LINEAR ALGEBRA

Prof. Maria Victoria G. Allingag

Course Title: Linear Algebra
Pre-requisite: M101 : College and Advance Algebra
Course Code: M112
Course Credit: 3
Course Description: This course provides a basic understanding of Vector Spaces and
Matrix Algebra; with application to solutions of systems of linear
equations and linear transformation. Students of this course are
expected to employ computer applications/software and other
technological devices as tools in learning and problem solving.

COURSE OUTLINE

Time Topic Intended Learning Outcomes

Allotment

At the end of the session/s, 100% of the students with 75%

proficiency level should be able to:

Week 1 ORIENTATION

I. LINEAR EQUATIONS
AND MATRICES

Week 1 1. Linear Systems solve different kinds of linear systems using

Week 2 2. Matrices
3. Matrix Addition and
Matrix Multiplication
4. Transpose of a matrix
5. The Inverse of a Matrix
elimination method.
correctly identify different kinds of matrices
add and multiply matrices.
prove the different properties of matrix addition and
matrix multiplication.
find the inverse of the matrix using different
methods.

Week 3 6. Solutions of Linear solve linear systems using Gauss-Jordan Reduction

Systems of Equations Method.
(Gauss- Jordan Reduction
Method)

II. DETERMINANTS

1. Definition and Properties correctly determine the determinant of a matrix

Week 4
2. Cofactor Expansion and using different methods.
Applications show detailed proofs of properties of determinants
Week 5
3. Determinants from a
Computational Point of
View
 III. VECTORS AND
VECTOR SPACES
1. Definition of a Vector in a
Week 6
Plane
2. Graphical Representation
of Vector in a Plane.
3. Operations involving
Vectors in a Plane.
IV. REAL VECTOR SPACES
AND SUBSPACES
Week 7 1. Definition of a Real Vector
Space and Subspaces
2. Linear Independence
Week 8 3. Basis and Dimension
4. Rank of a Matrix
Week 9 Midterm Examination
V. LINEAR
TRANSFORMATION
Week 10 1. Isomorphism of vector
spaces
2. Linear transformation
Week 11 3. Kernel of a linear
transformation
4. Range, nullity and rank
Week 12 5. Dimension theorem
6. Nonsingular Linear
transformation
Week 13 7. Matrix of a linear
transformation
8. Similarity
VI. EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
Week 14 1. Eigenvectors and
eigenvalues
2. Characteristic polynomial
Week 15 3. Hamilton-Cayley theorem
4. Diagonalization
relate the connection between points in a plane and
vectors in a plane.
graph a 2-vector in the Cartesian plane.
perform operations on vectors accurately and can
properly represent sum and difference vectors
graphically.
Correctly identify sets which are real vector spaces
and subsets which are subspaces.
Prove properties of real vector spaces and subspaces.
Determine bases of vector spaces and subspaces.
Determine whether two vector spaces are isomorphic.
Determine whether a function from one vector space
to another is a linear transformation.
find the kernel and range, find the basis for the kernel
and range, and determine the nullity and rank.
Determine whether a given linear transformation is
one-to-one or onto.
Find the standard matrix for a given linear
transformation and the composition of linear
transformations.
Determine whether a given linear transformation is
invertible and find its inverse if it exists.
Know and use the properties of similar matrices.
Verify an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of a given
matrix.
Explain the geometrical interpretation of the
eigenvalue and eigenvector of a given matrix.
Find the characteristic equation and the eigenvalues

VII. INNER PRODUCT
SPACES
Week 16 1. Length and Dot Product in
R^{n}
2. Inner Product Spaces
Week 17 3. Orthonormal Bases: Gram-
Schmidt Process
4. Mathematical Models and
Least Squares Analysis
Week 18 Final Examination
and corresponding eigenvectors of a given matrix.
Determine whether a given matrix is diagonalizable,
symmetric, or orthogonal.
Find a basis B (if possible) for the domain of a linear
transformation L such that the matrix of L relative to
B is diagonal.
Find the eigenvalues of a given symmetric matrix and
determine the dimension of the corresponding
eigenspace.
Find an orthogonal matrix that diagonalizes a given
matrix.
For a given vector v, find its length, a unit vector in
the same or opposite direction, all vectors that are
orthogonal to v, and the projection of v onto a given
vector or vector space.
Find the distance, the dot product, the inner product,
the cross product, and the angle between any two
given vectors in a Euclidian space.
Verify and use the Cauchy Schwarz Inequality, the
Triangle Inequality, and the Pythagorean Theorem for
vectors.
Determine whether any two given vectors are
orthogonal, parallel, or neither.
Determine whether a given set of vectors is
orthogonal, orthonormal, or neither. Determine
whether given subspaces are orthogonal.
Solve problems involving mathematical models and
least squares analysis.
Symbols and Notations
 UNIT I: LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES

L esson 1: LINEAR SYSTEMS

AND MATRICES

I ntended L earning O utcomes

 Solve different kinds of linear systems using Elimination Method.

D iscussion
Introduction to Linear Systems
The basic problem of linear algebra is to solve a system of linear equations. A linear
equation in the n variables – or unknowns – 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … and 𝑥𝑛 is an equation of the form
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏
where b and the coefficients 𝑎1 are constants. A finite collection of such linear equations is
called a linear system. To solve a system means to find all values of the variables that satisfy all
the equations in the system simultaneously. For example, consider the following system, which
consists of two linear equations in two unknowns:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 3
3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 4
Although there are infinitely many solutions to each equation separately, there is only one pair
of numbers 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 which satisfies both equations at the same time. This ordered pair,
(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (2,1), is called the solution to the system.

Kinds of Systems of Linear Equations

A pair of linear equations in two variables in general can be represented as

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0
We can find the solution to these equations by the graphical or algebraic method.
A system of linear equations is just a set of two or more linear equations. In two
variables (x  and  y) , the graph of a system of two equations is a pair of lines in the plane.
There are three types of systems of linear equations in two variables, and three types of
solutions.
 An independent system has exactly one solution pair (x,y). The point where the two
lines intersect is the only solution.

 An inconsistent system has no solution. Notice that the two lines are parallel and will
never intersect.

 A dependent system has infinitely many solutions. The lines are coincident. They are
the same line, so every coordinate pair on the line is a solution to both equations.

Below is a comparison of graphical representations of each type of system.

Inconsistent System Independent System Dependent System

Activity
Plot the three different systems with an online graphing tool. Categorize each solution
as either consistent or inconsistent. If the system is consistent determine whether it is
dependent or independent. You may find it easier to plot each system individually, then clear out
your entries before you plot the next.

1) 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −19
𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 1
2) 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 11

−2𝑦 = −25 + 8𝑥
3) 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 6
−13𝑦 + 2 = 𝑥
Solving System of Linear Equations Using the Elimination Method
Step 1: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to (or from) the other equation, in such a
way that either the x -terms or the y -terms cancel out.
Step 2: Then solve for x (or y, whichever's left) and substitute back to get the other coordinate.

Example #1

Example #2
𝑥 𝑦
3
+ 6
=3
Solve the system { 𝑥 𝑦
2
− 4
=1

First clear each equation of fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the least
common denominator.
𝑥 𝑦
6 ( + ) = 6(3)
3 6
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟖
𝑥 𝑦
6 ( − ) = 6(1)
2 4
 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟒
Now multiply the second equation by −1 and add the result to the first equation.

2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18
−2𝑥 + 𝑦 = −4
2𝑦 = 14

𝒚=𝟕
Substitute 𝒚 = 𝟕 into the first equation.
2𝑥 + (7) = 18

2𝑥 = 11
𝟏𝟏
𝒙=
𝟐
𝟏𝟏
The solution is (𝟕, ).
𝟐

Example #3
x + 3y = 2
Solve the system {
3x + 9y = 6
With the elimination method, we want to eliminate one of the variables by adding the equations.
In this case, let us focus on eliminating x. If we multiply both sides of the first equation by −3,
then we will be able to eliminate the x-variable.
−3𝑥 − 9𝑦 = −6
We can see that there will be
3𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 6 an infinite number of
solutions that satisfy both
0=0 equations.
Analysis of the Solution
If we rewrote both equations in the slope-intercept form, we might know what the
solution would look like before adding. Let us look at what happens when we convert the system
to slope-intercept form.

x + 3y = 2 3x + 9y = 6
3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 2 9y = −3x + 6
𝟏 𝟐 3 6
𝐲=− 𝐱+ y= − x+
𝟑 𝟑 9 9
𝟏 𝟐
𝐲=− 𝐱+
𝟑 𝟑
Look at the graph below. Notice the results are the same. The general solution to the system is
𝟏 𝟐
(𝑥 , − 𝐱 + ).
𝟑 𝟑

Example #4
x + 2y + z = 3
Solve the system { 2x + 2z − y = 6
3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 5

The solution of the given system of equations is 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 1. Can you me show

how?

P ractice E xercises
Directions: Solve the following using elimination method to find the solution to the given system
or to determine if the system is consistent, inconsistent, or dependent system
x = 9 − 2y
1. {
x + 2y = 13

y − 2x = 5
2. { Answer: infinitely many solution (Dependent system)
− 3y + 6x = −15

2y − 2x = 2
3. {
2y − 2x = 6

x − 2y = 2
4. { Answer: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0 (Consistent System)
2x − 2y = 4
 7x − 8y = −12
5. {
−4x + 2y = 3

x + 3y = 2 1 3
6. { Answer: 𝑥 = − 4 , 𝑦 = 4 (Consistent System)
2x + 2y = 1

x + 2y = 5
7. {
2x − 3y = 2

2x − 5y + 3z = −18
8. { 3x + 2y − z = −12 Answer: 𝑥 = −5, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = −1 (Consistent System)
𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −4

x−y+z = 2
9. { 2x + 3y − 1 = 3
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1

2x − 3y − z = 7
10. { 3x + 5y − 3z = −2 Answer: 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = 2 (Consistent System)
4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 17

S upplementary P roblems

Instructions:
1. Go to the link of a game/quiz your Professor will give.
2. Enter the code of a game/quiz
3. Start answering the questions.
4. After the first question, do not click anything. The next question will appear after.
5. Once done, take a screenshot of your quiz score and upload it to our google classroom.

S uggested L inks
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/systems-linear-equations.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JQeo0yC9OQ
 L esson 2: Matrices

I ntended L earning O utcomes

 Correctly identify different kinds of matrices
 Add and multiply matrices.
 Prove the different properties of matrix addition and matrix multiplication.
 Find the inverse of the matrix using different methods
.

D iscussion
A matrix is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 array of scalars from a given field F. The individual values in the
matrix are called entries
Examples.

The size of the array is–written as 𝑚 × 𝑛, where 𝑚 is the number of rows and 𝑛 is the
number of columns.

𝐴 := uppercase denotes a matrix

𝑎 := lower case denotes an entry of a matrix 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹

TYPES OF MATRICES
Source: https://www.mathportal.org/linear-algebra/matrices/matrices-definitions.php
https://byjus.com/jee/types-of-matrices/

 Row Matrix
1
A matrix with one row is called the row matrix. For example, 𝐴= [− 2 √3 4 − 2] is a
row matrix of order 1 × 4. In general, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]1𝑥𝑛 is a row matrix of order 1 × 𝑛.
  Column Matrix
A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix. In general, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚𝑥1 is a
column matrix of order 𝑚 ×1.
Example:

 Square Matrix
If a matrix A has n rows and n columns then it can be said that it's a square matrix.
Example:

 Diagonal Matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all non-diagonal elements being 0. The
diagonal matrix is completely denoted by the diagonal elements.
Example:
The matrix is denoted by the diagonal (𝟏, 𝟓, 𝟗)
 Scalar Matrix
If all the elements in the diagonal of a diagonal matrix are equal, it is called a scalar
matrix. Thus, a square matrix
is a scalar matrix if

 Equal Matrices
Equal matrices are those matrices which are equal in terms of their elements.

Equality of Matrices Conditions

Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of the same order
and their corresponding elements are equal, i.e. Two matrices A = [a ij]m×n and B =
[bij]r×s are equal if:
(a) m = r i.e. the number of rows in A = the number of rows in B.
(b) n = s, i.e. the number of columns in A = the number of columns in B
(c) aij = bij, for i = 1, 2, ….., m and j = 1, 2, ….., n, i.e. the corresponding
elements are equal;
 ADDITION OF A MATRIX
Source: https://www.mathbootcamps.com/adding-subtracting-matrices-multiplying-matrix-
constant/

Remember the following for operations on matrices:

 To add or subtract, go entry by entry.
 Addition and subtraction are only defined if the matrices are the same size.
 Scalar multiplication is always defined – just multiply every entry of the matrix by the
scalar.
Example: Find A–3B+2C for:
Solution:

MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX
Source: https://www.mathbootcamps.com/multiplying-matrices/

When multiplying matrices, the size of the two matrices involved determines whether or
not the product will be defined. You can also use the sizes to determine the result of
multiplying the two matrices.
Remember the following anytime you are multiplying two or more matrices.

 Rows hit columns and fill up rows.

 Matrix multiplication is not always defined – check the matrix sizes first!
 Matrix multiplication is not commutative, in general.

Example: Find the product AB where: and

Solution: This is the product of a 3 x 2 matrix and a 2 x 2 matrix. The inner numbers match,
so the product is defined. The result will be a 3 x 2 matrix.
 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Source: https://byjus.com/maths/transpose-of-a-matrix/

Transpose of a Matrix is defined as “A Matrix which is formed by turning all the rows of a
given matrix into columns and vice-versa.” Here, the number of rows and columns in A is
equal to number of columns and rows in B respectively. The transpose of matrix A is
represented by 𝐴′ or 𝐴𝑇 .
The following statement generalizes transpose of a matrix:
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴′ = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑚

Example: Find the transpose of the given matrix

Solution:
Given a matrix of the order 4×3. Transpose of a matrix is given by interchanging of rows and
columns.

Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

1) Transpose of the Transpose Matrix (𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴
2) Addition Property of Transpose (𝐴 + 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ + 𝐵
3) Multiplication by Constant (𝑘𝐴)′ = 𝑘𝐴′, where k is a constant
4) Multiplication Property of Transpose (𝐴𝐵)′ = 𝐵′𝐴′

THE INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Source: https://byjus.com/maths/find-inverse-of-matrix/

If A is a non-singular square matrix, then there exists an inverse matrix 𝐴−1 , which
satisfies the following condition:
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = I, where 𝐼 is the Identity matrix
To calculate the inverse of a matrix, we have to follow these steps:
 First, we need to find the matrix of minors.
 Now change that matrix into a matrix of cofactors.
 Now find the adjoint of the matrix.
 At the end, multiply by 1/determinant.

Example: Find the inverse of matrix.

Solution: To find the inverse of matrix A, we need to find the matrix of minors first;
 The next step is to find the Cofactors of minors of the above matrix.

After this, find the adjoint or adjugate of the above-generated matrix by swapping the
positions of the elements diagonally, such that;

Now we need to find the determinant of the original or given matrix A. Since we have
already calculated the determinants while calculating the matrix of minors. Hence, if we just
multiply the elements of the top row of the above adjoint matrix with the cofactors top row, we
will get the determinant of the complete matrix.
Hence, the determinant = 3(3) + 1(−2) + 2(2) so the 𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏. Multiply the adjoint by
1/Determinant, to get the inverse of original matrix A.
Therefore,

P ractice E xercises
Given the matrices

Calculate
1) 2𝐵
2) 𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶
3) 𝐴 (2𝐵 + 𝐶)
4) 𝐶′
5) 𝐴𝐵
 S upplementary P roblems
Instructions:
1. Go to the link of a game/quiz your Professor will give.
2. Enter the code of a game/quiz
3. Start answering the questions.
4. After the first question, do not click anything. The next question will appear after.
5. Once done, take a screenshot of your quiz score and upload it to our google classroom.

S uggested L inks
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/matrices/types-of-matrices/
https://www.mathportal.org/linear-algebra/matrices/matrix-operations.php
 L esson 2: Gauss- Jordan Reduction Method
I ntended L earning O utcomes
 Correctly identify different kinds of matrices
 Add and multiply matrices.
 Prove the different properties of matrix addition and matrix multiplication.
 Find the inverse of the matrix using different methods
.

D iscussion
(Taken from Matrices Handout- Gaussian and Gauss-Jordan
Crafton Hills College Tutoring Center (Updated: Fall 2019)

A system of equations is a collection of two or more equations with the same set of unknown
variables that are considered simultaneously.

Ex: The following set of equations is a system of equations.

An augmented matrix is a rectangular array of numbers that represents a system of equations.

Ex: Turn the following system of equations into an augmented matrix.

Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian elimination is a method for solving systems of equations in matrix form.

Goal: turn matrix into row-echelon form

Once in this form, we can say that 𝑧 = 𝑓 and use back substitution to solve for y and x.
Use the elementary row operations and follow these steps:

1) Get a 1 in the first column, first row

2) Use the 1 to get 0’s in the remainder of the first column

3) Get a 1 in the second column, second row

4) Use the 1 to get 0’s in the remainder of the second column

5) Get a 1 in the third column, third row

Note: It is not necessary to solve the matrix in this order; however, this
approach is often the most direct

Example: Solve the following set of equations:

Based on the last variable we can use back substitution to find the remaining values.

Solutions are 𝑥 = 10, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑎nd 𝑧 = 1

Gauss-Jordan Elimination

Gauss-Jordan elimination is another method for solving systems of equations in matrix form. It is
really a continuation of Gaussian elimination.

Goal: turn matrix into reduced row-echelon form

Once it is in this form, we can say 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦= 𝑏, and 𝑧 = 𝑐 or (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

Use same row operations as before.

The steps are slightly different because we need zeros above the diagonal line of 1’s as well as
below. We can either complete Gaussian elimination and then work on the 0’s above the 1’s, or work on
the zeros above as we move through the rows, as demonstrated below.
 **Once the values are found we can always
check by plugging back into original equation.**

Let us try another example from cliffnotes.com

The height, y, of an object thrown into the air is known to be given by a quadratic function
of t (time) of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐. If the object is at height y = 23/4 at time t = 1/2, at y = 7 at
time t = 1, and at y = 2 at t = 2, determine the coefficients a, b, and c.

Since t = 1/2 gives y = 23/4

23 1 2 1
4
= 𝑎 (2) + 𝑏 (2) + 𝑐
23 1 1
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
4 4 2

while the other two conditions, y(t = 1) = 7 and y(t = 2) = 2, give the following equations
for a, b, and c: 7 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 and 2 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐, Therefore, the goal is solve the system
1 1 23
4
𝑎 + 2
𝑏 + 𝑐= 4

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 = 7

4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2
The augmented matrix for this system is reduced as follows:

At this point, the forward part of Gaussian elimination is finished, since the coefficient matrix has been
reduced to echelon form. However, to illustrate Gauss‐Jordan elimination, the following additional
elementary row operations are performed:
This final matrix immediately gives the solution: a = −5, b = 10, and c = 2.

P ractice E xercises
Directions: Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination.

1. Answer: (−1, −4, −4)

2. Answer: __________

3. Answer: (2, 3, −1)

4. Answer: __________

5. Answer: No unique solution

6. Answer: __________
7. Answer: (-2, 4, −3)

8. Answer: __________

9. Answer: __________

10. Answer: __________

S upplementary P roblems
Instructions:
1. Go to the link of a game/quiz your Professor will give.
2. Enter the code of a game/quiz
3. Start answering the questions.
4. After the first question, do not click anything. The next question will appear after.
5. Once done, take a screenshot of your quiz score and upload it to our google classroom.

S uggested L inks
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/algebra/linear-algebra/linear-systems/gaussian-
elimination
https://www.caam.rice.edu/~zhang/caam335/F14/handouts/gaussian_elimination.pdf

https://www.analyzemath.com/linear-algebra/systems/Gaussian-elimination-to-solve-systems-
questions-with-solutions.html