Detection / Prevention

Electric Malfunction
 Protective Relays

1. Defects in electrical systems are bound to occur at some point of time. However
when a failure occurs it must be quickly detected & disconnected from the system.
► Disconnecting and isolating faulty equipment in time in order to protect and
maintain the power supply to the remaining healthy circuits in the system
► Limit the amount of damage
► Protecting personnel from electric shock
2. Detection and Disconnection can be achieved using
► Fuses or
► Relays in conjunction with Circuit Breakers
3. (a) FUSES - Performs both detection and interruption function automatically but its
use is limited for protection of LOW Voltage circuits only
(b) RELAYS & CIRCUIT BREAKERS - for HIGH Voltage circuits
► The Relays detect the fault and
► Circuit Breaker performs the disconnection
 Protective Relays – Principle of Operation

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the breaking
operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the
circuit
1. The relay circuit connection can be divided into 3
parts
● the primary winding of a current
transformer (CT) which is connected in
series with the line to be protected
● the secondary winding of CT and the relay
operating coil
● the tripping circuit. It consists of a source
of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker
and the relay stationary contacts

2. When a short circuit occurs at point ‘F’, heavy

current flows through the relay coil causing its
contact to close. This in turn energises the trip
coil of the CB and the CB contact opens
disconnecting the supply to the equipment and
ensures its safety from damage.
 Basic Relays

1. Most of the relays in service on electrical power systems are of ELECTRO

MECHANICAL Type, operating on two main principles

► Electromagnetic attraction

► Electromagnetic induction

ELECTRO MAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAYS

Attracted armature type

Balanced beam type
Solenoid type
 Electromagnetic Induction Type

An induction relay consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two

alternating magnetic field fluxes 2 and 1 of the same frequency, but with a phase
difference  . A torque is produced in the disc and causes circulation of eddy
currents i2 & i1. These currents lag behind their respective fluxes by 900.

1 = 1max sin t and 2 = 2max sin(t + ) where 2 leads 1 by an angle 

d1 d d 2
i1  α (1max sin t ) and i2    2 max sin (t  )
dt dt dt
 1max cos t   2 max cos t   
 Electromagnetic Induction Type

Also F1  1 i2 and F2   2 i1
From the diagram it can be seen that the two forces F1 and F2 are in opposition
Therefore the resultant force F is
F = F2 - F1
 2 i1 - 1 i2
 2max sin (t + ) 1max cos t - 1max sin t 2max cos (t + )
 1max 2max [ sin (t + ) cos t - sin t cos (t + ) ]
 1max 2max sin  …… [sin (A-B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB]
F  1 2 sin 
where 1 and 2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.
 Electromagnetic Induction Type

F  1 2 sin 

The following points needs to be noted from the expression

(a) Greater the phase angle  between the fluxes, greater is the resultant force applied
to the disc. The maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes are 900 out of
phase

(b) The direction of the resultant force and hence the direction of motion of the disc,
depends upon which flux is leading.

(c) The net force is the same at every instant.

 Types of Induction Relays

The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase
difference in the fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relay:
(i) Shaded pole structure
(ii) Watthour-meter or double winding structure
(iii) induction cup structure

Shaded pole structure

Watthour – meter structure

Induction cup structure

 Shaded Pole Structure

1. It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an electro

magnet.
2. One half of each of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known
as shading ring.
3. The alternating flux s in the shaded portion of the poles will (owing to the reaction of
the current induced in the ring), lag behind the flux u in the unshaded portion by an
angle . These two A.C. fluxes differing in phase will produce a torque to rotate the
disc.
T  s u sin 
Assuming the fluxes s and u to be proportional to to the current I in the relay coil
T  I2 sin  This shows that the driving torque is proportional
to the square of the current in the relay coil
Watthour – meter Structure

1. It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc

arranged to rotate freely between the poles of
two electromagnets.

2. The upper electromagnet carries two

windings; primary and secondary.

3. The primary winding carries the relay current

while the secondary winding is connected to
the winding of the lower magnet.

4. The primary current induces emf in the

secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it.

5. The flux 2 induced in the lower magnet by the

current in the secondary winding of the upper
magnet will lag behind 1 by an angle .

6. The two fluxes 1 and 2 differing in phase

angle  will produce a driving torque on the
disc proportional to

T  1 2 sin 
 Induction Cup Structure

1. It closely resembles an induction motor,

except that the rotor iron is stationary, only
the rotor conductor portion being free to
rotate.
2. The moving element is a hollow cylinder
rotor which turns on its axis.
3. A rotating field is produced by two pairs of
coils wound on four poles as shown.
4. The rotating field induces currents in the
cup to provide necessary driving torque.
5. If 1 and 2 represent fluxes produced by the
respective pairs of poles, then the torque
produced is proportional to 1 2 sin  where
 is the phase angle between the two fluxes.
6. A control spring and the back stop for closing the contacts carried on an arm are
attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous motion.
7. Induction cup structure are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded
pole or the watthour meter structures. Therefore, this type of relay has very high
speed and may have an operation time less than 0.1 sec.
Overcurrent Relay

1. Works on induction principle and

initiates corrective measures when
current in the circuit exceeds a
predetermined value.
2. The actuating source is a current
supplied to the relay from a current
transformer.
3. The upper electromagnet has a
primary and a secondary winding.
4. The primary is connected to the
secondary of a CT in the line to be
protected and is tapped at intervals.
5. The tappings are connected to a plug-
setting bridge by which the number of
active turns on the relay operating coil
can be varied, thereby giving the
desired current setting.
6. The secondary winding is energised
by induction from primary and is
connected in series with the winding
on the lower magnet.
 Overcurrent Relay (Cont….)

7. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral

spring.
8. The spindle of the disc carries a moving
contact which bridges two fixed contacts
(connected to the trip circuit) when the disc
rotates through a pre set angle. This angle
can be adjusted to any value between 00 to
3600
9. The driving torque on the aluminium disc is
set up due to induction principle. This torque
is opposed by the restraining torque provided
by the spring.

10. Under normal operating condition, restraining torque is greater than driving torque
produced by the relay coil current. Therefore the aluminium disc is stationary.
11. If the current in the protected circuit exceeds the preset value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and
moving contact bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre
set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty
section.
Operation of Reverse Power Relay

1. The flux Φ1 due to the current in the potential coil will

be nearly 900 lagging behind the applied voltage V.
[The voltage coil is particularly designed with a high
inductance so that it can lag current in the coil by an angle
approaching 90 degrees]

2. The flux Φ2 due to the current coil will be in phase with

the operating current I.

3. The interaction of fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 with the eddy

currents induces a torque

T α Φ1 Φ2 sinα
Since Φ1  V ; Φ2  I and α = (90 - ɵ)
T  V I sin (90 - ɵ)
T  V I cos ɵ
T α power in the circuit
Cont…..
 Operation of Reverse Power Relay (Cont…..)

4. The direction of driving torque on the disc depends on the direction of power flow
in the circuit.
5. When the power in the circuit, flows in the normal direction, the driving torque and
the restraining torque (due to spring) help each other to turn the moving contact
away from the fixed contacts and the relay remains inoperative.
6. When the direction of power reverses the driving torque reverses. When the driving
torque is large enough the disc rotates in reverse direction and the moving contact
closes the trip circuit and the circuit breaker contacts open. A time delay
of 5 seconds is also provided so as to prevent tripping during synchronizing
process. The general reverse power settings are 2 to 6% for turbine power movers
and 8 to 15% for diesel engines.
 Induction Type Power Relay

1. A power relay is designed to obtain its

operating torque by the interaction of the
magnetic fields derived from both the
voltage and current source of the circuit it
protects
2. The direction of torque set, depends on
the direction of current relative to the
voltage
3. The upper electromagnet carries a
winding called potential coil on the central
limb which is connected through a
potential transformer to the circuit voltage
source.
4. The lower electromagnet has a separate
winding called current coil connected to
the secondary of CT in the line to be
protected.
5. The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.
6. The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts
when the disc is rotated through a preset angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel
of the moving disc can be adjusted and hence the desired time setting can be
given to the relay.
 Unbalanced loading of Alternator

1. Unbalanced loading means that

there are different phase currents in
the alternator.
2. Unbalanced load arises from faults
to earth or faults between phases on
the external phases of the alternator.
3. The unbalanced currents, if allowed
to persist, may either severely burn
the mechanical fixtures of the rotor
of damage the field winding

4. The scheme comprises three current line transformers, one mounted in each
phase having their secondaries connected in parallel.
5. A relay is connected is connected in parallel across the transformer secondaries
6. Under normal conditions, equal currents flow through the different phases of the
alternator and their algebric sum is zero and no current flows through the operating
coil of the relay.
7. When imbalance occurs, the currents induced in the secondaries will not be zero
and the resultant current will flow through the relay coil.
8. The operation of the relay will trip the circuit breaker.
Protection Discrimination

1. It is the ability of a protection system

to disconnect ONLY faulty circuit and
maintain electrical supply to healthy
circuits. Ie. discrimination occurs
when the fuse nearest to the fault
operates, leaving all other fuses or
protective devices intact.
2. Discrimination may be required
between fuses OR between a fuse and
an over current device, like a CB. This
is achieved by “coordinating” the
CURRENT RATING and TIME
SETTINGS of the fuses and over-
current relays used between the
generator and load
3. The devices nearest to the load have
the lowest current rating and shortest
operating time.
4. Those nearest the generator have the
highest current rating and longest
operating time.
 Selective Coordination

1. The application of circuit

protective devices in series
Main Breaker such that under overload or
fault conditions, ONLY the
upstream devices nearest the
fault will open. The rest of the
Feeder Breaker devices remain closed,
leaving the other circuits
unaffected.

Branch Breaker 2. The inverse time current

curves are useful for
coordinating CBs or fuses.

3. If the inverse time current curves (trip curves) of the Main Breaker X, Feeder Breaker Y
and Branch Breaker Z are placed on the same graph, there should not be any
overlapping of the curves, which indicates that the breakers are coordinated.
 Instrument Transformers

1. Instrument transformers are small

transformers used to supply
instruments and relays with low
currents and voltages from high
current and high voltage main
circuits or sources.

2. The measuring instruments are

thus completely insulated from the
high voltage system and yet
measure accurately the current and
voltage of a high voltage circuit

3. For measurement of power of a high voltage circuit, a wattmeter of low rating can be
used where the current coil and potential coil of the wattmeter are connected to the HV
circuit through a Current Transformer and Potential Transformer respectively.
 Current Transformer

1. Connecting AC ammeters directly on a high voltage system can be avoided through

a current transformer.
2. Current transformers (CT), in addition to insulating the instruments from high
voltage, steps down the current to a known ratio, making it possible to use
ammeters of a lower range.
3. The primary winding of a CT consists of a few turns and is connected in series with
the line whose current is to be measured. The secondary has comparatively more
number of turns.
4. The ratio Secondary current to Primary current are in inverse ratio of their turns ie.

5. The secondaries of all current transformers are rated at 5A, irrespective of the
primary current rating.
 Current Transformer

6. A 1000A current transformer has a ratio of 200 : 1. The ratio of primary and
secondary turns will be 1 : 200.
7. The primary of a CT may be of the form of a bar as shown above. The secondary is
insulated from the primary and is assembled on a core.
8. The main difference between a CT and a two winding power transformer is that the
PRIMARY CURRENT of a CT is determined by the load on the system and not the
load on its secondary.
9. If by chance the secondary is open-circuited, the whole of the primary current (load
on the system) will work as a magnetising current. A dangerously high voltage will
be induced in the secondary winding (Ns > NP). This high voltage can cause damage
to the insulation and also give a fatal shock to the operator, hence the secondary of
a current transformer must always be earthed
 Potential Transformer

1. Potential transformers (PT) are similar to power transformers except that their
power rating is considerably low.

2. The primary of a PT has more number of turns compared to its secondary turns.

3. The primary winding is connected across the high voltage system whose voltage is
to be measured.

4. The secondary winding is usually rated for 110V irrespective of the primary voltage
rating. With the secondary winding wound for 110V, the primary is wound for the
voltage which is to be measured
eg. If a voltage of 6.6 KV is to be measured, the PT will have a turns ratio of
6.6x1000 /110 ie. 60 : 1
5. To ensure safety of the operator, the secondary of the PT should be earthed