. Which characteristics is common in all electromagnetic waves?
a.) Amplitude c.) speed
b.) Frequency d.) wavelength
MODULE 3: SOUND ANSWER KEY:
Part A Part B Part C
OVERVIEW
1.) D 1.) C 1.) C
Sound propagation, characteristics of 2.) D 2.) B 2.) A
sound—pitch, loudness, and quality, and types of sound 3.) A 3.) B 3.) D
according to quality – infrasonic, audible and ultrasonic 4.) D 4.) A 4.) A
5.) B 5.) D 5.) C
will be acquainted.
6.) B 6.) A
In the previous module you learned about 7.) D
wave properties and common characteristics like pitch and
loudness. You will also learn the 2 kinds of waves according to propagation. These are the longitudinal and
transverse waves. Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave. It is also classified as a mechanical wave. Thus,
there has to be matter for which sound should travel and propagate. This matter is better known as medium.
How does sound propagate?
When we talk or make any sound, our vocal cords vibrate. When there are no vibrations felt, no
sound is produced. This means that sounds are caused by vibrations. Vibrations of molecules are to the to-
and-fro or back-and-forth movement of molecules. Vibrations are considered as disturbance that travels
through a medium. This vibratory motion causes energy to transfer to our ears and is interpreted by our brain.
Sound waves are examples of longitudinal waves. They are also known as mechanical waves since sound waves
need medium in order to propagate.
Sound waves can travel in air. When they come in contact with our eardrums, the vibrations of
the air force our eardrums to vibrate which is sensed and interpreted by our brain.
Can sound waves also travel in other media like solids and liquids?
Sound is produced by the light tapping of the table with a pencil or a ruler. This can be heard
clearly at the other end of the table. This shows that sound waves can also travel through wood or solid.
Sound is more distinct in solids than in air. This also means that sound is heard much louder when it travels in
solids than in air.
What about liquids? Particles of solids are more closely packed than particles of liquid and gas.
This is why sound produced in solid is much more distinct and loud than when it is propagated or produced in
solids is much more distinct and loud than when it is propagated or produced in liquids and gas. Between
liquids and gases, on the other hand, liquid particles appear more closely spaced than gases. This means that
louder sound will be produced in liquids than in gases.
Spacing of particles of the medium like solid, liquid and gas is important factor on how
would is transmitted. Liquid particles are closer to each other than the particles in the gas. Sound waves are
transmitted easier in liquids. Between liquids and solids, the
particles of solids are even closer together than the liquid
molecules; therefore, sound travels even faster in solids than in
liquids. Since different media transmit wound differently,
sound travels at different speeds in different materials. Since
solid is the best transmitter of sound, sound travels fastest in
solids and slowest in gases.
SOUND SPEED IS DEPENDENT ON SEVERAL
FACTORS:
 Sound speed is dependent on several factors such as (1) atmospheric pressure, (2) relative
humidity, and (3) atmospheric temperature. High values of these elements lead to faster moving sound.
When you are in the low lands and the surrounding is hot, sound travels fast. Do you want to know why sound
travels faster in hot air? There are more molecular interactions that happen in hot air. This is because the hot
air particles of air fain more kinetic energy and so there is also an increase in the mean velocity of the
molecules. Since sound is a consequence of energy transfer through collisions, more collisions and faster
collisions means faster sound.
 Elastic Property and Inertial Property
Speed of sound basically depends on the elastic property and the inertial property of the
medium on which it propagates. The elastic property is concerned with the ability of the material to retain or
maintain its shape and not to deform when a force is applied on it. Solids as compared to liquids and gases have
the highest elastic property. Consequently, solid is the medium on which sound travels fastest. This means that
the greater the elastic property, the faster the sound waves travel. The inertial property, on the other hand, is
the tendency of the material to maintain its state of motion. More inertial property means the more inert (more
massive or greater mass density) the individual particles of the medium, the less responsive they will be to the
interactions between the neighboring particles and the slower that the wave will be.
Within a single phase medium, like air for example, humid air is more inert than dry air. This is
because water that has changed to vapor is mixed with the air. This phenomenon increases the mass density of
air and so increases the inertial property of the medium. This will eventually decrease the speed of sound on
that medium.
 Sound cannot travel in vacuum
Remember that sound is a mechanical wave which needs medium in order to propagate. If no
matter exists, there will be no sound. In the outer space, sound will not be transmitted.
Sound waves possess characteristics common to all types of waves. These are frequency,
wavelength, amplitude, speed or velocity, period and phase. Just like other waves, sound also exhibits wave
properties are pitch and loudness of sound. Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of sound. Loudness is how
soft or how intense the sound is and perceived by the ear and interpreted by the brain.
PITCH
The highness or lowness of sound is known as the pitch of a sound or a musical note. The pitch
of a high frequency sound is also high and a low frequency sound is also;
lower in pitch.
EAR
Our ear and that of animals are the very sensitive sound
detectors. The ear is a part of the peripheral auditory system. It is divided
into three major parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
The outer ear called pinna collects the sound waves and
focuses them into the ear canal. This canal transmits the sound waves to
the eardrum
The ear canal is the eardrum membrane or the
tympanum. It separates the outer and the middle ears physically. Air vibrations set the eardrum membrane in
motion that causes the three smallest bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) to move. These three bones convert
the small-amplitude vibration of the eardrum into large-amplitude oscillations. These oscillations are
transferred to the inner ear through the oval window.
 Behind the oval window is a snail-shell shaped liquid—filled organ called the cochlea. The
large-amplitude oscillations create waves that travel in liquid. These sounds are converted into electrical
impulses, which are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve. The brain, interprets these signals as words, music
or noise.
We can only sense within the frequency range of about 20 Hz (Hertz, unit in frequency) to
about 20000 Hz. Vibrational frequencies beyond 20000 Hz is called ultrasonic frequencies while extremely
low frequencies are known as infrasonic frequencies. Our ear cannot detect ultrasonic or infrasonic waves. But
some animals like dogs can hear sounds as high as 50000 Hz while bats can detect sounds as high as 100000
Hz.
We can see image of your baby brother or sister when the OB-Gyne asks your mommy or nanay
to undergo ultrasound. Ultrasonic waves are used to help physicians see our internal organs. Nowadays,
ultrasonic technology is of three kinds: 2-dimensional, 3-dimensional and 4-dimensional ultrasonic
technologies, the feature of the fetus are very clearly captured.
It has also been found that ultrasonic waves can be used as rodent and insect exterminators.
The very loud ultrasonic sources in a building will usually drive the rodents away or disorient cockroaches
causing them to die from the induced erratic behavior.
LOUDNESS and INTENSITY
In sound, intensity refers to the amount of energy a sound wave has. High amplitude sounds
usually carry large energy and have higher intensity while low amplitude sound carries lesser amount of energy
and have lower intensity.
Sound Intensity
Sound intensity is measured by various instruments like the oscilloscope. Loudness is a
psychological sensation that differs for different people. Loudness is subjective but is still related to the
intensity of sound. In fact, despite the subjective variations, loudness varies nearly logarithmically with
intensity. A logarithmic scale is used to describe sound intensity, which roughly corresponds to loudness. The
unit of intensity level for sound is the decibel (dB ), which
was named after Alexander Graham Bell who invented
the telephone. On the decibel scale, an increase of 1 dB
means that sound intensity is increased by a factor of 10.
Father an don duo interprets the loudness of
a sound differently. The son considers the rock music a soft
music while the father considers it a loud sound. The father
may even interpret the sound as a distorted sound, which is
known as noise. Noise is wave that is not pleasing to the
senses.
SUMMARY
 Sound waves are mechanical waves that need for a medium for sound to propagate.
 Vibrations of the medium create a series of compression and rarefaction. Which results to
longitudinal waves.
 Sound can travel in all media but not in vacuum.
 Sound is fastest in matter that is closely packed like solid and slowest in gas.
 Speed of sound is dependent on factors like temperature, humidity, on the other hand makes sound
travel slower.
 As pressure is increase, speed is also increased.
 Inertial and elastic properties of the medium also play an important part in the speed of sound. Solids
tend to be highly elastic than gases and thus sound travel fastest in solids.
 In a single phase matte however, the inertial property which is the tendency of the material to maintain
its motion also affect speed of sound.
 Humid air is more massive and is more inert than dry air.
 This condition brings lesser molecular interactions and eventually slower sound.
 Sound, just like other waves do have characteristics such as speed, frequency, wavelength,
amplitude, phase and period.
 Like any other wave, sound exhibit properties like reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction.
Other properties are loudness and pitch.
 Pitch is dependent on the frequency of sound wave. The higher frequency the higher the pitch of the
sound produced.
 Organisms like us are capable of sensing sound through our ears. Just like other organisms, our ears do
have parts that perform special tasks until the auditory signals reach and are interpreted by our brain.
 Frequencies beyond the audible to human are known as ultrasonic (beyond the upper limit) and
infrasonic (below the lower limit).
 Intensity and loudness are quantitative and qualitative descriptions of the energy carried by the wave.
 High amplitude waves are intense and are sensed as loud sound. Low amplitude sound waves are soft
sound.
 Music is a special sound that forms patterns and are appealing to our sense of hearing.
MODULE 4: LIGHT
OVERVIEW:
The concept of light: light production and propagation, and characteristic of light – intensity,
brightness and color.
In this module, you will learn more about light. You will also find out that there are different
sources of light and that light exhibits different characteristics and properties.
What are the common sources of light?
How do these common sources produce light?
What are the common properties and characteristics of light?
Sir Isaac Newton believed that light behaves like a particle while Christian Huygens believed
that light behaves like a wave. A 3rd scientist, Max Planck came up with what is now known as the Dual-
Nature of Light. He explained that light can be a particle and can also be a wave. To complete our knowledge
about the nature of light, James Clark Maxwell proposed the Electromagnetic Theory of Light.
While these scientists dig deep: into the nature of light and how light are propagated, let us be
more familiar with ordinary materials we use as common sources of light. The sun for example is known as a
natural source of light. Sun is also considered as a luminous body (an object capable of producing its own
light). Other sources are the lamps, bulb, and candles. These are the artificial sources.
In your early year, you learned about energy transformation. Energy transformation is needed
to convert or transform forms of energy to light or other forms. In bulbs, electric potential is converted to light.
In lamps, chemical energy is transformed to light.
BRIGHTNESS
Brightness of light depends on the source and the distance from the source. Brightness
however, is qualitative and is dependent of the person’s perception. Quantitatively, brightness can be
expressed as luminous intensity with a unit known as candela. The unit expression came from the fact that one
candle can approximately represent the amount of visible radiation emitted by a candle flame. However,
this decades-ago assumption is inaccurate. But if you are using a photometer, luminous intensity refers to the
amount of light point source within a solid angle of one steradian.
Varied chemical sources produced different light intensity. Likewise, different distances from
the light source provide varied intensity.
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
As mentioned earlier, James Clark Maxwell discovered the Electromagnetic Theory of
Light. He combined the concepts of light, electricity and magnetism to come up with his theory forming
electromagnetic waves. Since these are waves they also exhibit different characteristics of waves such as
wavelength, frequency and wave speed which you have studied in the previous module. There are different
forms of electromagnetic waves arranged according to frequency. This arrangement of the electromagnetic
waves is known as Electromagnetic spectrum. The visible light of which is known as white light or visible
light.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Spectrum
The characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum are the propagation features and the
amount of information, which signals can carry. In general, signals sent using the higher frequencies have
shorter propagation distances but a higher data-carrying capacity. These physical characteristics of the spectrum
limit the range of application for which any particular band is suitable. Some spectrum (such as in the (UHF)
band 300-3000 MHz) is known to be suitable for a wide variety of services and is in great demand.
There are two important types of transmissions to understand: analog and digital. Analog
signal transmission information (sound, video or data) travels in a continuous wave whose strength and
frequency vary directly with a changing physical quantity at the source. Digital signal transmission information
is converted to ones and zeros which are formatted and sent as electrical pulses. Advantage of using digital
signal include greater accuracy, noise reduction (unwanted signals) and an increased capacity for sending
information.
 Frequency and wavelength are related for a specific region of the spectrum. While the frequency
increases, the wavelength decreases.
 The product of frequency and wavelength for all spectrum regions is constant. This is equal to the
speed of light in vacuum.
 Energy is related to frequency for as the frequency increases, the energy also increases.
UV rays are highly energetic than other spectral regions on its left. This could be a possible
reason why we are not advised to stay under the sun after 9:00 in the morning. Prolong use of mobile phones
may cause ear infection. This may be due to a higher energy emitted by microwaves used in cellular phones
than radio waves commonly used in other communication devices.
VISIBLE LIGHT
Sir Isaac Newton used a prism to show that light which we ordinarily see as white consists of
different colors. Dispersion is a phenomenon in which a prism separates white light into its component
colors.
 Violet - highest frequency; shortest wavelength
 Red - lowest frequency; longest wavelength
 Wavelength and frequency of the different colors, the wavelength decreases as the frequency is
increased. (inversely proportional)
 The product of frequency and wavelength in all color lights is constant and equal to the speed of light in
vacuum.
 The speed of all color light in air is constant and is equal to the speed of visible light.
 White light separates in color light due to the process known as dispersion. As white light enters the air
glass interface, different color light exhibit different indices thus separates into the visible color lights.
Light accordingly has wavelike nature and particle-like nature. As a wave, it is part of the
electromagnetic waves as the visible spectrum. This visible spectrum is also known as white light. White
light undergoes dispersion when it passes through a prism. The variations of refractive indices result to
variations in the refraction of color lights dependent on the frequencies (and wavelength) of the color lights.
This brings about blue light being refracted more than the other color lights and thus appears to be bent.
However, light travels in a straight line path in a particular medium.
Brightness or intensity and colors are special properties of light. These can be observed in
different phenomena such as rainbows, red sunsets, and blue sky. You can identify many other
applications of light and colors as you become keen observers of natural phenomena.
DISPERSION
Dispersion, a special kind of refraction, provided us color light. This phenomenon is observed
when white light passes through a triangular prism. When white light enters a prism and travels slower in speed
than in vacuum, color separation is observed due to variation in the frequencies (and wavelength) of color
lights. The variations in frequencies (and wavelengths) are caused by different refractive indices of the varying
color light. Thus, blue light with greater refractive index refracts more and appears to bend more than red light.
MODULE 5: HEAT
OVERVIEW:
Heat is another form of energy that travels through moving particles or through radiation. There
are different conditions necessary for heat to transfer and the direction by which heat transfers by examining the
changes in the temperature of the objects involved. There are also different methods of heat transfer and
investigate some factors that affect these methods. There results will help you explain why objects get hot or
cold and why some objects are seemingly colder or warmer than the other even if they are exposed to the same
temperature.
How is heat transferred between objects or places?
Do all objects equally conduct, absorb or emit heat?

WHAT IS HEAT?
Have you ever heard of the term “’thermal energy” before? any object is said to possess thermal
energy due to the movement of its particles. How is heat related to thermal energy? Like any other forms of
energy that is ‘in transit’ or in the process of being transferred. It stops to become heat when the transfer stops.
After the energy is transferred, say to another object, it may again become thermal energy or may be
transformed to other forms.
Heat is a form of energy that refers to the thermal energy that is in the process of being
transferred, say between objects due to the difference in their temperature. In other words, hear is energy ‘in
transit’ It transfers from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower temperature.
Thermometer
Heat transfer is related to change in temperature or changing in the relative hotness or coldness
of an object. Laboratory thermometer is different from clinical thermometer we used to determine our body
temperature.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer by Conduction
Conduction takes place when the particles between objects or places that are in contact vibrate
and collide at different speeds due to the difference in their temperature. The particles at a higher temperature
are more energetic and thus vibrate faster than the particles at the lower temperature. When these particles
collide, some of the energy from the more energetic particles is transferred to the less energetic particles, in the
form of heat.
Heat transfer occurs not only in solids but also in fluids, but not all conduct heat, equally. Some
materials conduct heat easily; other materials conduct heat poorly. Objects that conduct heat poorly. Like wood
are particularly called insulators. There is no particular name for those materials which conduct heat easily.
One basis for determining the use of materials is by their ability to conduct heat. Known as their
conductivity. Higher conductivity means that the material is a good conductor of heat.
Heat transfer by Convection
Heat transfer by conduction can take place in solids and in fluids. Convection, on the other hand,
takes place only in fluids because it involves the movement of particles themselves from one place to another.
 The heat from the bottom part of the water is transferred to the upper part through convection.
As the water gets warmer, it expands and become lighter and so it rises at the top of cooler water. This will then
be replaced by the cooler water that goes down from above, which will in turn become warmer and also will
rise to the top.
Heat transfer by Radiation
Radiation refers to the emission of electromagnetic waves which carry energy away from the
surface of the emitting body or object. In this process, no particles are involved, unlike in the processes of
conduction and convection. This is why radiation can take place even in vacuum.
All objects emit and absorb radiation, known as thermal or infrared radiation. The amount of
radiation emitted depends on the temperature of the emitting object. The hotter an object is, the more infrared
radiation it emits.
Heat transfer by radiation takes place between objects of different temperatures, when the hotter
object emits more energy than it absorbs from the cooler object and the cooler object receives more energy than
it emits.
SUMMARY
 Heat is a thermal energy that is in transit
 Heat transfer takes place between objects of different temperature.
 When the object becomes warmer, it means that it gained energy. When it becomes cooler, it means that
it lost energy.
 Heat energy always transfers from object to higher temperature to object of lower temperature
 Heat can be transferred in three ways: conduction, convection and radiation.
 Conduction takes place due to the vibrating and colliding particles of objects that are in contact. It can
take place in solids, liquids and gases but it takes place best in solids.
 Conductivity refers to the ability of the material to conduct heat. The higher the conductivity of the
object, the better it conducts heat.
 Convection takes place in fluids because their particles can move around. In convection, the heat is
transferred by the particles themselves.
 During convection, warmer liquid or gas expands and goes up while cooler liquid or gas moves down.
 Heat transfer by radiation does not need particles or a medium to take place.
 Different surfaces emit or absorb heat differently. Dull and black surfaces absorb heat better than bright
and shiny surfaces.

PRE/POST TEST
The illustration on the right shows a lady making a noodle soup using a pan
made of metal. Use this illustration to answer the questions below:
1.) How does heat travel through the pan?
a. By radiation c.) by dispersion
b. By convection d. by conduction
2.) How does the heat travel through the soup?
 a. By radiation c.) By dispersion
b. By convection d. By conduction
3.) In what direction does heat travel through the soup?
a. From top to bottom c. both A and B
b. From bottom to top d.) neither A and B
4.) Which of the following explains why the lady is able to hold the handle of the pan with her bare hands?
I. The handle is made of good insulator of heat
II. The handle has low thermal conductivity.
III. The handle has high thermal energy.
a. I and II only c. II and III only
b. I and III only d. I, II and III.
5.) Which of the following methods of heat transfer is NOT taking place in the given situation?
a. Conduction c. Radiation
b. Convection d. None of them
MODULE 6: ELECTRICITY
ANSWER
OVERVIEW: KEY:
Electricity is the energy required to operate appliances, gadgets and machines, to 1. D
name a few. Aside from these, manmade devices, the ever-present nature of electricity is 2. B
demonstrated by lightning and the motion of living organisms which is made possible by 3. B
electrical signals sent between cells. However, in spite of the familiar existence of electricity, 4. A
many people do not know that it actually originates from the motion of charges. 5. D
In this module you will learn more about the different types of charges,
demonstration on how objects can be charged in different ways. You will also learn the importance of
grounding and the use of lightning rods. At the end of the module, you will do an activity that will introduce
you to simple electric circuits.
What are the different types of charges?
How can objects be changed?
What is the purpose of grounding?
How do lighting rods work?
What constitutes a complete electrical circuit?

TYPES OF CHARGES
All matters are made up of atoms or combinations of atoms called compounds. The varying
atomic composition of different materials gives them different electrical properties. One of which is the ability
of the material to lose or gain electrons when they come into contact with different material through friction.
When a tape is vigorously pulled from the table, some of the electrons from the table’s surface
were transferred to the tape. This means that the table has lost some electrons so it has become positively
charged while the tape has gained electrons which made it negatively charged. The process involved is usually
referred to as charging up the material, and this process used is charging by friction.
It is important to remember that during the charging process, ideally, the amount of charge lost
by the table is equal to the amount of charge gained by the tape. This is generally true in any charging process.
The idea is known as:

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE

Charges cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transferred from one material to another.
The total charge in a system must remain constant.

ELECTRIC FORCE
When you brought your finger (and the other object) near the charged tape, you must have observed that the tape
was drawn towards your finger as if being pulled by an invisible force. This force is called electrical force which acts on
charges. An uncharged or neutral object that has balanced positive and negative charges cannot experience this force.
 There are two different electric forces, repulsive and attractive. We learned from the previous section that the tape
is negatively charged. The excess negative charge in the tap allowed it to interact with your finger and the other object.
Recall also that when you place the two charged tapes near each other they seem to push each other away. These
observations tell us that there are two kinds of electrical force which arises from the fact that there are also two kinds of
electrical charges. The interactions between the charges are summarized in the following law:

ELECTROSTATIC LAW
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Electrical forces do not act on neutral objects. But your finger and other object are neutral,
so how did they interact with the charged tape? Generally, a charged object and an uncharged
object tend to attract each other due to the phenomenon of electrostatic polarization, which can be
explained by the electrostatic law. When a neutral object is placed near a charged object, the
charges within the neutral object are rearranged such that the charged object attracts the opposite
charges within the neutral object.
Discharging
Discharging is the process of removing excess charges on an object. You may then discuss
grounding which occurs when discharging is done by means of providing a path between the charged object and a ground.
The term ground is defined as any object, that can serve as an “unlimited” source of electrons so that it will be capable of
removing or transferring electrons from or to a charged in order to neutralize that object.
Grounding is necessary in electrical devices and equipment since it can prevent the build-up of excess charges
where it is not needed.
Conductors vs Insulators
The behavior of a charged material depends on its ability to allow charges to flow through it. A material that
permits charges to flow freely within it, is a good electrical conductor. A good conducting material will allow charges to
be distributed evenly on its surface. Metals are usually good conductors of electricity.
In contrast to conductors, insulators are materials that hinder the free-flow charges within it. If charge is
transferred to an insulator, the excess charge will remain at the original location of charging. This means that charge is
seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator. Some examples of insulators are glass, porcelain, plastic and
rubber.
Induction charging is where an object can be charged without actual contact to any other charged object. In
contrast with charging by induction, charging by conduction is the charging process which involves the contact of a
charged object to a neutral object. Now you have learned the three types of charging processes, we can discuss natural
phenomenon which is essentially a result of electrical charging.
Electrical Circuit
Electrical energy has numerous applications. However, many of these applications will not be possible unless we
know how to control electrical energy or electricity. How do we control electricity? It starts by providing a path through
which charges can flow. This path is provided by an electrical circuit.
Energy Transfer in the Circuit
With appropriate materials and connections, it is possible for the bulb to light. We know that light is one form of
energy. Where did this energy come from? The law of conservation of energy tells us that energy neither be created nor
destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. This tells us that the light energy observed in the bulb must
have come from the electrical energy of electricity in the circuit. In fact, all electrical equipment and devices are based on
this process of transformation of electrical energy into other forms of energy. Some examples are:

 Flat iron - Electrical energy to thermal energy or heat.

 Electric Fan - Electrical energy to mechanical energy.
  Washing Machine - Electrical energy to mechanical energy.

PRE/ POST TEST

1.) What will happen when two like charges are brought together?
a. They will repel each other.
b. They will attract each other.
c. They will neutralize each other.
d. They will have no effect one each other.
2.) Which of the following describes the usual way by which a material can gain a positive charge?
a. By gaining protons
b. By gaining electrons
c. By losing protons
d. By losing electrons.
3.) If you comb your hair and the comb becomes positively charged, what will happen to your hair?
a. It will remain uncharged
b. It will be repelled by the comb
c. It will become positively charged.
d. It will become negatively charged.
4.) Which of the following can be attracted by positively charged object?
a. Another positively charged object
b. Any other object
c. A neutral object
d. No other object
5.) A negatively charged rod is brought near a metal can that resists on a wooden box. You touch the opposite side of
the can momentarily with your finger. If you remove your finger before removing the rod, what will happen to the
can?
a. It will be discharged
b. Its charge will remain as it was
c. It will become positively charged
d. It will become negatively charged
6.) Is it possible to charge an electrical insulator?
a. No, because they hinder charges from passing through them
b. No, because insulators have no free charges in them.
c. Yes, because they can also conduct electricity
d. Yes, because electrons can be transferred between insulators through friction.
7.) A charged object is brought near a metal ball that is mounted on a rubber sheet. If the metal ball acquired a
negative charge alter it was grounded momentarily, what must be the charge of the object that was brought near
it?
a. Neutral c. Negative
b. Positive d. Cannot be determined from the given information alone
8.) What is really meant when we say appliance *uses up* electricity?
a. The current disappears
b. The main power supply voltage is lowered
c. Electrons are taken out of the circuit an put somewhere else.
d. The potential energy of electrons is charged into another form.
 Unit 4:
Module 1: The Philippine Environment
Module 2: Solar Energy and the Atmosphere
Module 3: Seasons and Eclipses
MODULE 1: THE PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT
OVERVIEW ANSWER KEY:

Everything that we see around us makes up our environment. The landforms and bodies of water that 1.) A
make up the landscape, the mountains and valleys, rivers and seas; the climate, the rains brought by 2.) D
the monsoons, the warm, humid weather that we frequently experience; the natural resources that we 3.) D
make use of; every plant and animal that live around us. Truly, the environment is made up of a lot of 4.) C
things. 5.) C
6.) D
All these things that we find in our surroundings and all the natural phenomena that we observe are 7.) B
not due to some random luck or accident. What makes up our environment is very much related to 8.) D
where our country is on the globe. Or, to say it in a different way, the characteristics of our
environment are determined by the location of the Philippines on the planet.

Latitude and Longitude

Before we learn about the characteristics of our environment, let us first talk about the location of the Philippines. Where
is the Philippines? The Philippines is on Earth, of course, but where exactly is it located? To answer this question, you
have to learn a new skill: locating places using latitude and longitude.
The starting point for latitude is the equator. The equator is at latitude 0° (0 degree). At the North Pole, the latitude is
90°N (90 degrees north). At the South Pole, the latitude is 90°S (90 degrees south).
The starting point for longitude is the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is at longitude 0°.
The lines of latitude are also known as parallels of latitude. That is because the lines of latitude are parallel to the equator
and to each other. Five lines of latitude have special names. They are listed in the table below. The latitude values have
been rounded off to the nearest half-degree.

Latitude Name
0 Equator
23.5 N Tropic of Cancer
23.5 S Tropic of Capricorn
66.5 N Arctic Circle
66.5 S Antarctic Circle
Get a globe and find the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Trace the two lines of latitude with a red chalk.
The part of the world between the two chalk lines is called the tropics. Countries that are located in this zone experience a
tropical climate where the annual average temperature is above 18°C.
Now, find the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle on the globe. Trace them with blue chalk. Between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Arctic Circle is the northern temperate zone; between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle is
the southern temperate zone. Countries in these zones go through four seasons – winter, spring summer, and autumn.
Finally, the areas within the Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle are called the polar regions or frigid zones. People who
choose to live in these areas have to deal with temperatures that never go above 10°C. It is cold all year round and even
during the summer months, it does not feel like summer at all.
To sum up, the closer the latitude is to the equator, the warmer the climate. The closer it is to the poles, the colder. Thus,
it is clear that there is a relationship between the latitude of a place and the climate it experiences, and you will find out
why in the next module.

Landmasses and Bodies of Water

Using latitude and longitude is not the only way that you can describe the location of a certain area. Another way is by
identifying the landmasses and bodies of water that are found in that area. So, what are the landmasses and bodies of
water that surround the Philippines? Do the following activity and get to know the surrounding geography.

Are We Lucky in the Philippines?

Planet Earth is made up of different things - air, water, plants, animals, soil, rocks, minerals, crude oil, and other fossil
fuels. These things are called natural resources because they are not made by people; rather they are gathered from
nature. Sunlight and wind are also natural resources. We use all these things to survive or satisfy our needs. The
Philippines is considered rich in natural resources. We have fertile, arable lands, high diversity of plant and animals,
extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits. We have natural gas, coal, and geothermal energy. Wind and water are
also harnessed for electricity generation.
Why do we have rich natural resources? What geologic structures in the country account for these bounty? Is our location
near the equator related to the presence of these natural resources?
The next lessons will help you find answers to some questions about natural resources in the country namely, rocks and
minerals, water, soil, varied life forms, and energy.

 How does our latitude position affect the water, soil resources, and biodiversity in the country?
 What mineral deposits do we have in the country? Where are they located and why only in those places?
 Given our location, what energy resources are available?
 Which of our practices in using natural resources are sustainable? Which are not sustainable?
 How can we help conserve natural resources so that future generation can also enjoy them?
Hopefully, the knowledge and skills acquired in the lessons will help you value your responsibility as a productive citizen
so that you can help prevent protected and vulnerable places from being mined, forests from being overcut, and natural
resources like metals from ending up in a dumpsite.

Water Resources and Biodiversity

The Philippines boasts of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as bays, rivers, lakes, falls, gulfs, straits, and
swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the country's coastline (seashore) if laid end-to-end, would measure around
17.5 thousand kilometers. And you know how we are proud of our coastlines! The bodies of water and its surrounding
environment not only support the survival of diverse organisms for food but are also used for other economic activities.
All these you learned in Araling Panlipunan.
In the previous activity you identified two big bodies of water on the west and east side of the country: the Pacific Ocean
in the east and south China Sea in the west (sometimes referred to as the West Philippine Sea). These bodies of water
are the origin of typhoons which on the average, according to Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA), is about 20 a year. Typhoons and the monsoons (amihan and habagat) bring lots
of rain to the Philippines. What is your association with too much rainfall? For some, rain and typhoons result in
flooding, landslides, and health related-problems. But water is one of nature’s gifts to us. People need fresh water for
many purposes. We use water for domestic purposes, for irrigation, and for industries. We need water to generate
electricity. We use water for recreation or its aesthetic value. Many resorts are located near springs, waterfalls or lakes.
Where does water in your community come from? You collect them when the rain falls or get them from the river, deep
well, or spring. But where does water from rivers, lakes, and springs originate?
They come from a watershed – an area of land on a slope which drains its water into a stream and its tributaries
(small streams that supply water to a main stream). This is the reason why a watershed is sometimes called a catchment
area or drainage basin. It includes the surface of the land and the underground rock formation drained by the stream.
From an aerial view, drainage patterns in a watershed resemble a network similar to the branching pattern of a tree.
Tributaries, similar to twigs and small branches, flow into streams, the main branch of the tree. Streams eventually empty
into a large river comparable to the trunk.
Watersheds come in all shapes and sizes. They cross towns and provinces. In other parts of the world, they may cross
national boundaries.
 There are many watersheds in the Philippines basically because we have abundant rainfall. Do you know that Mt. Apo in
Davao-Cotabato, Makiling-Banahaw in Laguna and Quezon, and Tiwi in Albay are watersheds? You must have heard
about La Mesa Dam in Metro Manila, Pantabangan Dam in Pampanga, and Angat Dam in Bulacan. These watersheds
are sources of water of many communities in the area. The Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City is in a watershed; it is used
to generate electricity. Locate these places in your map. Ask elders where the watershed is in or near your area? Observe
it is used in your community.
But watersheds are not just about water. A single watershed may include combination of forest, grassland, marshes,
and other habitats. Diverse organisms in the Philippines are found in these areas! Being a tropical country, the
Philippines has abundant rainfall, many bodies of water, and lots of sunshine. The right temperature and abundant rainfall
explain partly why our country is considered to be a megadiverse country. This means that we have high diversity of
plants and animals, both on land and in water (Philippine Clearing House Mechanism Website, 2012).
Reports show that in many islands of the Philippine archipelago, there is a high number of endemic plants and animals
(endemic means found only in the Philippines). The country hosts more than 52,177 described species of which more than
half is found nowhere else in the world. They say that on a per unit area basis, the Philippines shelters more diversity of
life than any other country on the planet.
For now remember that the main function of a watershed is the production of a continuous water supply that would
maintain the lifeforms within it and in the area fed by its stream. Later you will learn that besides supporting the survival
of varied life forms, abundant water in the country is important in moderating temperature. This topic will be discussed
later.
Have you ever asked yourself the following questions? If we have abundant rainfall to feed watersheds, why do we
experience drought some parts of the year? What factors affect the health of a watershed? Is there a way of regulating the
flow of water in watershed so that there will be enough for all throughout the year? What can people do to keep
watersheds ‘healthy’? Find out about these in the next activity.

Soil Resources, Rainfall and Temperature

Recall in elementary school science that soil is formed when rocks and other materials near the Earth’s surface are broken
down by a number of processes collectively called weathering. You learned two types of weathering: the mechanical
breaking of rocks or physical weathering, and the chemical decay of rocks or chemical weathering.
PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION
- When a piece of rock is exposed to the Sun, its outer part expands (become bigger) because it heats up faster
than the inner part.
- On cooling, at night time, the outer part of the rock contracts or shrinks because the outer part of the rock
cools faster than the inner portion. The process of expansion and contraction are repeated over the years and
produce cracks in the rock causing the outer surface to break off.
- Once broken, water enters the cracks causing some minerals to dissolve. The rock breaks apart further.
- Air also enters the cracks, and oxygen in the air combines with some elements such as iron to produce iron
oxide (rust or kalawang) which is brittle and will easily peel off. In similar way, carbon dioxide from the air
reacts with water to form an acid causing the rock to soften further. Once soft and broken, bacteria and small
plants start to grow in the cracks of the rock.
- After some time, the dead plants and animals die and decay causing the formation of more acidic substances
which further breaks the rocks. The dead bodies of plants and animals are acted upon by microorganism and
breakdown into smaller compounds while the minerals from the rock return to the soil.
Soil covers the entire Earth. Temperature, rainfall, chemical changes, and biological action act together to continuously
form soil. Climate, expressed as both temperature and rainfall effects, is often considered the most powerful soil-forming
factor.
Temperature controls how fast chemical reactions occur. Many reactions proceed more quickly as temperature
increases. Warm-region soils are normally more developed or more mature than cold-region soils. Mature soils have more
silt and clay on or near the surface. Thus, soils in the tropical areas are observed to sustain various farming activities and
account for why the primary source of livelihood in the Philippines and other countries in the tropical region is their fertile
land. What is the effect of very little rainfall on food production?
Climate (temperature and rainfall) is a significant factor not only in soil formation but also in sustaining diversity of
plants and animals in the country. On the other hand, water also directly affects the movement of soluble soil nutrients
from the top soil to deep under the ground (leaching). These nutrients may no longer be available to shallow rooted plants.
Acidic rainwater may also contribute to the loss of minerals in soil resulting in low yield. So rainfall determines the kind
of vegetation in an area. In turn, the degree of vegetation cover, especially in sloping areas, determines how much soil is
removed. Are there ways to protect soil resources?
Rocks and Mineral Resources
History tells us that rocks have been used by humans for more than two million years. Our ancestors lived in caves; they
carved rocks and stones to make tools for hunting animals, cultivating crops, or weapons for protection. Rocks, stones,
gravel, and sand were and are still used to make roads, buildings, monuments, and art objects.
The mining of rocks for their metal content has been considered one of the most important factors of human progress. The
mining industry has raised levels of economy in some regions, in part because of the kind of metals available from the
rocks in those areas.
Mineral deposits can be classified into two types: metallic and non-metalllic
The important metallic minerals found in various parts of the Philippines include gold, copper, iron, chromite (made up
of chromium, iron, and other metals), nickel, cobalt, and platinum. The most productive copper and gold producers in
the Philippines are found in Baguio, the province of Benguet, and in Surigao-Davao areas. Major producers of nickel
are in Palawan and Surigao (DENR Website, 2012).
Metals are important. The properties of metals make them useful for specific purposes. You learned these in Quarter 1.
Iron is the main material for steel bars used in buildings and road construction. Copper is used in making electrical wires.
Tin is the material for milk cans and other preserved food products. Nickel is mixed with copper or other metals to form
stainless cooking wares. Gold is important in making jewelry.
What other metals are you familiar with? What are the uses of aluminum? What metal is used to make GI sheets for
roofing? What metals are used to make artificial arms or legs? Are metals used in chairs and other furniture? Do you
know that some dentists use gold for filling teeth cavities? Look around and find how versatile metals are.
The Philippines has also varied nonmetallic resources including sand and gravel, limestone, marble, clay, and other
quarry materials. Your teacher will show you a map of the nometallic deposits in the Philippines. Locate your area and
determine what nonmetallic deposits are found there. How are these deposits recovered? How are they used in your
community? For example: What are the uses of sand, gravel, or clay? How are marble stones used? Think of other
nonmetals and their uses!
Do you know that the Philippines is listed as the 5th mineral country in the world, 3rd in gold reserves, 4th in copper,
and 5th in nickel! The ores (mineral bearing rocks) are processed out of the country to recover the pure metal. We buy the
pure metal. Is this practice advantageous to the Philippines? Why or why not? The richness of the
Philippines in terms of mineral resources is being attributed to its location in the so-called Pacific Ring of Fire. See
Figure 13. This area is associated with over 450 volcanoes (small triangles in the map) and is home to approximately
75% of the world's active volcanoes. Why are there minerals where there are volcanoes?
Geologists (scientists who study the Earth and the processes that occur in and on it) explain that there is a continuous
source of heat deep under the Earth; this melts rocks and other materials (link to usgs website) The mixture of molten
or semi-molten materials is called magma. Because magma is hotter and lighter than the surrounding rocks, it rises,
melting some of the rocks it passes on the way. If the magma finds a way to the surface, it will erupt as lava. Lava flow is
observed in erupting volcanoes.
But the rising magma does not always reach the surface to erupt. Instead, it may slowly cool and harden beneath the
volcano and form different kinds of igneous rocks. Under favorable temperature and pressure conditions, the metal-
containing rocks continuously melt and redeposit, eventually forming rich-mineral veins.
Though originally scattered in very small amounts in magma, the metals are concentrated when magma convectively
moves and circulates ore-bearing liquids and gases. This is the reason why metallic minerals deposits such as copper,
gold, silver, lead, and zinc are associated with magmas found deep within the roots of extinct volcanoes. And as you saw
in the maps, volcanoes are always near trenches and faults! You will learn more of this later.
For now you must have realized that the presence of mineral deposits in the Philippines is not by accident. It is nature’s
gift. If before, your association with volcanoes and trenches is danger and risk to life and property, now you know that the
presence of volcanoes, trenches and other geological structures is the reason for the rich mineral deposits in the
country.
The existence of volcanoes also explains why the Philippines is rich in geothermal energy (heat from the Earth). Energy
resources will be discussed in the next section.

Energy Resources
The abundance of some metal resources in the Philippines is related to geologic structures, specifically the presence of
volcanoes and trenches in the country. The year-round warm temperature and availability of water are effects of our
geographic location.
The tropical climate and the geological conditions also provide several possibilities to get clean and cheap energy. Do you
know which energy resources are due to these factors? Were the following included in your list- solar energy, heat from
the ground (geothermal energy), hydrothermal energy from falling water), wind energy, and natural gas?
Solar energy is free and inexhaustible. This energy source will be discussed in a later science subject.
Geothermal energy was briefly introduced in the lesson on mineral resources and their location. The Philippines ranked
second to the United States in terms of geothermal energy deposits. Geothermal power plants are located in Banahaw-
Makiling, Laguna, Tiwi in Albay, Bacman in Sorsogon, Palimpinon in Negros Occidental, Tongonan in Leyte, and
Mt. Apo side of Cotabato.
Try to locate places with geothermal power plants in your map? Does your area have geothermal energy deposits? How
do you know?
Hydrothermal or hydroelectric power plants use water to generate electricity. They provide for 27% of total
electricity production in the country. Ambuklao in Benguet, Mt Province, Agus in Lanao del Sur and Agus in Lanao
del Norte are large hydrothermal power plants. Small hydroelectric power plants are in Caliraya, Laguna, Magat in
Isabela, Loboc in Bohol, and other places. Used water from hydropower plants flows through irrigation systems. Many
of the reservoir areas are used for sport activities.
Again, locate places with hydroelectric power plants in your map? Does your area have hydroelectric power plants? What
other uses do you have for water in these areas?
Natural gas is a form of fossil fuel, so are coal and crude oil (sometimes called petroleum). Fossil fuels were formed
from plants and animals that lived on Earth millions of years ago. They are buried deep in the Earth. Natural gas and oil
are taken from the deep through oil rigs while coal is extracted through mining. Fossil fuels are used to produce
electricity and run vehicles and factory machines. Did you know that petroleum is the raw material for making plastics?
In the Philippines, we have coal and natural gas deposits. Coal is a black or brownish black, solid rock that can be
burned. It contains about 40% noncombustible components, thus a source of air pollution when used as fuel. Coal
deposits are scattered over the Philippines but the largest deposit is located in Semirara Island, Antique. Coal mines are
also located in Cebu, Zamboanga Sibuguey, Albay, Surigao, and Negros Provinces.
Our natural gas deposits are found offshore of Palawan. Do you know where this place is? The Malampaya Deepwater
Gas-to-Power Project employs ‘state-of-the-art deepwater technology’ to draw natural gas from deep beneath
Philippine waters. The gas fuels three natural gas-fired power stations to provide 40-45% of Luzon's power generation
requirements. The Department of Energy reports that since October 2001, the Philippines has been importing less
petroleum for electricity generation, providing the country foreign-exchange savings and energy security from this clean
fuel.
Natural gas is considered clean fuel because when burned, it produces the least carbon dioxide, among fossil fuels.
CO2 is naturally present in air in small amounts. However, studies show that increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
results in increase in atmospheric temperature, globally. You will learn about global warming in the next module.
Did you know that in Ilocos Province, giant wind mills as shown in Figure 5 of this module are used to generate
electricity? In Quirino, Ilocos Sur the electricity generated from wind mills runs a motorized sugarcane press for the
community's muscovado sugar production? This project is a joint effort between the local farmers and local organizations
with support from Japan. In Bangui, Ilocos Norte, the windmills as high as 50 meters not only help improve the tourism
in Ilocos but it also provides 40% of the energy requirements for electricity in the entire province. This proves that
we do not have to be dependent on fossil fuel in our country.
What do you think are the environmental conditions in Ilocos Sur and Ilocos Norte that allow them to use wind power for
electricity? Do you think there are places that have these conditions? Support your answers.
Conserving and Protecting Natural Resources
There are two types of natural resources on Earth - renewable and nonrenewable. What is the difference between these
two kinds of resources?
The food people eat comes from plants and animals. Plants are replaced by new ones after each harvest. People also eat
animals. Animals have the capacity to reproduce and are replaced when young animals are born. Water in a river or in a
well may dry up. But when the rain comes the water is replaced. Plants, animals, and water are resources that can be
replaced. They are renewable resources.
Most plants grow in top soil. Rain and floods wash away top soil. Can top soil be replaced easily? Soil comes from rocks
and materials from dead plants and animals. It takes thousands of years for soil to form. Soil cannot be replaced easily, or
it takes a very long time to replace. It is a nonrenewable resource.
Metals like copper, iron, and aluminum are abundant on Earth. But people are using them up fast. They have to dig deeper
into the ground to get what they need. Coal, oil and natural gas (fossil fuels) were formed from plants and animals that
lived on Earth millions of years ago. It takes millions of years for dead plants and animals to turn into fossil fuels. Soil,
coal, oil and natural gas are nonrenewable resources.
Protecting Resources in Your Own Way
All resources used by humans, including fuels, metals, and building materials, come from the Earth. Many of these
resources are not in endless supply. It has taken many thousands and millions of years to develop and accumulate these
resources.
To conserve natural resources is to protect or use them wisely without wasting them or using them up completely.
Conserving natural resources can make them last and be available for future generations. This is what sustainability of
natural resources means. Each one of us should think about how to make things sustainable. Remember: The lives of
future generations depend on how we use natural resources today.
MODULE 2: SOLAR ENERGY AND THE
ATMOSPHERE
OVERVIEW
In the previous module, you learned that the presence of different natural resources
in the Philippines is related to the country’s location. It was also mentioned that
the climate in a certain area depends on its latitude. In this module, you are going
to learn more about how the location of the Philippines influences its climate and
weather. To prepare you for this lesson, you must first learn about the envelope of
air that surrounds the Earth where all weather events happen – the atmosphere.
The troposphere is the layer closest to Earth’s surface. The temperature just
above the ground is hotter than the temperature high above. Weather occurs in
the troposphere because this layer contains most of the water vapor. Remember
the water cycle? Without water, there would be no clouds, rain, snow or other
weather features. Air in the troposphere is constantly moving. As a result, aircraft
flying through the troposphere may have a very bumpy ride – what we know as
turbulence. People who have used the airplane for travelling have experienced
this especially when there is a typhoon in areas where the plane passes through.
The stratosphere is the layer of air that extends to about 50 km from Earth’s surface. Many jet aircraft fly in the
stratosphere because it is very stable. It is in the stratosphere that we find the ozone layer. The ozone layer absorbs much
of the Sun’s harmful radiation that would otherwise be dangerous to plant and animal life.
The layer between 50 km and 80 km above the Earth’s surface is called the mesosphere. Air in this layer is very thin and
cold. Meteors or rock fragments burn up in the mesosphere.
The thermosphere is between 80 km and 110 km above the Earth. Space shuttles fly in this area and it is also where the
auroras are found. Auroras are caused when the solar wind strikes gases in the atmosphere above the Poles. Why can
we not see auroras in the Philippines?
The upper limit of our atmosphere is the exosphere. This layer of the atmosphere merges into space. Satellites are
stationed in this area, 500 km to 1000 km from Earth.
To summarize what has been discussed: More than three quarters of Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen while
one fifth is oxygen. The remaining 1% is a mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapour, and ozone. These gases not only
produce important weather features such as cloud and rain, but also have considerable influence on the overall climate of
the Earth, through the greenhouse effect and global warming.
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
In order to understand the greenhouse effect, you need to first understand how a real greenhouse works.
In temperate countries, a greenhouse is used to grow seedlings in the late winter and early spring and later, planted in the
open field when the weather is warmer. Greenhouses also protect plants from weather phenomena such snowstorm or
dust storms. In tropical countries, greenhouses are used by commercial plant growers to protect flowering and ornamental
plants from harsh weather conditions and insect attack. Greenhouses range in size from small sheds to very large
buildings. They also vary in terms of types of covering materials. Some are made of glass while others are made of
plastic.
Greenhouses allow sunlight to enter but prevent heat from
escaping. The transparent covering of the greenhouse allows
visible light to enter without obstruction. It warms the inside of
the greenhouse as energy is absorbed by the plants, soil, and
other things inside the building. Air warmed by the heat inside is
retained in the building by the roof and wall. The transparent
covering also prevents the heat from leaving by reflecting the energy back into the walls and preventing outside winds
from carrying it away.
The Earth’s atmosphere is compared to a greenhouse. You know that besides nitrogen and oxygen, Earth’s atmosphere
contains trace gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and ozone. Like the glass in a greenhouse, the
trace gases have a similar effect on the Sun’s rays. They allow sunlight to pass through, resulting in the warming up of
the Earth’s surface. But they absorb the energy coming from the Earth’s surface, keeping the Earth’s temperature
suitable for life on Earth. The process by which the Earth’s atmosphere warms up is called ‘greenhouse effect,’ and
the trace gases are referred to as ‘greenhouse gases.’
The ‘greenhouse effect’ is a natural process and it warms the Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be very
cold, too cold for living things, such as plants and animals.
To further understand the effect of greenhouse gases look at Figure 5. It
contains some data about Venus and Earth, planets that are almost of the same
size and if you remember from elementary school science, are near each other,
so they are called twin planets. The composition of atmosphere and the
average surface temperature of the two planets are also given. Why is the
average temperature of Venus very much higher than that of Earth? What
could have caused this phenomenon? Both Earth and Venus have carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, in their atmospheres. The small amount of carbon
dioxide on Earth’s gives the right temperature for living things to survive.
With the high surface temperature of Venus due to its high carbon dioxide
concentration, do you think life forms like those we know of could exist there?
Why or why not?
Is Earth Getting Warmer? What is the Evidence? Studies have shown that before 1750 (called the pre-industrialization
years), carbon dioxide concentration was about 0.028 percent or 280 parts per million (ppm) by volume. The graph
below shows the concentration of carbon dioxide from 1958 to 2003. What information can you derive from the graph?
Recent studies report that in 2000-2009, carbon dioxide rose by 2.0 ppm per year. In 2011, the level is higher than at any
time during the last 800 thousand years. Local temperatures fluctuate naturally, over the past 50 years but the average
global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. So what if there is increasing emission of
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere? What is the problem with a small increase in carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere?
More carbon dioxide means that more heat is trapped in Earth’s atmosphere. More heat cannot return back into space.
More heat trapped by the carbon dioxide means a warmer Earth.
The increasing temperature phenomenon is known as ‘global warming’. Global means that all countries and people
around the world are affected even if that country is not a major contributor of greenhouse gases. Many scientists now
agree that many human activities emit more greenhouses gases into the atmosphere, making the natural greenhouse
effect stronger. Scientists are also saying that if we carry on polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, it will have a
dangerous effect on the Earth.

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Carbon dioxide is naturally produced when people and animals breathe. Plants and trees take in and use carbon dioxide
to produce their own food. Volcanoes also produce carbon dioxide. Methane comes from grazing animals as they digest
their food and from decaying matter in wet rice fields. Ozone is also naturally present in the stratosphere.
But human activities emit a lot of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Are we also contributing to the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere? Why or why not? Carbon
dioxide comes from the burning of fossil fuel such as coal, crude oil and natural gas. Cutting down and burning of
trees releases carbon dioxide. Methane can also be released from buried waste. For example, the left-over food, garden
wastes, and animal wastes collected from our homes are thrown into dumpsites. When lots of wastes are compressed and
packed together, they produce methane. Coal mining also produces methane.
 Another group of greenhouse gases includes the chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs for short. CFCs have been used in spray
cans as propellants, in refrigerators as refrigerants, and in making foam plastics as foaming agents. They become
dangerous when released into the atmosphere, depleting the ozone layer. For this reason, their use has been banned
around the world.
What have you learned about the atmosphere? There are natural processes in the atmosphere that protect and sustain life
on Earth. For example, the greenhouse effect keeps temperature on Earth just right for living things. For as long as the
concentration of greenhouse gases are controlled, we will have no problem.
But human beings’ activities have emitted greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, increasing their levels to quantities that
have adverse effects on people, plants, animals and the physical environment. Burning of fossil fuels, for example, has
increased levels of carbon dioxide thus trapping more heat, increasing air temperature, and causing global warming. Such
global phenomenon is feared to melt polar ice caps and cause flooding to low-lying areas that will result to reduction in
biodiversity. It is even feared that global warming is already changing climates around the globe, causing stronger
typhoons, and creating many health-related problems. You will learn more about climate change later.

Common Atmospheric Phenomena

In the next section, you will learn two concepts that will help you understand common atmospheric phenomena: why the
wind blows, why monsoons occur, and what is the so-called intertropical convergence zone. All of these are driven by the
same thing: the heat of the Sun or solar energy. Thus, we begin by asking, what happens when air is heated?

What Makes the Air Move?

As you have seen in the activity, air in the surroundings can be affected by rising warm air. The drawing below shows
how this happens. First, the air above the candle becomes warm because of the flame. What happens to this warm air? It
rises. As warm air rises, what happens to the air in the surroundings? It will move toward the place where warm air is
rising. But you cannot see air, how can you tell that it is moving? Did you see smoke from the mosquito coil? The
movement of the smoke shows the movement of the air.
Let us now relate what happened in the activity to what happens in nature. During the day, the surface of the Earth
becomes warm because of the Sun. Some parts of the Earth will warm up more quickly than others. Naturally, the air
above the warmer surfaces will also become warm. What happens to the warm air? Just like in the activity, it will rise.
How is the air in the surroundings affected? It will move toward the place where warm air is rising. This is the other
concept that you need to know: Air moves toward the place where warm air is rising.
Whenever we feel the air moving, that means that somewhere, warm air is rising. And the air around us moves toward
the place where warm air is rising. Do you remember that ‘moving air’ is called wind? Every time you feel the wind, it
means that air is moving toward the place where warm air is rising. Strictly speaking, wind is air that is moving
horizontally.
Let us use now the two concepts you have learned to explain other things. You know that the surface of the Earth is made
basically of two things: land and water. When the Sun’s rays strike land and water, do they heat up as fast as each other?
Do land and water absorb heat from the Sun in the same way? Or is there a difference? Perform the next activity and find
out.
Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
The sand and water in the previous activity stand for land and water in real life. From the activity, you have learned that
sand heats up faster than water, and that sand cools down faster than water. In the same way, when land surfaces are
exposed to the Sun during the day, they heat up faster than bodies of water. At night, when the Sun has set, the land loses
heat faster than bodies of water. How does this affect the air in the surroundings?
Imagine that you are standing by the sea, along the shore. During
the day, the land heats up faster than the water in the sea. The air
above land will then become warm ahead of the air above the sea.
You know what happens to warm air: it rises. So the warmer air
above the land will rise. The air above the sea will then move in to replace the rising warm air. (See drawing below.)
You will then feel this moving air as a light wind—a sea breeze.
What will happen at night, when the Sun is gone? The land and sea will both cool down. But the land will lose heat
faster than the water in the sea. In other words, the sea will stay warm longer. This time the air above the sea will be
warmer than that above land. The warm air above the sea will then rise. Air from land will move out to replace the
rising warm air. (See drawing below.) This moving air or wind from land is called a land breeze.
In the illustration above, you can see an arrow pointing upward. This represents rising warm air. The place where warm
air rises is a place where air pressure is low. In other words, the place where warm air is rising is a low-pressure area.
In contrast, cold air is dense and tends to sink. The place where cold air is sinking is a high-pressure area. Based on
what you learned so far, in what direction does air move, from a low-pressure area to a high-pressure area or the other
way around? You probably know the answer already. But the next section will make it clearer for you.

Monsoons
Do you know what monsoons are? Many people think that monsoons are rains. They are not. Monsoons are wind
systems. But these winds usually bring abundant rainfall to the country and this is probably the reason why they have
been mistaken for rains. In Filipino, the monsoons are called amihan or habagat, depending on where the winds come
from. Find out which is which in the following activity.
Figure 17 shows what happens during the colder months. The wind blows from the high-pressure area in the Asian
continent toward the low-pressure area south of the Philippines. The cold air that we experience from December to
February is part of this wind system. This monsoon wind is locally known as amihan. As you can see from Figure 17,
the wind passes over some bodies of water before it reaches the Philippines. The wind picks up moisture along the way
and brings rain to the eastern part of the Philippines.
Now, what happens during the warmer months? Study Figure 18 carefully. What do you observe about the low-pressure
area and high-pressure area near the Philippines? They have changed places. (You will learn why in the next module.) As
a result, the direction of the wind also changes. This time the wind will move from the high-pressure area in Australia to
the low-pressure area in the Asian continent. This monsoon wind is locally called habagat. Trace the path of the habagat
before it reaches the Philippines. Can you explain why the habagat brings so much rain? Which part of the Philippines
does the habagat affect the most?
The monsoons, habagat and amihan, affect people in different ways. Try to explain the following. Why do farmers
welcome the monsoons? Why are fisherfolk not so happy about the monsoons? Why do energy providers appreciate the
monsoons? Why are fishpen owners worried about the monsoons? How do the monsoons affect your own town?
In the next section, you will apply the two concepts once more to explain another weather event.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Many people who listen to weather forecasts are confused about the intertropical
convergence zone. But it is easy to understand it once you know that warm air
rises, and air moves toward the place where warm air is rising. Take a look at the
drawing below.
Figure 19 shows the rays of the Sun at two different places at noon. Study the
drawing carefully. Where would you observe the Sun directly above you? When
you are at the equator? Or when you are at a higher latitude?
As you can see, the position of the Sun at midday depends on where you are. At
the equator, the Sun will be directly overhead and the rays of the Sun will
hit the ground directly. At a higher latitude, the Sun will be lower in the sky
and the Sun’s rays will strike the ground at a lower angle. Where do you
think will it be warmer?
It is clear that it is warmer at the equator than anywhere else. Because of
that, the air over the equator will be warmer than the air over other parts of
the Earth. And you already know what happens to warm air. It rises. And when warm air rises, air in the surroundings will
then move as a result.
As you can see from Figure 20, air from north of the equator and air from south of the equator will move toward the place
where warm air is rising. Thus, the intertropical convergence zone is the place where winds in the tropics meet or
converge. (Recall that the area near the equator is called the tropics.) In time the rising warm air will form clouds, which
may lead to thunderstorms. Now you know why weather forecasters often blame the ITCZ for some heavy afternoon
rains. The band of white clouds in the following picture shows the location of the ITCZ.

Summary
This module discussed global atmospheric phenomena like the greenhouse effect and global warming (including ozone
depletion) that affect people, plants, animals and the physical environment around the world. And though the greenhouse
effect is a natural phenomenon, there is a growing concern that human activities have emitted substances into the
atmosphere that are causing changes in weather patterns at the local level.
Highlighted in this module are concepts used to explain common atmospheric phenomena: why the wind blows, why
monsoons occur, and what is the so-called inter tropical convergence zone.
MODULE 3: SEASONS AND ECLIPSES
OVERVIEW
In Grade 6, you have learned about the major members of our solar system. Like the other planets, the Earth moves
mainly in two ways: it spins on its axis and it goes around the Sun. And as the Earth revolves around the Sun, the Moon is
also revolving around the Earth. Can you imagine all these “motions” happening at the same time? The amazing thing is
we do not feel that the Earth is moving. In reality, the planet is speeding around the Sun at 30 kilometers each second.
(The solar system is also moving around the center of the Milky Way!)
But even if we do not actually see the Earth or Moon moving, we can observe the effects of their motion. For example,
because the Earth rotates, we experience day and night. As the Moon goes around the Earth, we see changes in the
Moon‘s appearance.
In this module you will learn that the motions of the Earth and Moon have other effects. Read on and find out why.

Seasons
In Grade 6, you tracked the weather for the whole school year. You found out that there are two seasons in the
Philippines: rainy and dry. You might have noticed too that there are months of the year when it is cold and months
when it is hot. The seasons follow each other regularly and you can tell in advance when it is going to be warm or cold
and when it is going to be rainy or not. But can you explain why there are seasons at all? Do you know why the seasons
change? The following activity will help you understand why.
In June, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun. Naturally, the Northern Hemisphere will also be tilted toward the Sun.
The Northern Hemisphere will then receive direct rays from the Sun (Fig. 2). When the Sun’s rays hit the ground directly,
the place will become warmer than when the rays are oblique (Figures 4 and 5). This is why it is summer in the Northern
Hemisphere at this time.
But the Earth is not stationary. The Earth goes around the Sun. What happens when the Earth has moved to the other side
of the Sun?
After six months, in December, the North Pole will be pointing away from the Sun (Figure 1). The Northern Hemisphere
will no longer receive direct rays from the Sun. The Northern Hemisphere will then experience a time of cold. For
temperate countries in the Northern Hemisphere, it
will be winter. In tropical Philippines, it is simply
the cold season.
Which part of the Earth receives the direct rays of
the Sun in December? As you can see in Figure 3, it
is the South Pole that is tilted toward the Sun.
This time the Sun’s direct rays will fall on the
Southern Hemisphere. It will then be summer in the
Southern Hemisphere. Thus, when it is cold in the
Northern Hemisphere, it is warm in the Southern
Hemisphere.
After another six months, in June of the following
year, the Earth will have made one full trip around
the Sun. The Sun’s direct rays will fall on the
Northern Hemisphere once more. It will be warm in
the Northern Hemisphere and cold in the Southern
Hemisphere all over again. Thus, the seasons
change because the direct rays of the Sun shift
from one hemisphere to the other as the Earth goes around the
Sun.
Now you know one of the reasons why the seasons change. Sometimes the Sun’s direct rays fall on the Northern
Hemisphere and sometimes they fall on the Southern Hemisphere. And that is because the Earth is tilted and it goes
around the Sun. There is another reason why the seasons change.
You know that there are 24 hours in a day. You probably think that daytime and nighttime are always equal. But you can
infer from the activity that the length of daytime changes from month to month. When the North Pole is tilted toward
the Sun, daytime will be longer than nighttime in the Northern Hemisphere.
What happens when daytime is longer than nighttime? The time of heating up during the day will be longer than the time
of cooling down at night. The Northern Hemisphere steadily warms up and the result is summer. At the same time, in the
Southern Hemisphere, the opposite is happening. Nights are longer than daytime. It is winter there.
But when the Earth has moved farther along its orbit, the North Pole will then be tilted away from the Sun. Nighttime will
then be longer than daytime in the Northern Hemisphere. There would be a shorter time for heating up and longer
time to cool down. The result is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In tropical Philippines, it is the cold season.
Meanwhile, it will be summer in the Southern Hemisphere.
At this point, you should now be able to explain why the seasons change. Your explanation should include the following
things: the tilt of the Earth; its revolution around the Sun; the direct rays of the Sun, and the length of daytime.
There are other factors that affect the seasons but these are the most important.
After discussing the motions of the Earth, let us now focus on the motions of another celestial object, the Moon. You have
seen that the shape of the Moon appears to change from night to night. You have learned in Grade 5 that the changing
phases of the Moon are due to the revolution of the Moon. The movement of the Moon also produces other phenomena
which you will learn in the next section.

Shadows and Eclipses

Do you know how shadows are formed? How about eclipses? Do you know why they occur? Do you think that shadows
and eclipses are related in any way?
In this section, you will review what you know about shadows and later on perform an activity on eclipses. Afterwards,
you will look at some common beliefs about eclipses and figure out if they have any scientific bases at all.
Using a shadow-play activity, your teacher will demonstrate how shadows are formed and how shadows affect the
surroundings. The demonstrations should lead you to the following ideas:
 When a light source is blocked by an object, a shadow of that object is cast. The shadow will darken the object on
which it falls.
 The distance of the object from the light source affects the size of its shadow. When an object is closer to the light
source, its shadow will appear big. But when it is farther from the light source, its shadow is smaller.
 The occurrence of shadows is an ordinary phenomenon that you experience every day. Shadows can be seen anywhere.
Sometimes, the shadow appears bigger than the original object, other times smaller.
How about in outer space? Are shadows formed there, too? How can you tell when you are here on Earth?
The next activity will help you answer these questions. The materials that you will use in the activity represent some
astronomical objects in space. You will need to simulate space by making the activity area dark. Cover the windows with
dark materials such as black garbage bag or dark cloth.
You have just simulated the formation of shadows of astronomical objects in space. The formation and darkening is
exactly the same as the formation of shadows commonly seen around you. When shadows are formed on astronomical
objects, a darkening effect is observed. This phenomenon is called an eclipse. How Do Eclipses Happen?
In the earlier grades, you learned about the members of the solar system. You know that the Sun gives off light. As the
different members of the solar system move around the Sun, they block the light from the Sun and form shadows. What
this means is that planets have shadows, and even their moons have shadows, too. But we cannot see the shadows that
they form because we are far from them. The only shadows that we can observe are the shadows of the Moon and Earth.
Look at Figure 6. (Note that the objects are not drawn to scale.) In the drawing, there are two Moons. Of course, you
know that we only have one Moon. The figure is just showing you the Moon at two different locations as it goes around
the Earth.
The figure shows where the shadows of the Moon and Earth are as viewed in space. But here on Earth, you cannot
observe these shadows. Why? Look at the shadow of the Moon in positions A and B. In position A, the Moon is too high;
its shadow does not fall on Earth. In position B, the Moon is too low; the shadow of the Earth does not fall on the Moon.
The shadows of the Earth and Moon are cast in space. So, when can we observe these shadows? In what positions can we
see these shadows? Let us look at another arrangement.
In Figure 7, the Earth has moved along its orbit, taking the Moon along. The Moon is shown in two different locations
once more. Note that at these positions, the Moon is neither too high nor too low. In fact, the Moon is in a straight line
between the Sun and the Earth. You can say that the three
objects are perfectly aligned.
At position A, where does the shadow of the Moon fall? As
you can see, the shadow of the Moon now falls on the Earth.
When you are within this shadow, you will experience a
solar eclipse. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon
comes directly between the Sun and Earth (Figure 7,
position A). You have simulated this solar eclipse in
Activity 3.
Let us look at the Sun, Moon, and Earth in Figure 8.
Look at the tip of the shadow of the Moon as it falls on
Earth. Is the entire shadow of the Moon completely
dark? Do you notice the unequal shading of the
shadow? Actually this unequal shading is comparable
to what you have observed in your simulation activity.
Remember the shadow of the small ball (Moon) on the
big ball (Earth) in your activity? It has a gray outer part
and a darker inner part (Figure 9). In the case of the
Moon’s shadow, this gray outer region is the penumbra while the darker inner region is the umbra.
If you are standing within the umbra of the Moon’s shadow, you will see the Sun disappear from your view. The
surroundings appear like it is early evening. In this case, you are witnessing a total solar eclipse. In comparison, if you
are in the penumbra, you will see the Sun partially covered by the Moon. There are no dramatic changes in the
surroundings; there is no noticeable dimming of sunlight. In this case, you are observing a partial solar eclipse.
Let us go back to Figure 7. Look at the Moon in position B. Do you notice that at this position the Moon is also aligned
with the Sun and Earth? At this position, a different type of eclipse occurs. This time, the Moon is in the shadow of the
Earth. In this case, you will observe a lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon is directly on the opposite
side of the Earth as the Sun.
The occurrence of a lunar eclipse was simulated in the
activity. Do you remember the small ball (Moon) in
position X? You noticed that the shadow of the big ball
(Earth) darkened the whole surface of the small ball. In a
lunar eclipse, the shadow of the Earth also darkens the
Moon (Figure 10).
Focus your attention on the shadow of the Earth in Figure
10. The shadow is wider than that of the Moon. It also has
an umbra and a penumbra. Which part of the Earth’s
shadow falls on the Moon? Is the Moon always found within the umbra?
The appearance of the Moon is dependent on its location in the Earth’s shadow. When the entire Moon is within the
umbra, it will look totally dark. At this time you will observe a total lunar eclipse. But when the Moon passes only
through a part of the umbra, a partial lunar eclipse will be observed. A part of the Moon will look dark while the rest
will be lighter.
In earlier grades, you learned that it takes about one month for the Moon to complete its trip around the Earth. If that is
the case, then we should be observing monthly eclipses. In reality, eclipses do not occur every month. There are only
about three solar eclipses and three lunar eclipses in a year. What could be the reason for this?
The answer lies in the orbit of the Moon. Look at the orbit of the Earth and the Moon in Figures 6 and 7. Do their orbits
have the same orientations? As you can see the Moon’s orbit is slightly inclined. The orbit is tilted by 50 from the plane of
the orbit of the Earth. As the moon moves around the Earth, it is sometimes higher or lower than the Earth. In these
situations, the shadow of the Moon does not hit the surface of the Earth. Thus, no eclipses will occur. Eclipses only
happen when the Moon aligns with the Sun and Earth.
Facts, Myths, and Superstitions
Some people believe that a sudden darkening during the day (solar eclipse) brings bad luck. Others say that it is also bad
luck when the Moon turns dark during a Full Moon (lunar eclipse).
Ancient Tagalogs call eclipses as laho. Others call it as eklepse (pronounced as written). Old people would tell you that
during laho or eklepse, the Sun and the Moon are eaten by a big snake called Bakunawa. The only way to bring them
back is to create a very loud noise. The Bakunawa gets irritated with the noise and spews out the Sun and the Moon back
to the people.
In science, explanations are supported with evidence. Beliefs related to eclipses, such as the Sun being swallowed by
Bakunawa (a large animal), or the increase of harmful microorganisms during an eclipse, are passed on by adults to young
children. But until now, no proof has been offered to show that they are true.
However, there are beliefs that have scientific bases. For example, it is bad to look directly at the Sun during a solar
eclipse. Doing so will damage your eyes. This is true. Even if only a thin crescent of the Sun is left uncovered by the
Moon, it will still be too bright for you to observe. In fact, it is 10,000 times brighter than the Full Moon and it will
certainly harm your retina. So if you ever observe a solar eclipse, be ready with a solar filter or welder’s goggles to
protect your eyes.
Now you are an informed student on the occurrence of eclipses. The next time an eclipse occurs, your task is to explain to
your family or the community the factors that cause eclipse.
Summary
You may still be wondering why the topics Seasons and Eclipses were discussed together in a single module. The reason
is that these phenomena are mainly the result of the motions of the Earth and Moon through space. As the Earth
goes around the Sun, the northern and southern hemispheres are alternately exposed to the direct rays of the Sun, leading
to the annual changes in seasons. And as the Moon goes around the Earth, it sometimes forms a straight line with the Sun
and Earth, leading to the occurrence of eclipses. We do not directly see nor observe the motions of the Earth and Moon,
but we can observe the phenomena that arise because of them.