Ethernet Physical Layer Standard: Cabling

Hector Dionisio Lady Xyrille Galvez Carl Francis Veloso

Electronics Engineering Department,
College of Engineering
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Baliuag, Bulacan, Philippines
hectordionisio022001@gmail.com
Electronics Engineering Department,
College of Engineering
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Baliuag, Bulacan, Philippines
galvezxy@gmail.com
Electronics Engineering Department,
College of Engineering
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Tanza, Cavite, Philippines
cfvel20@gmail.com

Abstract— Ethernet technology, standards, and processes
enable the world's most extensively used LANs to be installed and
used. The IEEE standard was first made known in 1985 with the
title IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and Physical Layer
Specifications. Since then, The IEEE 802.3 is the official Ethernet
standard. The IEEE issues a supplement comprising one or more
sections, or "clauses" in IEEE jargon, when the Ethernet
standard needs to be revised to add a new media system or
feature. Cabling Ethernet networks according to the standards is
critical for proper functioning. Ethernet connections back then
include coaxial copper cables, twisted pair cables, and fiber-optic
cables. But the most extensively used nowadays are twisted pair
cables. As several Ethernet media systems have been created, the
IEEE has allocated shorthand identifiers to each. The speed, the
type of signaling utilized, and the physical medium information
that specifies the media type employed are all part of the three-
part identifiers.
Keywords—ethernet, physical layer, layer 1, utp, stp, twisted
pair, cable
I. INTRODUCTION
Ethernet is now the most popular local area networking
solution in the home and office. According to market surveys,
hundreds of millions of Ethernet network interface cards
(NICs), repeater ports, and switching hub ports have been sold
to date, and the market is still growing. Overall, Ethernet
outsells all other LAN technologies by a wide margin. Most
computerized equipment now includes an Ethernet interface,
and almost every computer manufacturer now supports
Ethernet. A number of factors have contributed to Ethernet's
popularity: cost, scalability, reliability, and widely available
management tools are among these considerations. The
Ethernet system has evolved over time, becoming larger and
more complex. Ethernet is always changing to keep up with the
demands of its customers. Ethernet is indeed evolving,
adapting to the needs of the networking world while also
meeting the needs of operators and end users. Because of
Ethernet's ubiquity and extensive use, as well as the
unprecedented need for advanced data communication services,
new Ethernet standards are being developed to suit market
demand. It currently encompasses a diverse variety of media
systems, each with its own set of hardware and configuration
guidelines. This paper will look at the evolution of Ethernet
standards in IEEE 802.3, focusing on the protocols in the
physical layer (PHY) specifically for cables and connectors.
II. ETHERNET
Brief History
Bob Metcalfe (then at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center,
PARC) submitted a memo on May 22, 1973, explaining the
Ethernet network architecture he had developed for
interconnecting advanced computer workstations and allowing
them to deliver data to high-speed laser printers. The Xerox
Alto, the first personal computer workstation with graphical
user interfaces and mouse pointing device, was probably the
most well-known invention at Xerox PARC. The first laser
printers for personal computers were also developed at PARC,
as well as the first high-speed LAN technology, Ethernet, to
connect everything. This was an exceptional computing
environment for the time, as the early 1970s were dominated
by large and very expensive mainframe computers. The
inventions at Xerox PARC contributed to a revolutionary shift
in computing. The use of Ethernet LANs to enable computer
communication has been a significant part of this revolutionary
change in computer use. When this new computing model is
combined with an increase in the use of information-sharing
applications like the World Wide Web, a whole new world of
communications technology emerges. Nowadays, most
information is shared via Ethernet; from the smallest office to
the largest corporation, from a single classroom to a university
campus, Ethernet is clearly the networking technology of
choice.
Devices because one is always completely colored and the other has
the same color with white parts in between. In 10/100Base-T,
Hubs / Repeaters is a Layer 1 device that connects multiple
only two of the four pairs are used (pair 2: orange/white and
hosts together to form a local network. The only thing that it
orange and pair 3: green/white and green). The IEEE
can do is send data to all the hosts connected to it. It does not
specification for Ethernet 10/100Base-T requires that one used
have the concept of addresses. It has a major security concern
pair be connected to connector pins 1 and 2, while the second
because it sends data to all hosts even if it is not intended for
pair is connected to connector pins 3 and 6. The remaining two
that host. A wastage of bandwidth also happens in the process.
unused pairs will be connected to pins 4 and 5, as well as pins
Switches is a Layer 2 device that also connects multiple 7 and 8.
hosts together to form a network. But unlike hubs, it
determines the MAC (Media Access Control) address before
sending the data. It solves the major problem of the Hubs
because it does not send the data to all hosts but looks first at
the MAC address to ensure that only the intended host will
receive the data. This process saves bandwidth and ensures
security.
Routers is a Layer 3 device that is used to connect multiple
networks. It is like the gate of a network to another network or
to the internet. The router will create the route to the other
network by determining the IP address of the hosts. It will not
send or receive data that is not intended for the specific IP
Figure 1 Pin configuration for Fast Ethernet
address.
Implementations based on twisted pair Straight-through cable, also known as patch cable, is
derived by connecting both sides of cable pair 2 with pin 1 and
The main limitation of coax is that it can only support half- pin 2, while pair 3 is connected with pin 3 and pin 6. This
duplex communication. If certain problems arise, the used bus cable can connect the patch panel to the hub/switch, the PC to
structure is also not ideal. To overcome the bus topology, the hub/switch, or the PC to the wall. This cable is typically
Ethernet has switched to a topology that allows for the use of used to connect a structure element to an end element. A
twisted pair: all stations are linked to one or more central hubs. cross-over cable is required to establish PC-PC connections
A star topology can be determined in this manner. This allows (connection of two end elements) and to secure connections
the network to be easily extended and checked, and it aids in between hubs/switches (connection between two structure
error detection. The longest segment between a participant and elements). To make a cross-over cable, we must switch the
a hub is 100 meters. The twisted pair variants have evolved used pairs. Pair 2 must be connected to pins 3 and 6 on one
from 10Base-T (10Mbps) to 100Base-T (100Mbps) to side, while pair 3 must be connected to pins 1 and 2.
1000Base-T (1000Mbps).

Figure 2 The MAU for 10/100Base-T

The MAU, designed for twisted pair, has four data pins:
two for sending and two for receiving. This is the foundation
of full duplex Ethernet. Any point-to-point communication is
theoretically possible. As a result, each host must be directly
connected to a structure element, such as a hub or a switch. Figure 3 Twisted pair cabling, 10/100Base-T

Current Ethernet ports support auto crossing. This means

Fast Ethernet
that it can be detected automatically which cable is used and
UTP cables, such as CAT5 (Category 5) UTP
the crossing will be corrected internally if necessary.
(Unshielded Twisted Pair), can support data rates of up to
100Mbps. The cable is made up of eight wires that are
Gigabit Ethernet
arranged in four pairs. The four pairs are distinguishable
 The data rate of Gigabit Ethernet is 1000Mbps. If CAT5 the companies try to venture out to discover new things to be
Ethernet cables are used, for example, this presents a problem the best in the industry however, the published standards and
because they only support a clock rate of up to 125MHz. To the sold products may not agree with each other. The device a
accomplish this, technology must be modified. First, person bought that is contrary to the standard may not be
1000Base-T uses four voltage levels to encode two bits per compatible with other network devices. It will be a waste and
clock signal (00, 01, 10, and 11). In addition, 1000Base-T a problem to the consumer also, the vendor will not even
employs all four data pairs of an Ethernet cable. The four data upgrade the bought equipment.
pairs are used bidirectionally here. All four data pairs are used
to send and receive data. As a result, Gigabit Ethernet TABLE 1 SUPPLEMENTS IN CHRONOLOGICAL
continues to use the 125MHz of the 100Base-T/Cat5 clock ORDER
rate. A data rate of 1000Mbps is achieved by processing two Supplement Year Description
bits for every clock pulse using four data pairs. This 802.3c 1985 10 Mbps repeater
modulation technology, known as 4D-PAM5, currently specifications
employs five different voltage levels. The error mechanism 802.3d 1987 F0IRL 10 Mbps fiber
operates on the fifth voltage level. The Gigabit Ethernet pin link
configuration is shown in Figure 4. BI stands for bi- 802.3a 1988 10Base2 Thin Ethernet
directional, while DA, DB, DC, and DD stand for data A, B,
802.3i 1990 10Base-T Twisted Pair
C, and D, respectively.
802.3j 1993 10Base-F Fiber Optic

802.3u 1995 10Base-T Fast Ethernet

and Auto-Negotiation

802.3x 1997 Full Duplex Standard

802.3z 1998 1000Base-X Gigabit

Ethernet

802.3ac 1998 Frame Size Extension to

1522 bytes for VLAN tag

802.3ab 1999 1000Base-T Gigabit

Ethernet over Twisted
Pair
Figure 4 Pin configuration for Gigabit Ethernet
802.3ad 2000 Link Aggregation for
Parallel Links
IEEE Supplements
802.3ae 2002 10 Gbps Ethernet
Technology continuously evolves and the demand for
better data rates go higher every year. Not all standards set by 802.3af 2003 Power over Ethernet
the IEEE 802.3 CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access (“DTE Power via MDI”)
with Collision Detection) are applicable forever. Some needs 802.3ak 2004 10GBase-CX4 10
to be improved or repealed. Most technologies are getting Gigabit Ethernet over
obsolete, and the IEEE should keep up with these changes. short-range coaxial cable
The way they developed to keep up is to add Supplements to
the CSMA/CD standard. It is like a law that contains sections 802.3an 2006 10Base-T 10 Gigabit
Ethernet over Twisted
and clauses that can repeal, change, or add to the existing
Pair
standard. Supplements have assigned letters to denote when
they are created. It is then evaluated by engineering experts of 802.3as 2006 Frame Expansion to 2000
the IEEE then must pass a balloting procedure before being bytes for all tagging
integrated to the standard. After integration, it will be
published as part of the standard and not anymore as a 802.3aq 2007 10GBase-LRM 10
Gigabit Ethernet over
supplementary document. A problem that is often encountered long-range Fiber Optic
in developing supplements is its slow-paced development. It is
understandable that the engineering experts really study the 802.3az 2010 Energy-efficient Ethernet
standards first before publishing but the vendors in the market
does not wait for the published standards. They will sell 802.3ba 2010 40 Gbps and 100 Gbps
Ethernet
devices with functions that are not yet published in the
standards or currently in the process for publication. It may be
seen as not that bad because technology always evolves and
 Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
(STP) are the two kinds of this cable (STP).
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD
This standard was created by the IEEE based on the Unshielded Twisted Pair
standards from the DIX Ethernet Standard (First standard of
Ethernet created by the 3 companies that invented it). The
protocol was named IEEE 802.3CSMA/CD instead of the
Ethernet to remove the issues of supporting an individual
company. Its function is to determine the transmission speed,
type of transmission, and length or type of cabling of an
Ethernet Network. It uses the terminologies like 10Base2 to
name the standard. It is configured in this process: The First
Number indicates the standard data transmission speed, The
Word “Base” indicated Baseband transmission, and the last Figure 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair
digit and/or number indicates the transmission medium type
and length. An example would be 10Base-T, the meaning The quality of UTP cable varies from telephone wire to
would be 10Mbps, Baseband Transmission, in Twisted Cable ultra-high-speed cable. There are four pairs of wires inside the
Pairs. jacket. To assist avoid interference from nearby pairs and
CSMA / CD means Carrier-sense multiple access with other electrical equipment, each pair is twisted with a distinct
collision detection. This phrase literally describes how the number of twists per inch. The tighter the twisting, the greater
Ethernet functions based on the protocol. It can be divided to the supported transmission rate and the higher the cost per
three with the divisions be Carrier Sense, Multiple Access, and foot.
Collision Detection. Carrier Sense is where the hosts “senses” The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/
first if there is a signal in the channel. It will wait until there is
no signal then it will transmit. Multiple Access means all are Category Speed Use
equal to access the channel anytime. There is no limit to when
the channel can be access. Collision Detection is when the 1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
transmitter detects a collision with others. Since all have
access to the channel at any given time, it is possible that more 2 4 Mbps Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used)
than one will detect that there is no signal in the channel and
transmit at the same time. The data will then collide with each 3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
other. If this happens, detection will occur and back off
process will happen. Transmission will be stopped, and it will
find another time for retransmission.
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
TWISTED PAIR CABLES
5 100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
Information is commonly transferred through cable from
one network device to another. There are many different types
1000 Mbps (4 Gigabit Ethernet
of cables that are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a pair)
network may use only one type of cable, while in others,
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
multiple cable types may be used. The type of cable used is
influenced by the network's architecture, protocol, and size. 6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
Understanding the qualities of different types of cable and
how they connect to other sections of the network is critical
Telecommunication Industry Association) has produced UTP
for the development of a successful network.
standards and classified six wire types into six categories
Twisted pair cables are made up of two copper wires.
(additional categories are emerging).
Because of their high performance and low cost, copper wires
are the most often utilized conductors for signal transmission.
TABLE 2 SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR SPECIFICATIONS
A twisted pair is made up of two conductors (usually copper)
twisted together to produce a single medium, each with its
In naming the Cables, Cat (shorted for Category) is used.
own plastic insulation. Only one of these two wires transmit
For example, Cat 1 means Category 1 UTP.
real signal, while the other serves as a ground reference. These
cables are color-coded to help identify them. Noise (electro-
For unshielded twisted pair cable, an RJ-45 connector is
magnetic interference) and crosstalk can be reduced by
the industry standard. This is a large plastic connector that
twisting wires together. This type of cable is used to offer
looks like a phone jack. In a slot, the RJ-45 can only be
voice and data channels in telephone lines. Unshielded
inserted one way. Registered Jack denotes that the connector
complies with a telephone industry standard. This
specification defines which wire goes with which connecting
pin.
Figure 6 RJ-45 connector
Shielded Twisted Pair
A disadvantage of UTP cable is its easily interfered
by noises. It is not ideal to use it beside noisy devices such as
electric motors and fluorescent lights. Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP) is a good solution for this because the wires are shielded
making it more immune to noises.
Shielded cables can also aid to increase the maximum
cable distance. There are three possible configurations for this
sort of Twisted Pair cable. To begin, each pair of wires is
individually foil insulated. Second, all wires are covered by a
foil or braid shield inside the jacket, and there is a shield
surrounding each individual pair as well as the complete group
of wires.
Figure 7 Shielded Twisted Pair
III. ETHERENET CABLE STANDARDS FOR MEDIA
SYSTEMS
10 Mbps Media Systems
These media systems are the pioneers of the Ethernet. The
first three standards namely 10Base5, 10Base2, and 10Base-T
have a speed of 10Mbps.
10Base5 is the first developed Ethernet Protocol with the
IEEE documentation 802.3. It runs on coaxial cables with the
minimum cable grade required of RG-8 and a maximum
distance of 500 meters. This is also called Thicknet because of
the thick coaxial cables used. This standard is obsolete.
10Base2 is next, with IEEE documentation 802.3a. Like
10Base5, it also runs on coaxial cables with the minimum
cable grade required of RG-58. But unlike 10Base5, it only
has a maximum distance of 200 meters. This is also called
Thinnet because of the thin coaxial cables used. This standard
is obsolete.
10Base-T is on a different level. Having IEEE
documentation 802.3i, it runs on unshielded twisted pair wires
(UTP) with a minimum cable grade requirement of Cat 3. It
offers a maximum distance of 100 meters. It also uses hubs but
because of it, it is slow and susceptible to collisions making
10Base-T an impractical standard.
100 Mbps Media Systems
Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u) operates at 100 Mbps. It
works with conventional Network, which runs at 10 Mbps and
use the CSMA/CD MAC protocol. This is accomplished by
decreasing the maximum distance between two stations from
2500 meters to 250 meters. As with Ethernet, the minimum
frame size remains 64 bytes.
There are given physical Layer options of Fast Ethernet:
100BASE- T stands for any of numerous Fast Ethernets
twisted pair cable protocols including:
100BASE-TX (100 Mbps over two-pair Cat5 or better
cable) is the most common type of Fast Ethernet.
100BASE-T cable's segment length is restricted to 100
meters, same as Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. A standard cat
5 cable has four pairs and may thus enable two 100BASE-TX
connections.
100BASE-T4 (100 Mbps over four-pair Cat3 or better
cable, now defunct). The data stream was divided into three
parts, each having an effective data rate of 331/3 Mbps.
100BASE-FX Is a Fast Ethernet over optical fiber variant.
It employs a 1300 nm light wavelength that is sent by two
optical fiber strands, one for receive (RX) and the other for
transmit (TX). Full duplex over multimode optical fiber has a
maximum length of 2 kilometers
1000 Mbps Media Systems
1000BASE-X is the IEEE shorthand identifier for Gigabit
Ethernet media systems based on the Fiber Channel
networking standard's 8B/10B block encoding scheme. Fiber
Channel is an ANSI-developed and standardized high-speed
networking system. There are three 1000BASE-X media
systems: 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX, and 1000BASE-
CX.
In 1000BASE-SX, the "S" denotes "short," as in "short
wavelength." This media segment is one of three that use the
same block encoding scheme, as indicated by the "X." This is
the Gigabit Ethernet short wavelength fiber optic media
segment.
1000BASE-LX is the Gigabit Ethernet long wavelength
fiber optic media segment.
1000BASE-CX is based on the original Fiber Channel
standard, this is a short copper cable media segment for
Gigabit Ethernet.
1000BASE-T is the IEEE abbreviation for 1000 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet over Category 5 or higher grade UTP cable.
This system is based on a unique signal encoding scheme that is
required to transmit gigabit signals over twisted-pair cabling.
10 Gbps Media Sytems
The IEEE 802.3ae standard protocols are extended to a wire
speed of 10 Gbps, and the Ethernet application space is
expanded to enable WAN-compatible lines. The 10 Gigabit
Ethernet standard delivers a large increase in capacity while
keeping maximum compatibility with the current base of 802.3
standard interfaces, protecting earlier research and development
investments, and maintaining existing network operating and
management concepts.
The technique can also be used to build MANs that connect
geographically dispersed LANs across campuses. As a result,
Ethernet competes with ATM and other wide-area networking
(WAN) technologies. When the customer demand is data and
TCP/IP transport, 10 Gbps Ethernet delivers substantial value to
both network end users and service providers: no expensive,
bandwidth-consuming translation between Ethernet packets and
ATM cells is necessary; the network Ethernet is from the
transmitter to the receiver. QoS and traffic policing capabilities
are comparable to those given by ATM when IP(v6) and
Ethernet are combined. For 10-Gbps Ethernet, a range of
standard optical interfaces (wavelengths and connection
distances) have been established, allowing it to operate and cost
efficiently in LAN, MAN, and WAN applications. Maximum
link distances are a target for a variety of applications, ranging
from 300 meters to 40 kilometers.
The demand for 10 Gbps Ethernet is being driven by a rise
in the number of network connections, an increase in the
connection speed of each end-station, an increase in
bandwidth-intensive apps such as high-quality video, and an
increase in Web hosting and app hosting traffic.
The IEEE Std 802.3ae standard for 10 gigabit Ethernet was
initially issued in 2002. It specifies a 10 Gbps Ethernet
version, which is ten times faster than gigabit Ethernet. Only
full duplex connections, coupled via switches, are supported
by 10 gigabit Ethernet. The 10GbE standard does not offer
half-duplex operation or CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection). To offer high-speed LAN
backbone connectivity between big capacity switches, network
administrators will first deploy 1- Gbps Ethernet. As
bandwidth demand grows, 10 Gbps Ethernet will be
implemented across the network, including server farms,
backbone, and campus-wide connection.
40 Gbps Media Systems
This media system is closely tied to the 100Gbps because
it is studied by the IEEE at the same time. Research have
surfaced regarding the best move a company should take
whether migrating to 40Gbps or 100Gbps. Both standards do
have similarities. For 40Gbps, a two-way medium is required.
Often a parallel fiber-optic cable is used. It can be transmitted
using single mode fiber (SMF) or Multimode fiber (MMF).
One possible configuration is four fibers with 10 Gbps
each for transmission and another four 10Gbps fibers for
receiving data. Another configuration is with the use of
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) where instead of
different fibers, different wavelengths are assigned. There is
also an option to use Twinax Cable (Coaxial cable with two
inner conductors) but will only have a maximum distance of 7
meters. Some 40Gbps media systems are:
40GBASE-SR4 that can reach up to 100 meters using an
OM3 cable. It uses parallel MMF.
40GBASE-LR4 that can reach up to 10 kilometers using
Duplex SMF transmission.
40GBASE-CR4 that can reach only 7 meters using Twinax
Cable.
100 Gbps Media Systems
Trend in big data centers, with sizable bank of blade
servers, the implementation of 10-Gbps ports on
individual servers to manage vast quantities of
multimedia traffic delivered by these servers. This
pressure on-site switches needed to connect huge
numbers of servers. The bandwidth required to manage
the increasing traffic load is 100 Gbps.
Inside the data center, 100 Gbps will be used for
switch uplinks as well as interbuilding, intercampus,
MAN, and WAN connectivity for business networks.
The following are the most prevalent 100 Gb/s media
systems today:
100GBASE-SR10 - 10 short-range multimode fiber
optic cables carrying 100 Gb/s Ethernet.
100GBASE-LR4 - A single long-distance single-mode
fiber optic cable may carry 100 Gb/s ethernet over four
wavelengths.
100GBASE-CR10 – 10 meter over copper cable.
100GBASE-ER4 – uses 40 kilometer over single mode
fiber.
IV. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers would like to acknowledge and give
appreciation to Engr. Cristian S. Lazana for giving us the
opportunity to study more intensively and gain further
learnings in the topic of Ethernet standards. The researchers
would also like to acknowledge their families who supported
them in constructing the paper and most of all the best
acknowledgement to God for giving all the graces, patience,
and wit to finish the paper.
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