UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND

TECHNOLOGY, TARKWA

MN 156
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Areas Covered:
1. Sectional Views
2. Line/Curves of Intersection
3. Development of Surfaces
4. Assembly Drawing
(January, 2019)

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COURSE CODE: MN 156

COURSE TITLE: ENGINEERING DRAWING

COURSE CONTENTS:

1. Sectional Views: Introduction to sectioning, Hatching or Section Lines, Types of

Sections, Solved examples.
2. Line/Curve of Intersection: Introduction, Intersection of Two Prisms,
Intersection of Two Cylinders, Intersection of Cone and a Cylinder
3. Development of surfaces: Introduction, Development of a Truncated
Pentagonal Prism, Development of a Truncated Cylinder, Development of a Hexagonal
Pyramid, Development of a Truncated Right Circular Cone.
4. Detail/Assembly Drawing: Introduction, Detail Drawing, Assembly Drawing,
Solved examples

COURSE ASSESSMENT:
1 Attendance: 10 marks
2 Presentations: 20 marks
3 Quiz: 10 marks
4 Exams: 60 marks
Total marks: 100%

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 CHAPTER 1

SECTIONAL VIEWS

In orthographic projection, details of the object which are not visible from the outside are shown
by means of dotted dashed lines in the projections. By means of a limited number of carefully
selected views, the external features of the most complicated designs can be fully described. When
the object is complex from the inside, there will be many dotted lines in the projections and
therefore, it will be difficult to interpret or read the projections of such object when there are too
many dotted lines inside the projection. Thus, drafters use sectional views to improve the clarity
of complex objects. Fig. 1.1 shows a sectional view of a flange.

Orthographic projections of such a complex object is drawn after imagining it as an object cut by
an imaginary cutting plane(s) parallel to the principal passing through the details of the object. An
imaginary plane by which the object is cut is known as cutting plane or section plane. Projection
of the cut object is known as sectional view or projection.

When a sectional view is drawn, other views are drawn as if the object is not cut and the
entire object exists as a whole. It means other views are not affected by taking a section one
or many projections. Only the cutting plane line is shown to locate the section and the arrows
are drawn to show the direction of sight.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.1 Sectioning of a Flange.

1.1 Introduction

Quite often an outside view of an object does not adequately describe it, as no internal features are
shown. In order to show the internal features without excessive use of hidden-detail lines, the
object is imagined to be cut along a plane called a cutting plane. The cut portion nearer to the

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observer is removed and the remaining part is shown as a sectional view. The surfaces in section
can be imagined to be cut along the cutting plane with an imaginary tool and imaginary cutting
marks are represented by thin equidistant hatching lines as shown in Fig. 1.2. Sometimes hatching
may be omitted, if the clarity of drawing is not reduced by doing so.

Sectional view
Fig. 1.2 Cutting Plane
Sectional views are usually produced to:
➢ Clarify details of the object,
➢ Illustrate internal features clearly,
➢ Reduce the number of hidden-detail lines,
➢ Facilitate the dimensioning of internal features,
➢ Show the shape of the cross-section,
➢ Show clearly the relative positions of parts forming an assembly.

1.2 Cutting Planes

Cutting planes are used to indicate where the imaginary cutting takes place and are represented on
drawings by long thin chain lines thickened at each change of direction and at both ends. The ends
of the cutting-plane line are bent at 90 degrees and terminated by arrowheads to indicate the
direction of sight for viewing the section. Cutting planes are not shown on sectional views and
may be omitted when it corresponds to the centerline of the part or when only one sectional view
appears on a drawing.

ASME specifies two forms for cutting-plane as shown in Fig. 1.3 [a, b]. Fig. 1.3 (a) is the more
commonly used whereas Fig. 1.3 (b) is normally used on complicated drawings. The direction of
viewing is shown by arrows resting on thick lines at both ends, as shown in Fig. 1.3.

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 (a)

(b)
Fig. 1.3 Cutting plane A-A

NB: Cutting planes should be designated by capital letters with the letters shown beside the arrows

1.3 Hatching or Section Lining

Section hatching are thin lines used in the view of the section to show where the cutting-plane line
has cut through the material. The surfaces shown in section are usually hatched at 450 or at some
well-defined angle which avoids clashing with visible outlines, as in Fig. 1.2. Spacing between
hatching lines should be equidistant and 3 mm apart. Hatching or section lines are drawn thinner
than the boundary lines.

1.3.1 Rules of Hatching

1. Area of a metal or material cut by a section plane is shown by hatching lines in projection.
It is executed by thin lines normally at an angle of 450 to the axis or the main outlines of
the sectional area.

Fig. 1.4 450 Hatching

2. If the axis of the boundary of section is at 450 then the vertical or horizontal hatching lines are
used.

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 Fig. 1.5 Vertical and Horizontal Hatching

3. Separate areas of a section of a single component are hatched in the same manner.

Fig. 1.6 Hatching of Single Component with Different Sections

4. Hatching lines on the second part, adjacent to the first are at an angle of 450 but in opposite
direction. Hatching lines on the third part adjacent to the first two are drawn at an angle 300 or 600.
Sometimes spacing or pitch of the hatching lines is varied to separate it from the adjacent parts. i.e.
hatching more than two adjacent parts.

Fig. 1.7 Hatching of Adjacent Parts

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 5. If hatching is required on a large section area, it is avoided. It is limited to a zone following
the contour of the sectional area required.

Fig. 1.8 Hatching of a Large Area

6. If hatching is required on a very thin section area, it is avoided. The complete section is
shown entirely black. Thin space is left between adjacent sections of the same type.

Fig. 1.9 Hatching of Thin Sections

7. Avoid dimensioning inside the hatched area but if impossible hatching line may be
interrupted for the dimensioning.

8. Hatched area can never have dashed or dotted area.

Section lining symbols are provided by ASME to indicate specific materials for a sectioned object
(Fig. 1.10). Under this system, the general-purpose symbol can also mean that an object is made
of cast iron. These special symbols are most useful on a drawing that shows several objects made
of different materials. However, do not depend on these symbols alone to describe the materials
to be used. Specify the exact materials needed in a note or in a list of materials.

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 Fig 1.10 Hatching Lines for Different Materials

1.3 Types of Sections

A sectional view is a view seen when a portion of the object nearest to the observer is imagined to
be removed by means of a cutting plane(s). Fig. 1.11 shows a sectional view of a bearing flange.
There are numerous types of sections as elaborated below;

Fig. 1.11 Sectioning

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1.3.1 Full Section

Full sectional view occurs when a section plane passes through the entire length of the object on
the plane of symmetry, as shown in Fig. 1.6 and then the view is taken half of the object. . These
views are sometimes just called sections.

There are basically two (2) types of full section namely; the vertical and profile section. The
vertical section is a full section taken from an object’s vertical or front view whereas the profile
section is a full section taken from an object’s profile view.

Fig. Vertical Section Fig. Profile Section

Fig. 1.12 Types of Full Section

1.3.2 Half Section

When the object or assembly is symmetrical, half sectional view is preferred to that of full sectional
view because it shows the outside as well as the inside details of the object in one view. When two
perpendicular cutting planes passes through the object on the planes of symmetry, as shown in Fig
1.13. One-quarter of the object is removed with the view of the three- quarters taken then that view
is known as half sectional view. The wording, half section, can be confusing because one thinks
of showing half the part. Remember, a half section shows one-fourth of the part, not one-half.

The half section drawing is not normally used where the dimensioning of internal
diameters is required. This is because many hidden lines would have to be added to the portion
showing the external features. This type of section is used mostly for assembly drawings where
internal and external features are clearly shown and only overall and center-to-center dimensions
are required.

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 Fig. 1.13 Half Section of a Flange
1.3.3 Off-set Section

The cutting plane of a section is usually taken straight through the object. However, it can also be
offset (shifted, bent or change direction) to show a detail (s) that is not in a straight line. The cutting
plane in Fig. 1.14 is offset to pass through the two bolt holes. If it were not, the bolt holes would
not show in the sectional view. In such circumstances instead of cutting the object with more than
one cutting plane, the direction of the cutting plane can be off setted (changed) in order to cut the
object through maximum possible axes of symmetry and thereby showing maximum details of the
object in one off-set sectional view.

Fig. 1.14 Off-set section

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1.3.4 Partial or Local or Broken out Sections

It is required to show only isolated inside details or one of the important feature of a component
or of an assembly without drawing another view as shown in Fig 1.11. This type of section is used
instead of full or half section. The imaginary cutting plane passes through the particular important
component, exposing its interior view and leaving an irregular break line surrounding important
component as boundary. Positions of keys and pins are shown using this type section.

Fig. 1.15 Local section

1.3.5 Revolved Section

Revolved section is used to show the cross-section of objects with uniform section like
arms, spokes, structural sections, bars, etc. as shown in Fig. 1.12. Imaginary cutting
plane is passed through the object perpendicular to the profile or longitudinal axis and
then revolved on the center line of the section by 90° to bring in the plane of the paper.
By this type of view can avoid other views.

Fig. 1.16 Revovled section

1.3.6 Aligned Sectioning

Any part having odd number of spokes, ribs or holes will give unsymmetrical and
misleading section if the rules of sectioning are strictly followed. In such cases in order
to avoid confusion, the inclined or unsymmetrically placed elements should be rotated
in the plane of projection in one view to bring it into the cutting plane Fig. 1.13.

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 Fig. 1.17 Aligned section

NB: Whenever, the cutting plane passes longitudinally through and contains
machine elements such as ribs, webs, shafts, pin, nuts, bolts, rivets, washers, keys,
cotters, rods, pulleys and arms, then these machine elements are not sectioned.
If a shaft and web lie along the cutting plane, they are not sectioned, Fig. 1.18 (a). If a shaft
and web lie across the cutting plane, as in Fig. 1.18 (b), then they are sectioned.

Fig. 1.18 Section Through a Shaft

The same sections on XX and YY are shown in orthographic projection in Fig. 1.15.

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 Fig. 1.19 Sections X-X and Y-Y

Spokes of wheels and ribs are not sectioned longitudinally, as shown in Fig. 1.10(b). The cutting
plane is revolved into the vertical position and is then projected to the sectional view. Figure 1.12
shows a section through an assembly which includes the features that are not usually sectioned.

Fig. 1.20 Section of an assembly

When webs or ribs are cut along their length by a cutting plane, they are not sectioned, in order to
avoid a false appearance of solidity. The webs and ribs are usually thin in comparison to the overall
thickness of the main body. If a cutting plane cuts across the webs or ribs, then they are shown in
section in the usual way. Nuts and bolts, thin washers, studs, screws, rivets, keys, pins, shafts,
spindles, and spokes of wheels as shown in Appendix A, are more easily recognizable by their
external features, so they are not shown in section if cut longitudinally (Fig. 1.17).

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1.4 Test questions

1. Draw or sketch twice full size (2:1) in first-angle projection the following views of the bracket
shown in Fig. 1.15: (a) a sectional front view on AA, (b) a sectional plan view on BB, (c) an
end view. Ensure the correct positioning of all views. Each construction square represents a 5
mm measurement.

Fig. 1.22 Assignment 1

2. Draw or sketch half full size (1:2) in third-angle projection the following views of the bracket
shown in Fig. 1.16: (a) a sectional front view on AA, (b) an end view, (c) a plan. Ensure the
correct positioning of all views. Each construction square represents a 20 mm measurement.

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 Fig. 1.22 Assignment 2

3. A pictorial view of an adjustable shaft is as shown in the figure below. Draw to full size by
using third angle projection the following; Front view in the direction of the arrow, Plan
and Sectional end view (section along X-X)

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 CHAPTER 2

LINE/CURVES OF INTERSECTION

Overview: Some of the most complex drawing constructions are intersections and developments.
In intersection is the result of two solids that intersect each other. Sheet-metal construction is the
most common application for developments and intersections. Even using computers, the graphic
solution of developments and intersections is a complex computational.

2.1 Introduction

In many engineering applications, we observe that when two surfaces meet or come together, there
is a line common to both the surfaces. This line is called the Line of Intersection. Interpenetration
of solids means one solid penetrating into another. Whenever they do so, we get lines or curves of
interpenetration.

In this chapter, interpenetration of various solids and their lines or curves of interpenetration or
intersection have been discussed.

This topic of interpenetration is equally as important as the topic of development. A thorough

knowledge of this topic will help engineers in fabrication works. Elements of equipment of
chemical industry, petrochemical industry, cement industry, paper industry, fertilizer industry etc.
are made from sheet metal. Different shape of ducts, vessels, tanks, etc. are required to be joined
in various positions. Shape of the curve along which two parts meet is of our interest since the two
parts are welded along this curve of intersection/penetration. Furthermore, the development of
surfaces of two parts can be done accurately if the curve of intersection is known.
Engineers in charge of fabrication must first determine accurately the curve of intersection of the
two element and then prepare the development of the two elements on the basis of the curve of
penetration. This will help save time and material.

2.2 Line of Intersection

The line of intersection of the two surfaces is a line common to both surfaces. The line of
intersection may be straight or curved, depending upon the nature of intersecting surfaces. When
a solid penetrates another solid, there will be two lines of intersection. These lines are called lines
or curves of interpenetration. The solid which is hidden within the other solid is shown by dotted
lines.

Line of intersection is a common line/curve to two surfaces of two meeting element or parts. Line
of intersection maybe straight line or curved lines. It depends entirely upon the nature of surfaces
of the two elements. If, out of the two surfaces, one is curved then the line of intersection will be

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curved. Only if both meeting element are flat surfaces, then the line of intersection will be a straight
line.

When one solid penetrates the other solid or when a hole is drilled in a solid, the curve of
intersection is marked only on one solid which is either penetrated or drilled. Penetrating solid
remain intact. In both cases there will be two line of intersection.

2.3 Methods of Construction the Lines or Curves of Intersection

There are two methods of construction:

1. Line or Generator method

2. Cutting-plane method.

2.3.1 Line or Generator Method

In this method number of line or generator are drawn on the lateral surface of one of the objects,
particularly in the region of intersection of surfaces. When orthographic projections of two
intersecting objects are drawn, for one of the solids, we get edge view and for other solid lateral
surface view. In all such cases lines or generators are drawn for second solids and then point of
intersection of the edge view with generators are located. These points are then projected in other
views to obtain curves or lines of intersection.

2.3.2 Cutting Plane Method

In this method two intersecting objects are assumed to be cut by series of cutting planes which
may be vertical, horizontal or oblique. The location of cutting plane is so chosen that as far as
possible, straight lines are cut from two intersecting surfaces. The next choice is to cut straight
lines from one surface and circle from the other. Sometimes a series of circles may be cut from
both surfaces. Following solved problems will clearly explain both these methods.

2.4 Intersection of Two Prisms

Problem 2.1. A square prism, side of base 35 mm and height 70 mm. stands with its base on H.P
and two of its rectangular faces are equally inclined to V.P. It is completely penetrated by a
horizontal square prism, base 30 mm side and axis 70 mm. long, such that their axis intersect each
other at right angles. The axis of the horizontal prism is parallel to V.P., while the faces of the two
prism are equally inclined to the VP. Draw the projections of the prism, showing lines of
intersection.

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 Fig. 2.1 Intersection of Two Prisms

Solution. Draw the three views of the prisms in the required position (Fig. 2.1). The top view of
the vertical prism will be square of 35 mm side and two of its rectangular faces equally inclined to
XY. a' - a', b'- b', c' - c', d' - d' are the vertical edges in the front view. For the horizontal prism,
end faces will be seen as a square 1 2 3 4. The rectangular faces of the vertical prism are seen as
lines in the top view. To obtain the points of intersection, mark the points in the top view first.
Lines and I - I and 3 - 3 intersect the edge of the vertical prism in points qi and q3, coinciding with a.
Line 2 - 2 and 4 - 4, intersect the faces at q2 and q4 respectively. Project q2, to q2' on the line 2' - 2'.
Point q4' coincides with •q,'. Draw lines g1'g2' and g2'g3'. Lines g1'g4' and q3'q4' coincide with the
front lines. These lines show the lines of intersection. Similarly obtain lines p1'p2' and p2'p3'. Hidden
portion of the edges are shown by dotted lines.

Problem 2.2. A square prism, base 40 mm side stands with its base on H.P. and two of its
rectangular faces are equally inclined to V.P. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal square
prism of base 30 mm side so that their axis are 5 mm apart. The faces of the prism are equally
inclined to the H. P and its axis is parallel to V.P. Draw the lines of intersection.

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 Fig. 2.2 Intersection of Two Prisms with Axis 5 mm Apart

Solution. Draw the three views of the prism in the given position. Draw the side view of the
horizontal prism as a square of 30 mm side such that its axis is 5 mm from the axis of the vertical
prism. Points p,' P2', p3' and p4' at which edges of the horizontal prism intersect faces of the vertical
prism may be located from the top view. Now find points at which edges of the vertical prism are
cut. These will be points at which these edges intersect the faces of the horizontal prism as shown
in Fig. 2.2. In the side view all faces of the horizontal prism are seen as lines. Mark points 5 and 6
at which the lines I"- 1" intersects the faces. Project these points to 5' and 6' on the line I '- I' in the
front view. Join all the points of intersection. Only 5', P2', and 6'p2', are visible. Locate points on
the other side at which the edges come out and also the two points 7' and 8' at which the edge 3' -
3' is cut. Draw lines joining these points. Hidden lines are shown dotted.

Problem 2.3. A square prism of 35 mm side and 65 mm height with one face inclined at 300 to V s
penetrated by another square prism of 30 mm side and 75 mm long, the faces of which are equi
Inclined to the V.P. The axis of the two prisms are parallel to the V .P. and bisect each other at n
angles. Draw the projection of the solids showing the lines of intersection.

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 Fig. 2.3 Intersection of Two Prisms with One Face Inclined to the Other

Draw the three views of the given solids in the required position (Fig. 2.3). Obtain the points of
intersection in top view and side view and draw the relative projections from the top view and side
view towards front view so as to mark the required points. The projections of points m, and n, from
the top view on the edge a' - a' will give the points of intersection at m,' and n1'. Similarly mark
other points.

Also find the points at which the edges of the vertical prism are cut. For this mark points 5 and 6
on the line 1 " - 1 " and 7 and 8 on the face edge 3" - 3". Project the points 5 and 6 to 5' and 6' on
the line 1' - 1' and points 7 and 8 to 7' and 8' on the line 3' - 3' in the front view. Joint all the points
in correct sequence.

Draw carefully the lines for visible and hidden edges, shown as full lines and dotted lines
respectively. The lines mI'm2' and m2' m3' are visible on the left side while n2' 7' and n2' 8' are visible
on the right side. Edges 3' - 7' and 8' - 3' are fully visible while edges 1' - 5' and 1' - 6' are partly
hidden.

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 2.5 Curve of Intersection

2.5.1 Intersection of Two Cylinders

When two cylinders or a cylinder and a prism or a cylinder and a cone penetrate into one another,
the lines of intersection obtained will be curved. Cylinders have curved lateral surfaces. For
drawing the curve of intersection, a number of points are located on the outmost surface of the
penetrating cylinders.

Problem 2.5. Two cylinders of diameters 60 mm and 40 mm with both having the same height and
length of 70 mm. The smaller cylinder penetrates into the bigger one in such a way that their axis
intersect at right angles to each other. Draw the curves of intersection assuming the axis of
penetrating cylinder to be parallel to the V .P.

Fig. 2.4 Intersection of Two Cylinders

Solution. (Generator Method)

Draw the three views of the intersecting cylinders in the required position as shown in Fig. 2.5(b).

Divide the circle of the side view into 12 equal parts and name them. Draw lines for twelve
generators in the horizontal cylinder in both views. Mark points pi, P2 etc. where the generators I -
1, 2 - 2, etc intersect the circle in the top view. Project these points to Pi', P2' on the corresponding
generators in the front view. Similarly get points q1, q2 in the top view and q1', q2' in the front view
on the other side. Join the points in the correct sequence. The rear portion of the curve is hidden

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and coincides with the visible portion of the curve. The required curve of intersection is shown by
continuous thick line in the front view.

Problem 2.6. A vertical cylinder of 70 mm diameter is penetrated by another cylinder of 40 mm

diameter, the axis of which is parallel to both the H.P and the V.P. The two axis are 10 mm apart.
Draw the curves of intersection of the penetrating cylinders.

Solution. The required curve of intersection is obtained by the method as described in the previous
problem by drawing twelve generators from the side view. Two critical intersection points e and f
are also marked on a" - a", where the intersection curve changes direction in the side view. These
points are projected as e' and f' on the line a' - a' in the front view. The hidden portion of the curve
is shown by dotted lines and visible portion by continuous thick line in the front view as shown in
Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.5 Intersection of Two Cylinders with Axis 10 mm Apart

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Problem 2.7. A vertical cylinder of 50 mm diameter is penetrated by another horizontal cylinder
of 40 mm diameter. The axis of the horizontal cylinder is parallel to V.P and 12 mm in front of
the axis of the vertical cylinder. Draw the curves of intersection of the penetrating cylinders.

Solution. Draw the projections of the cylinder in the required position. A portion of the surface of
the penetrating cylinder will be outside the vertical cylinder (Fig. 2.7). Draw the generators of the
penetrating cylinder in all the three views and name them. Obtain the points of intersections in the
top view and project them to the front view as already explained. Also mark critical points l, m in
the side view where the curve changes direction and r, s where the circle cuts the extreme generator
b" - b" of the vertical cylinder. Project these points in the front view. Join these points by a smooth
curve. Draw the hidden portion of the curve by dotted line and intersection curve pi'p2' r' nearer to
the observer as continuous thick line.

Fig. 2.6 Intersection of Two Cylinders with Axis 12 mm Apart

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2.6 Intersection of Cylinder and Prism

Problem 2.10. A vertical cylinder standing on its base on H.P., is penetrated by a horizontal prism
in such a way that their axis bisect each other. Draw the projection of the solid and show the curve
of intersection.

Solution. Draw the three views of the solid in the required position. Mark points 1, 2, 3 and 4 in
the side view. From these points, locate the corresponding points ph, pz, p3 and p4 in top view and
P1', P2', P3' and P4' in the front view and then draw the curve of intersection as shown in the Fig.
2.10. The front and back curves in the front view will coincide.

Fig. 2.7 Intersection of a Cylinder and a Prism

2.7 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder

2.7.1 Generator Method

Problem 2.13. A cone of 50 nun diameter of base and axis 80 mm long, rests with its base on H.P.
It is completely penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 40 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is

27
parallel to V.P and intersects the axis of the cone at a point 25 mm above the base of the cone.
Draw the projections of the solids showing the curves of intersection.
Solution. Generator Method. Draw the projections of the intersecting solids i.e. cone and
cylinder in the required position. Draw a number of lines representing the generators of the cone
such as o" - a'; o" - b'; o" - c" etc in the region of the circle and symmetrical on both sides of the
axis of the cone. Points where these lines intersect the circle lie on the curve of intersection.
These points are to he projected in the front and top view as shown in Fig. 2.13. To project these
points, first project the lines in both the views and then locate the positions of these points on
them. Consider the line o" - c" in the side view. Locate its position o - c in the top view and o' - c'
in the front view.

Obtain points 1' and 2' on o'- c' and 1 and 2 on oc by projecting points 1" and 2" from the side
view. Similarly project all points and draw a smooth curve of intersection. Rear portion of the
intersection curve coincides with the front portion. The hidden portion of the curve is shown dotted
in the top view.

Note: This method is also a type of cutting plane method in which cutting planes pass through the
apex and parallel to the axis of the cylinder.

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 Fig. 2.8 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder (Generator Method)
2.7.2 Cutting-plane Method

Assume a horizontal section plane passing through say, point 2. In the front view the cutting plane
is seen as a line coinciding with 2'- 2'.
Divide the circumference of the penetrating cylinder in 12 equal parts in the side views as 1, 2, 3
…12 and project these lines in the front view and top view. Now to mark the points in the top
view draw circles with centre o and diameters as b'b', c'c', d'd' etc. cutting the lines through
corresponding lines in the front view points and mark the points as p1, p2, p3 etc. Now project
from these points from the top view to intersect corresponding lines in the front view and mark
points P1', P2', p3' etc. to get the required curve of intersection in the front view as shown in the
Fig. 2.14.

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 Fig. 2.8 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder (Cutting Plane Method)

The back curve in the front view will coincide with the front curve. A part of the curve in the top,
view s hidden and hence it will be shown by dotted line. Similarly draw the curve on other side of
the axis of the cone.

Problem 2.14. A cone, base 70 mm diameter and axis 90 mm long stand with its base on H.P. It
is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 35 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to
the VP and 25 mm above the base and 7 mm in front of the axis of the cone. Draw the projections
of the solids and show the curves of intersection.

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 Fig. 2.8

Problem 2.15. A cone of base 70 mm diameter and axis 90 mm long stands with its base on H.P.
It is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 35 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to
V.P. and 25 mm above the base and 10 mm in front of the axis of the cone. Draw the projections
of the solids and show the curves of intersection.

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Fig. 2.9 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder with Axis 10 mm Apart (Cutting Plane Method)

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 CHAPTER 3

DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS SOLIDS

Fig. 3.1 Development of Surfaces

3.1 Introduction

The study of development of surfaces of solids is very important from the point of view of its
practical utility in the fabrication industry. Anything which is made of sheet of paper, plastic, cloth,
card board, plywood, or metal are usually cut first from flat sheet and then rolled or folded into the
required shape.

To make any article out of a sheet metal, we have to first prepare its development or rolled out
form and then we have to cut the sheet metal according to the shape and size of the development
called blank and then roll it or fold into the required shape of the article.

Artifacts like ducts, containers, cup boards, metal furniture, lamp shades, pipe works in chemical
and petrochemical industries, packing containers, TV and radio covers, car and ship body, etc. are
made of sheets and hence in fabrication of the above mentioned articles, knowledge of
development of surfaces of solids are very necessary.

The term development refers to the complete surface of solid laid out on a single plane. As the
shape and size of the development is used as a pattern or template for cutting sheet blank, it should
be drawn with strict accuracy. Everything in development must appear in the true shape, true length
and at the appropriate position.

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The procedure of unfolding the surfaces of the object is called developing and the representation
of the so obtained is called development or develop view. The development should be so prepared
that the material out of which it is cut can be utilized to the maximum with the minimum loss.

Articles required for industrial use or for the use of society are made up of are having shapes made
up of prisms, cylinders, pyramid, cones, spheres, their frustums and their truncated frustums

3.1 Section of Solids

Study of various sections of different solids taken at different angles with respect to axes of solids
or bases of solids is very important. Knowledge of how to cut a particular solid to get a desired
shape and size of section is very necessary to design and fabrication engineers.
There are basically five different types of cutting planes and they are:
❖ Horizontal cutting plane
❖ Vertical cutting plane parallel to V.P.
❖ Profile cutting plane parallel to Profile Plane
❖ Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
❖ Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P.)
3.1.1 Horizontal Cutting Plane
This type of cutting plane is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to H.P. cutting plane line is
drawn on elevation parallel to xy plane. Plan will be the sectional view along with section in true
shape.
3.1.2 Vertical cutting plane parallel to V.P.
This type of cutting plane is perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P. cutti ng plane line is drawn
on plan parallel to xy line.
3.1.3 Cutting plane parallel to Profile Plane
This type of cutting plane is perpendicular to both H.P and V.P but parallel to PP. cutting plane
lines are drawn on plan and elevations both perpendicular to xy line. End view will be the sectional
view along with section in true shape.
3.1.4 Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
This type of cutting plane is perpendicular to H.P and inclined to V.P. it is drawn on plan inclined
to xy at an angle . plan will be the sectional view along with apparent section not showing not
showing true shape of section
3.1.5 Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P.)
This type of cutting plane is perpendicular to V.P and inclined to H.P by an angle. Plan will be
sectional view along with apparent section not showing the true shape of section.

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3.1.6 Apparent Section (AS)
Projection of section on the principal plane to which its inclined is known as apparent section.
3.1.7 True Shape of Section
If the cutting plane or section plane is parallel to one of the principal planes then the view of the
section on that particular plane is known as true shape.

TUTORIALS
Problem 1: A square prism, side of base 40 mm and height 50 mm, is resting on HP on its base
with all vertical faces equally inclined to VP. Its cut by a vertical section plane parallel to and away
from VP and remaining 9 mm away from the axis of the prism. Draw plan and sectional elevation

Problem 2: A hexagonal prism resting on HP on its base with two edges/ sides of base parallel to
VP. Its cut by A.I.P perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP by 450 passing through a point on the
axis 40 mm above the base. Draw the principal projections and find the true shape of section. Take
side of base to be 25 mm and height 50 mm.
Problem 3: A cylinder of base diameter 44 mm and height 58 mm is resting on the HP on its base.
Its cut by A.I.P in such a way that the true shape of section is an ellipse with major axis 60 mm
and minor axis 44. Find the angle of inclination of A.I.P with HP and draw the three projections.
Problem 4: A hexagonal pyramid has a side of base 30 mm and height 63 mm is resting on HP on
its base with two base edges parallel to VP. It is cut by horizontal section plane passing through a
point on the axis 27 mm from the apex. Draw the three projections.
If a machine part or an element thereof is cut by a plane, then a plane figure is obtained on the
cutting plane. This figure is called a section. Construction of projections of such sections is often
necessary in making drawings of various machine parts. In addition, developed surfaces of
machine parts cut by a plane have to be constructed to enable sheet material to be cut out for parts
of various ducts, ventilating devices, machine casings, machine-tool guards etc. as shown in Fig.
3.1.

3.2 Development of a Plane and a Prism

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 Fig. 3.2 Development of a Truncated Prism
A practical example from engineering where the development of a truncated prism is involved is
given in Fig. 3.4. The upper (wide) portion of the loading funnel of a conveyor represents the base
of a tetrahedral prism.

36
3.2 Development of a Cylinder

Fig. 3.4 Projections of a right circular cylinder

An example from engineering is presented in Fig. 3.6, where the truncated cylinder is a part of
the dust catcher of a machine for cleaning castings.

37
 Fig. 3.5 A practical example of a truncated cylinder

3.3 Development of a Pyramid

38
 Fig. 3.6 A right hexahedral pyramid

Fig. 3.7 A practical example of truncated hexahedral pyramid

39
3.4 Development of a Right Circular Cone

Fig. 3.8 Development of a right circular cone

40
An example of practical application of a conic section is given in Fig. 3.9. Shown in the figure is
a separator cap welded from two cones made of thin steel sheets. At the left-hand side both cones
are cut by a vertical projecting plane P inclined to the axes of j the cones. In this case the plane
cuts a hyperbola from the upper cone and an ellipse from the

Fig. 3.9 An example of practical application of a conic section

41
 CHAPTER 4

DETAIL AND ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

1.1 Introduction

Most of the problems in this chapter require the solutions in the form of two main types of
engineering drawing: detail and assembly.

1.2 Detail drawing

These working drawings usually show a single component and should give all the information
necessary for the manufacture of the component as shown in Fig. 4.1. Some of the items which a
drawing should specify are:
a. The form of the component.
b. The full dimensions and tolerances.
c. The material to be used and its specifications, heat treatment, etc.
d. The manufacturing processes and machining instructions.

Fig. 4.1 Complete dimensioning of a single part

1.3 Assembly drawing

When a machine is designed, such as a lathe, an assembly drawing is prepared to show the general
arrangement of the machine. This drawing should show the finished product with all parts
assembled in their correct relative positions as shown in Fig. 4.2. An assembly drawing may
include overall dimensions and function and fitting dimensions.

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 Fig. 4.2 Assembly drawing with explanatory notes

1.4 Parts list

When all parts in an assembly drawing have to be identified, each single part is usually labelled
by means of a reference number, which may be its detail-drawing number or an independent item
number. The separate parts comprising the assembly are located in the drawing by leaders
radiating from the circles, or `balloons', which contain the relevant reference numbers and are
usually listed in a parts list. For small assemblies the parts list is placed next to the title block on
the drawing, for large assemblies it is usually on a sheet separate from the drawing. A typical
parts list might include the following, as shown in Table 4.1. Apart list should have the following
a. The part number,
b. The name or description of the part,
c. The material from which the part is to be made,
d. The quantity required.

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Table 4.1 Parts List
3 Small Pulley Nylon 5
2 Bush Brass 2
1 Bracket Cast Iron 1
Part No. Name of Part Material No. Off

1.5 Fasteners
5.1.1 Temporary fastenings

There are different types of fastening to join one part to another. The design and the function of
the secured parts must be taken into consideration before finally deciding on the fastening method
to be adopted. There are two classes of fastenings: temporary and permanent. Temporary
fastenings can be used more than once. Any assembled components held together can be
dismantled and re-assembled many times without damaging the fastenings.

Nuts and bolts:

The bolt has an external thread which extends along only part of the shank. Bolts generally pass
completely through the work to be fastened and on the other side are secured by a nut, which
has an internal mating thread (see Fig. 10.5(d)). Nuts and bolts are usually hexagonal-headed
and are adjusted with a standard spanner of the open-ended, ring, or socket type. Nuts and bolts
often have to be drawn by draughtsman, so it is very useful to learn a quick method to obtain an
approximate shape.

Approximate Method of Drawing a Hexagonal Nut (Fig. 4.3)

1 Start with the plan view. Draw a circle of diameter 2d, where d is the major diameter of the
thread (nominal size).
2 Using a 60° set square, construct a hexagon inside the circle and then draw a chamfer circle inside
the hexagon.
3 Complete the plan by drawing concentric circles representing the threaded hole.
4 Project the front and end views, making the height of the nut equal to 0.8d.
5 From the points marked A in the front view, draw construction lines at 30° to the main centre
line to intersect this centre line at point B.
6 With the centre at point B, draw the chamfer curve tangential to the top surface of the nut.
7 From the points marked C, draw construction lines at 30° to the main centre line, intersecting the
initial construction line at the points E.
8 With centres at points E, draw two small chamfer curves tangential to the top surface of the nut.
9 In the end view, bisect the distances between the main centre line and the two extreme sides.
Starting at the top surface of the nut, mark along the bisectors a distance equal to d, giving the
intersection points F.

44
 Fig. 4.3 Method of drawing a hexagonal nut

10 With centres at points F, draw chamfer curves tangential to the top surface of the nut.
11 Complete the views, noting the rectangular outline of the end view.

Figure 4.5 shows the completed views of a nut and bolt. Note the nut and bolt head heights and the
full-thread and bolt lengths. Nuts, thin washers, bolts, studs, and screws should not be hatched
when sectioned longitudinally, i.e. along their axis.

45
 Fig. 4.4 Washer Proportions in Terms of the Bolt Diameter

Fig. 4.5 Completed views of a nut and bolt showing thread run-outs

Screws
A screw has an external thread extending almost the whole length of the screw shank to the head.
Screws, like bolts, are used for fastening two or more parts together. One of the parts has a tapped
hole and the other part has a clearance hole (see Fig. 4.6(e)). The screw is used by passing it
through the clearance hole in one part to screw into the threaded hole in the other, so fastening
both parts securely together Screws are not secured by a nut. Apart from hexagonal heads, the
following types of screw-head are the most regularly used:

46
 Fig. 4.6 Various Types of Screw
Studs:
Studs are threaded on both ends, with an unthreaded shank in the middle, and are used for parts
that must be removed frequently, like cylinder heads, covers, lids, etc. Studs are screwed tightly
into tapped holes in the permanent part, while the removable part has clearance holes in the
corresponding positions. Nuts are used on the projecting ends of the studs to secure the two parts
together, as shown in Fig. 4.7(c).

47
Normally only one washer is used for an assembly of a bolt, stud, or screw. The washer should be
placed under the component which is turned in order to tighten the assembly, as shown in Figs
4.7(c) and (d).

Pins:
Clevis pin (Fig. 4.8(a)): A clevis or dowel pin is a headless cylindrical pin used for precise-location
purposes.

Fig. 4.8 Pins

Taper pin (Fig. 4.8(b)): This type of pin is conical with a slight taper. It is usually used to attach
cotters, wheels, etc. to shafts. It is forced tightly into a reamed hole having the same taper, which
is standardized.

Split cotter pin The split pin is usually inserted through holes and slots and its ends are opened
up as in Fig. 4.9(a).

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 Fig. 4.9 (a) Split cotter pin (b) Cotter pin

Cotter pin: The cotter pin is a round rod threaded at one end, or it may be plain with a tapered flat
machined along its length. This type is used to secure levers, cranks, etc. to spindles, Fig. 10.7(b).
A typical application is attaching a bicycle-pedal crank to the chain wheel spindle.

Fig. 4.10 Cotter Pin

49
 ASSIGNMENT

Fig. 4.11 Anti-vibration Mounting

50
Fig. 4.12 Belt Roller Support

51
Fig. 4.13 Exploded View of a Toilet Roll Dispenser

52
 Appendix A

Technical terms

It is necessary for engineers to know and understand the technical terms describing components
and their features.
1 A flange is a projecting thin disc on pipes or couplings joining two shaft ends together. 2 and 3.
A keyway is a groove in a shaft or a hub machined to accommodate a corresponding key.
4 A key is a piece of shaped metal which is inserted in a shaft and a hub to prevent relative
movement between those two parts.
5 A taper is a gradual change in diameter of a component along its length.

Appendix 1: Assembly Drawing

6 A shaft is a cylindrical rotating rod upon which parts are fixed, used for transmission of motion.
7 A shoulder is a sudden change in diameter.
8 A square on a shaft is a length of the shaft with a square cross-section.
9 A bush is a plain bearing supporting a rotating shaft and can easily be replaced when worn out.
10 A web is a thin flat part connecting heavier parts of a component; it is usually parallel to
the bosses, bores, shafts, etc.
1 l A bore is a cylindrical hole along a tube or a boss.

53
12 A boss is an enlarged protruding round part of a casting, used to accommodate a hole.
13 A collar is a separate ring of rectangular section or an integral part of a shaft used for axial
location.
14 Spokes are rods radiating from the hub to the rim of a wheel.
15 A rim is the outer part of a wheel.
16 A hub is the inner part of a wheel.
17 A pulley is a small wheel with a flat or grooved rim to carry a belt, rope, etc.
18 A rib is a thin part used to support or strengthen heavier parts of component; it is usually
perpendicular to the bosses.
19 A bracket base is the bottom part of a projecting support, usually fixed to a flat surface.
20 A fillet is an internal corner of a casting etc. which is curved to assist the flow of molten metal
during casting and also to make the corner stronger by reducing stress concentrations.
21 A table is the flat top on which working components can be fixed.
22 A slot is an elongated hole or groove.
23 A spot faced surface is a flat circular surface concentric with a hole, used for seating screw
heads etc.
24 A counterbored hole is a hole, part of which is of larger diameter and flat bottomed to conceal
screw heads etc.
25 A lug is a projection from a casting etc., used for fastening and adjusting purposes.
26 A countersunk hole is a hole, part of which is conical to receive screw heads.
27 A dowel is a headless cylindrical pin used for precise-location purposes.
28 A blind-drilled hole is a hole which does not pass completely through the component.
29 A tee groove or tee slot is a long aperture used to accommodate fixing bolts, preventing them
turning.
30 A chamfer is a surface produced by bevelling square edges.
31 A recess is a shallow hole to suit the shape of a spigot or a similar matching part. 32 A spigot
is a projection which fits into a corresponding recess and is used for precise-location purposes.

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 Appendix B Abbreviations and symbols

There are a number of common engineering terms and expressions which are frequently replaced
by abbreviations or symbols on drawings, to save space and draughting time. Some of the
abbreviations and symbols recommended by the British Standards Institution in BS 308 are
illustrated below and listed on the right.

55
 Table 1.1 List of abbreviations and symbols
No. Abbreviations or symbol Term

1 So (preceding a dimension) Spherical diameter

2 D (preceding a dimension) Diameter

3 R (preceding a dimension) Radius
4 PCD Pitch-circle diameter
5 CRS Centres
6 J (on a view)CL(in a note) Centre line
CYL Cylinder or cylindrical

7 LG Long
AF Across flats
8 HEX Hexagon or hexagonal
El (preceding a dimension) or X Square

9 SQ (in a note) Square

UCUT Undercut
10 CH HD Cheese head
11 CSK HD Countersunk head
12 RD HD Round head
13 HEX HD Hexagonal head
14 CBORE Counterbore
15 CSK Countersunk
16 SFACE Spot face
17 CHAM Chamfered
18 TOL Tolerance
- MAX Maximum
MIN Minimum
ASSY Assembly
DIA (in a note) Diameter
- DRG Drawing

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- EQUI SP Equally spaced
- EXT External
FIG. (with full stop) Figure

- INT Internal
LH Left-hand
- MATL Material
- NO. (with full stop) Number

- RH Right-hand
- SCR Screwed or screw

- SH Sheet
- SPEC Specification
STD Standard
- -> diameter Taper on diameter or width
(on a or width)
- THD Thread

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 Appendix C Conventional representation of common features

There are many common engineering features which are difficult and tedious to draw in full. In
order to save draughting time and space on drawings, these features are represented in a simple
conventional form as shown below.

(a) External screw threads

The crests on the male thread of a stud are defined by a continuous thick line, and the roots of
threads by a parallel continuous thin line. The distance between these parallel lines should be
approximately equal to the depth of thread, i.e. approximately one tenth of the major diameter of
the thread. The limit of the useful length of the thread –‘full thread’ - is shown by a continuous
thick line (see p. 106, Fig. 10.3 and p. 107, Fig. 10.5). Incomplete threads, run-outs beyond the
limits of useful thread length are not normally shown unless there is a special functional need. In
an end view, the thread roots inside the material are represented by an inner thin broken circle.

(b) Internal screw threads

The tapped hole initially is drilled, which is indicated by the thick outlines. When the hole is
tapped, the roots of the threads are defined by a parallel continuous thin line. In an end view, the
thread roots inside the material are represented by an outer thin broken circle. In a sectional view,
the hatching lines are drawn across the thin lines.

(c) A screw-thread assembly

The male thread of an inserted stud takes precedence over the female thread of the hole. The
hatching lines are not drawn across the thick lines. In an end view, the male part which is nearest
to the observer is represented.

(d) Interrupted views

To save space, it is permissible to show only those parts of a long component which are sufficient
for its definition. All break lines are thin and continuous.

(e) Flat features on a shaft

To avoid drawing an additional view, a square, tapered square or a local flat on a round part, may
be indicated by two diagonal continuous thin lines.

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59