Completion 7

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Introduction to well completion
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(Part.VII)
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Post completion problems
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(Part.VII) -Table of contents

1 Post completion problems 6
2 Sustainable annulus pressure 7
3 Preface 8
3.1 What Is the Sustainable Annulus Pressure (SAP)? 9
3.2 Source of annulus pressure 10
3.3 Thermal expansion of packer fluid 11
3.4 Tubular ballooning
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12
3.5 Wellhead seal leaks 13
3.6 Down hole completion leaks 14
3.7 Behind casing channeling and casing leaks 15
3.8 Liner top leaks 16
3.9 Risk associated with sustainable annulus pressure 17
3.10 The acceptable level of risk
3.11 Classification of SAP wells
3.12 Recommendations
3.13 Bleed off procedure l.c 18
19
20
21
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4 Scale deposits 22
4.1 Table of contents 23
4.2 Scale deposition 24
4.3 Scale categories 25
4.4 Most Common Scales
26
4.5 Scaling case history 27
4.6 Scale associated problems 28
4.7 Place of scale deposition 29
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(Part.VII) -Table of contents - continued

4 Scale deposits - continued
4.8 How scale forms 30
4.9 Cause of Scale Deposition 31
4.10 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits 32
4.11 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) or Anhydrite (CaSO4) deposits 34
4.12 Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) and Strontium Sulphate (SrSO4) 35
4.13 Sodium chloride (NaCl) deposits 36
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4.14 Temperature and Solubility of Sodium Chloride 37
4.15 Solubility of Various Scales in Distilled Water 38
4.16 Paraffin Deposits 39
4.17 Asphaltenes 40
4.18 Scale Monitoring 41
5
4.19 Scale Removal Procedures
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4.20 Scale removal case histories
4.21 Scale Prevention & Mitigation
Corrosion problems
42
52
53
54
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5.1 How Metals Corrode 55
5.2 Types of Corrosion 59
5.3 Galvanic Corrosion 60
5.4 Typical Values of Electrical Resistivity 64
5.5 Galvanic Series of Metal and Alloys in Flowing Sea Water 65
5.6 Sour or H2S Corrosion 67
5.7 Stress Cracking 68
Part.VII) -Table of contents - continued

5 Corrosion problems
5.8 Partial Pressure of H2S & CO2 69
5.9 Carbon Dioxide (Sweet Corrosion) 70
5.10 Oxygen Corrosion 71
5.11 Bacterial corrosion 72
5.12 Corrosion Rates 73
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5.13 Corrosion Test Procedures 74
5.14 Factors affecting the amount of pipe lost 75
5.15 How acid corrode metals 76
5.16 Corrosion Control 77
5.17 Engineering Design 78
5.18 Materials Selection
5.19 Coatings
5.16 Corrosion Inhibitors
5.17 How inhibitors works l.c 79
80
81
82
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6 Cathodic protection system 83
6.1 What is cathodic protection? 85
6.2 Definition 86
6.3 Required field tests 88
6.4 Current requirement test 89
6.5 Galvanic cathodic protection system 90
6.6 Impressed current cathodic protection system 92
6.7 Ground beds 93
6.8 Anodes 96
6.9 Backfill 97
Post completion problems

1. Sustainable annulus pressure
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2. Scale deposits
3. Corrosion problems
4. l.c
Cathodic protection system
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1. Sustainable annulus pressure
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Introduction
▪ Annulus pressure is one of the most
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common and hazardous problems in oil
fields if associated with surface casing
corrosion
▪ l.c
Annulus pressure is not necessarily means
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a completion failure or leaks.
▪ Annulus pressure may endanger the well
integrity and lead to hazardous situation.
What Is the Sustainable Annulus

Pressure (SAP)?
Can be defined as follows:-
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Any recorded pressure on annulus that
either can not be bled to zero or will not
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remain zero after bleeding.
Bled off effluent is associated with oil
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and/or gas in oil and gas wells
Source Of Annulus Pressure

▪ Thermal expansion of packer fluid left in
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annulus after drilling and work over
▪ Tubular ballooning under injection or flowing
pressures.
▪ l.c
Wellhead seal leaks.
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▪ Down hole completion leaks.
▪ Behind casing channeling and casing leaks .
▪ Liner top leaks.
Thermal expansion of packer fluid

▪ Inhibited packer fluids are placed in the annulus
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to keep the well killed during completion
operation & provide corrosion protection.
▪ Under flowing / injection conditions, the entire
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well heats up resulting in fluid thermal
expansion and excessive pressure build up in
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annulus.
▪ Frequent bleeding off of thermal pressure will
be required in the early life of well to avoid
reporting false data that may lead to unnecessary
work over
Tubular ballooning
▪ Under injection or production conditions, the
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pressure inside tubing increase resulting in tubular
ballooning.
▪ Consequently, the packer fluid left in the annulus
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become compressed resulting in pressure build up.
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▪ Bleeding off the pressure in the early life of the
well is required to relief the compressed annulus
fluids.
Wellhead seal leaks

▪ Tubing Hanger neck and body seals are back to
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back isolating tubing pressure from T-C annulus.
▪ If all above seals fail, tubing pressure transfers to
T-C annulus
▪ l.c
Casing hanger and casing stub seals are back to
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back isolating T-C annulus from C-C annulus.
▪ If all above seals fail, tubing pressure transfers to
C-C annulus
Down hole completion leaks

▪ Seal assembly
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▪ Travel joints
▪ Tubing connections (+/- 250 in single string )
Seal dividers of gas wells
▪
▪ l.c
Control lines
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▪ Side pocket mandrills in gas wells
▪ Corroded tubing
▪ Packer seals and rubber
Behind casing channeling and

casing leaks
▪ Poor primary cementation may result in
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hydrocarbon migration from reservoir to
shallower horizons behind casing.
▪
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Under above circumstances, if casing is
corroded or the DV is leaking oil and gas
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may enter the annulus resulting in T-C or
C-C annulus pressure build up.
Liner top leaks

▪ Improper cementing of liner may result
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in channeling and hydrocarbon migration
from reservoir to annulus through liner
over lap if production packer is set inside
the liner. l.c
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▪ Dry testing the top of liner in case of poor
liner cementing is a good practice to cure
liner top leaks prior to run completion.
Risk associated with sustainable

annulus pressure
Uncertainty of well integrity due to invisible corroded
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casing encourages to solve the problem as soon as
possible to avoid:
▪ Risking people
▪
▪ Risking equipment
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Risking environment
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The severity of risk will be very high if hydrocarbons
are associated with sour gases like H2S
The acceptable level of risk depends on;
▪ Well location
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▪ Well type
▪ Effluent type
▪
▪
Environment
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Leak location
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▪ Consequences of external leak
▪ Repair cost if risk is taken
▪ Corrosion activity
Classification of SAP wells

▪ High priority
Wells with C-C pressures are classified as dangerous
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as only one barrier is isolating the well pressure from
the atmosphere.
▪ Low priority
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Wells with T-C pressure are less dangerous and can
be lived with for a reasonable time as far as two
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barriers are isolating the well pressure from
atmosphere.
The acceptable number of barriers is normally
determined by company policy
Recommendations
▪ Only sustainable annulus pressure is to be
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reported to avoid unnecessary work over .
▪ Thermal or ballooning pressure should be
frequently bled off in the early life of wells
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to avoid false data reporting.
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▪ A dedicated crew shall be always available
to bleed off annulus pressure and ensure the
delivery of accurate data.
Bleed off procedure for producers

▪ Consider the environmental restriction
when bleeding off annulus pressure
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▪ Bleed off annulus pressure to flow line
pressure level.
▪
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Live with the remainder of annulus
pressure if the corrosion activity level is
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acceptable
▪ Use green burner if bleeding off to zero is
deemed necessary.
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2. Scale deposits
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Table of contents
▪ Scale deposition
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▪ Scaling case history history
▪ Scale associated problems
▪ Place of scale deposition
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Most common scales
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▪ How scale forms
▪ Scale monitoring
▪ Scale removal techniques
▪ Scale prevention and mitigation
Scale deposition
▪ Scales are generally deposited from waters in tubing,
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casing, production equipment, flow lines, perforations,
and formation.
This scale deposition normally occurs when:
✓
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High concentrations of chemicals dissolved in water begin to
precipitate out of the solution and form small crystals
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✓ Different waters having incompatible compounds that mix and
precipitate out solids.
✓ A change in temperature and pressure of the water occurs.
✓ Evaporation occurs
Scale categories
Water Soluble
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Acid Soluble
Acid Insoluble
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Most Common Scales

Calcium carbonates Iron oxide
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Calcium sulphates Iron sulphide
Strontium sulphates Silica
Barium sulphates
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Paraffinic hydrocarbons
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Scaling case history

▪ Normally occurs after few years of field
production and associated with water cut
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wells
▪ The problem varies between complete to
partial plugging of tubing
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Scale bottom hole samples are required to
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identify the type of scale
▪ Acid wash and wireline gauge cutters are
rarely succeed to clear tubing
Scale associated problems

▪ Flow restriction
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▪ Tubular blockage
▪ Reservoir inaccessibility
▪
▪
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Fouling of equipment
Concealment of corrosion
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▪ Loss of production
▪ Well control issue if tubing plugged
▪ Increase of operating cost
Place Of Scale Deposition

▪ Inside productive formation
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▪ At Perforations
▪ Landing nipples
▪
▪
Crossover’s
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Expansion joints
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▪ Subsurface safety valves
▪ Surface chokes and flow line valves
▪ Any restricted or turbulence areas
How scale forms

When two fluids containing cations and anions mix,
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various cations and anions can bond together to form
insoluble substances.
Such a reaction results in a solid precipitate dropping out
of solution.
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If such a reaction occurs in the pore spaces of the pay
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zone, a severe formation damage may take place
Many of the solids that precipitate, may form crystalline
structures or what’s called scale deposits in the tubular,
downhole equipment and flow lines
Cause of Scale Deposition

Deposit Formula Cause Deposition
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 Mixing of brines.
Changes in temperature or pressure.
Iron Carbonate Fe2CO3 Mixing of brines.
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Changes in temperature or pressure
Iron Oxide Fe2O3 Reaction of Oxygen with dissolved Ferrous Iron.
Iron Sulphide FeS Corrosion of well equipment by Sour crude or H2S
Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 Mixing of brines
Barium Sulphate BaSO4 l.c Changes in temperature or pressure.

As above.
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Strontium Sulphate SrSO4 As above.
Magnesium Mg(OH)2 Excessive oxygen
Hydroxide Alkaline fluids enter the well.
High temperatures.
Silicates SiO2 Changes in solubility due to Cooling of brines.
Pressure drops.
Sodium Chloride NaCl Evaporation of water.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits

In oil wells, when pressure drops, carbon dioxide (CO2) releases
from bicarbonate ions (HCO3-1) causing calcium carbonate
precipitation.
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When CO2 is evolved from solution, the pH increases, the
solubility of dissolved carbonates decreases, and the more
soluble bicarbonates are converted to less soluble carbonates
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Scale precipitation also varies with calcium ion concentration
(e.g. CaCl2) and alkalinity of the water (bicarbonate ion).
Scaling decreases as total salt content (not counting calcium
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ions) increases to a concentration of 120 g NaCl/1000 g of water.
Increase in NaCl concentration decrease the CaCO3 solubility
and scaling increases
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits - continued

Calcium carbonate scaling will also increase
with the following:
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Increased temperature
Increased pH.
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Increased contact time (will also become harder)
Increased turbulence
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Mixing of incompatible waters will cause precipitation of
CaCO3 scale.
An example is the mixing of saline water and fresh
water highly charged with bicarbonate.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) or Anhydrite (CaSO4) deposits.

Mixing of incompatible waters will cause precipitation of CaSO4 scale. The
most common form of calcium sulphate scale deposited down hole is
hydrous calcium sulphate or gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
A reduction in pressure decreases solubility and causes scaling.
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The mixing of two waters, one containing calcium ions and the other
containing sulphate ions, often cause gypsum scaling, particularly in water-
flooding
Casing leaks or poor cement jobs are frequent causes of scaling due to
down hole mixing water from the producing zone with water from other
porous zones.
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Contamination between injected water and formation water lead to scale
deposition
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A change in temperature will change the solubility of calcium sulphate or
gypsum and the tendency to precipitate
Evaporation of water due to the evolution of free gas near or in the wellbore
may cause supersaturation and gypsum scaling
Agitation and turbulence also increase the tendency to scale gypsum.
Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) and Strontium

Sulphate (SrSO4)
Barium sulphate scale poses a unique oil field problem in that it is
practically impossible to remove except by mechanical means.
Until recently there was no known solvent for this type of scale and
its occurrence signalled the start of a costly removal process if
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production was to continue.
Barium sulphate scale deposits due to the incompatibility of injected
seawater high in sulphate ions and formation water containing
barium
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The barium and sulphate remain in a supersaturated solution at
reservoir conditions but combine and precipitate as scale when
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there is a change in equilibrium occurring at the well-bore area
during production.
The primary cause of scale formation is supersaturation, which can
occur when a solution is cooled.
Incompatible mixing of injected water and formation fluids is another
cause of supersaturation.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) deposits

Precipitation of sodium chloride is normally caused by
supersaturation, usually due to evaporation or decreases
in temperature
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Salt precipitation may be quite severe near bottom in
producing gas wells or high GOR oil wells that produce
very small quantities of water
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This may result due to drop in temperature and pressure
through perforations and into the tubing.
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Dry gas will evaporate the water leaving the salt as a
precipitate.
4000 mg/l of NaCl will be precipitated from saturated salt
water if the temperature drops from 140 °F to 86 °F.
Temperature and Solubility of Sodium Chloride

Temperature Salt In Solution
°F °C Weight PPM Mg/Litre

Percent
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32 0 25.9 259,000 310,000
86 30 26.8 268,000 323,000
140 60 l.c
27.1 271,000 327,000
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176 80 27.7 277,000 335,500
212 100 28.5 285,000 346,500
Solubility of Various Scales in Distilled Water
Scale °F °C Solubility
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(Mg/ L)
Sodium Chloride 77 25 318,300.0
Gypsum
l.c 77 25 2,080.0
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Calcium Carbonate 77 25 53.0
Barium Sulphate 77 25 2.3
Paraffin Deposits
▪ Saturated unbranched cyclic hydrocarbons
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tend to precipitate inside tubing while the
well flowing
▪
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During the above, some other material like
sands, corrosion products and oil become
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entrained in the paraffin deposits
Asphaltenes
Heavy aromatic substances (molecular weight
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>1000) found in three forms:
Hard, black deposit
Black sludge/emulsion with high solids content
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In combination with paraffin wax
Key factors include:
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Less common than wax
Tend to be localized with a short wellbore section
Low dissolution rate
Mechanical removal best option
Scale Monitoring
▪ Slick wire line gauge cutters
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▪ Lead impression blocks (LIP)
▪ Sand bailers
▪
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Multi-finger calipers
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▪ Down hole video camera
Scale Removal Procedures

1.Mechanical Methods
▪ Use wire line gauge cutters, scratchers
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and bailers to collect scale particles
▪ Determine the depth and figure out the shape of
▪
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deposits utilizing different gauge cutters
Mostly fail to clear tubing and restore
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accessibility due to scale hardness
▪ May result in wireline fishing problems due
wireline tools sticking
2.Acid Wash using coiled tubing

▪ Effectively used with acid soluble calcium
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carbonate and corrosion products
▪ May succeed to restore well bore
productivity
▪
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Partially succeed to restore well bore
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accessibility
▪ Environmentally unfriendly and endanger
well tubular due to acid corrosively
3.New Scale Removal Techniques

▪ Acid wash with coiled tubing using less
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corrosive ETDA weak organic acid
▪ Hydra-blast using gelled water
▪
▪
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Hydra-blast using gelled acid
Tubing conveyed taper mills and slim down
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hole motors
▪ Hydra-blast abrasive jetting with sterling
beads
4. Scale Blaster with sterling beads

▪ Tubing conveyed scale removal system
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▪ Features both fluid and abrasive jetting
technologies
▪
▪
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Environmentally friendly
Can remove organic and inorganic
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deposits
▪ Can remove hard inert scales such as
barium, strontium and iron sulfate
Scale blaster System

Rotating head with nozzle
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Drift ring to prevent head penetration before
deposits removal and to trap and recut large scale
cuttings
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Jet adviser software to optimize nozzle size, flow
rate, pressure and rotating head torque
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Gel fluid with good rheological properties to
optimize hole cleaning and cutting transport
Surface separator to collect scale cuttings
Scale Blaster Shortfalls

▪ Possible hole cleaning & fill accumulation problems
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in large tubing due to insufficient annular velocity
mainly if the well is dead.
▪ Possibility of coiled tubing sticking due to above
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Accelerate tubing failure if tubing is severely
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corroded and corroded areas are covered with scale
▪ More expensive than acid wash
Scale blaster technology
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Scale blaster design Features

Fluid jetting using jet head
and swivel modules removes
scale from tubular walls
Sterling Beads improve scale
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cutting
Nozzles on the rotating head
maximize jet velocity and
wellbore coverage.
Head l.c
module drift ring
prevents penetration until the
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deposit is removed.
Jet Advisor software optimizes
nozzle horsepower and ROP
as a function of jetting energy
Fit-to-purpose removal methods

The Scale Blaster jetting system employs a variety
of removal techniques, including
1. High-pressure jetting with water or chemical dissolvers to remove
soft organic wellbore deposits.
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2. High-pressure jetting with acid to remove soluble scales.
3. High-pressure jetting with Sterling Beads to remove hard inert
scales.
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The Bead Blaster technique uses the Sterling Beads
mixed with jetting fluid to shatter scale deposits.
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The Bead Blaster technique removes the hardest
scales and quickly returns the well to production.
This technique may damage or part the tubing if old
and corroded
Scale removal with jet blaster case history

Scale removal attempts
Well status
• Motor and mill tried with
• Gas well bridged in 4.5” no progress.
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tubing. Scale 55% • Camera confirmed
Quartz, 45% Calcium bridge.
Carbonate
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Work over objective
• Remove bridge to allow
Jet Blaster Jetting
• Bridge removed using
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production to restart. three jet head with 500
Clean tubing to allow gal acid.
more time before repeat • Acid bullheaded into
work over bridge and cleaned with
high shear generated by
jetting head
Scale removal case histories

▪ Well-1& 2- Restored well productivity of 7500 and
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5000 BOPD respectively after wells ceased to flow
due to total plugging.
▪ Well-3 - Restored well accessibility and ran TDT log.
▪ l.c
Well-4, 5 & 6 -Restored well accessibility for reservoir
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monitoring.
▪ Well-7- Recovered stuck plug after scale removal.
Scale Prevention & Mitigation

▪ Control production levels to reduce
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water cut whenever possible
▪ Batch treatment with thermally stable
▪
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scale inhibitor
Minimize the sudden changes in down
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hole completion equipment inside
diameter if possible
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3. Corrosion problems
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How Metals Corrode

Anode or active electrode = corroding surface
Cathode or inert electrode = Non-Corroding surface
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Iron goes into solution as ferrous ions at the corroding or anodic surface,
leaving two negative electrons in the metallic iron
Fe° ® Fe++ + 2 e-
(Iron (Ferrous ion)
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The negative electrons in the metal move toward non-corroding or
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cathodic areas or the positive current moves away from the cathode to the
anode
Hydrogen ions are plated out at the cathode, forming hydrogen gas, which
bubbles off:
2 H+ + 2 e- ® H2°
(Hydrogen Ion) (Electrons) (Hydrogen gas)
Corrosion Cell
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Anode
l.c Fe Fe++ + 2e
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e
e
Cathode 2H + 2e H2
Electrolyte
(solution)
How metals corrode - continued

Water is necessary for corrosion to occur
To allow flow of current, the water must contain dissolved salts such as
chlorides or sulphates; or dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, carbon
dioxide, and oxygen or sulphur dioxide
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4 Fe° + 3 O2 ® 2 Fe2 O3
(Iron) (Oxygen) (Iron Oxide)
Fe° + H2S ® FeS + H2°
(Iron)
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(Hydrogen Sulphide) (Iron sulphide) (Hydrogen gas)
If either the anodic or the cathodic reaction is stopped, corrosion will stop
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because the metal must remain electrically neutral
By placing an impermeable wall of corrosion inhibitor, between the
electrolyte (e.g. acid) and the pipe, we can slow the dissolution of the metal
at the anode, and slow the production of hydrogen at the cathode
How metals corrode - continued
The anode and cathode may be separated by microscopic

distances, such as when corrosion takes place on a moist or
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wet metal surface
The anode and cathode may be miles apart as in the case of
corroding pipelines
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A metal surface is often covered with electrolytic cells, with
some areas being anodic and others being cathodic.
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It is probable that impurities or imperfections in the metal
contribute to the formation of anodic and cathodic areas on a
metal surface.
Types of Corrosion
➢ Several corrosion types are encountered in oil and
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gas well environments:
Galvanic corrosion
Sour corrosion (Hydrogen Sulphide or H2S)
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Sulphide stress corrosion cracking
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Chloride stress corrosion cracking
Sweet corrosion (Carbon Dioxide)
Oxidation
“Corrosion fatigue”
Galvanic Corrosion
This type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals
are put in contact in the presence of an electrolyte
When this happens, an electron flow is started from the
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more active metal to the other.
This phenomena is used to protect steel structures by
allowing anodes attached to steel structures to
preferentially dissolve in favour of the steel.
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Corrosion is associated with electric current flow, which
can be predicted by Ohm's Law.
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The amount of current I, is directly proportional to the
applied voltage E, and inversely proportional to the
resistance R
I = E/R
Galvanic Corrosion - continued

In the electrochemical corrosion circuit, current flows from the anodic
areas into the electrolyte, and flows from solution into the metal at the
cathodic areas.
All corrosion inhibitors and coatings are designed to reduce current
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flow, usually by increasing resistance in the electrochemical corrosion
circuit.
Since corrosion is related to the flow of electricity through many
materials, it is necessary to consider the electrical resistivity of each.
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Resistivity is defined as R = rL
A
Where R is the resistance in ohms of a conductor of length L and
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uniform cross section A, with r being the unit resistivity of the material.
If L and A are expressed in centimetres and square centimetres then r
is expressed in ohm-cm. Values normally used are for resistance of
one cubic centimetre of the material, between opposite faces of a
cube.
Flow of Current from a Corroding Pit

ELECTROLYTE
SALT OR WEAK ACID SOLUTION
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CURRENT PATHS IN SOLUTION
CATHODE CATHODE
l.c ANODE
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CURRENT PATHS IN METAL
METAL
Galvanic Corrosion - continued

Seawater or brine is usually considered a
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good conductor, but its resistivity is roughly
a million times than that of iron.
Seawater is a good conductor compared
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with distilled water.
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Sea water resistivity is 20 ohm-cm
compared with 1.7 x 10-6 for copper and 5 to
30 x 1013 for Porcelain
Typical Values of Electrical Resistivity

Class Material Resistivity Relative
Ohm-cm Resistivity to
Silver
Metals Silver 1.6 x 10-6 1
Copper 1.7 x 10-6 1+
Iron (Pure) 10 x 10-6 6+
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Steel 12 to 24 x 10-6 7 to 15
Nichrome 100 x 10-6 63
Semi Conductors Graphite 0.0008 500

Carbon 0.006 3,750
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Magnetite (Fe3O4)
CaCl2 (Fused)
FeS (Fused Rod)
0.05
0.86
1.5
31,500
538,000
790,000
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Electrolytes Saturated NaCl Brine 6 3,750,000
Sea water 20 1,250,000
Soils and Formations 500 to 100,000 312 x 106 to 62.5 x 109
Tap water 500 to 10,000 312 x 106 to 62.5 x 109
Distilled water (Pure) 17,200,000 10.7 x 1018
Insulators Porcelain 5 to 30 x 1013 31,200,000 x 1018 to

187,500,000 x 1018
Glass 2 to 9 x 1013 12,500,000 x 1018 to
56,200,000 x 1018
Galvanic Series of Metal and Alloys in Flowing Sea Water

Top listed higher corrosion Bottom less corrosion
SN Metal Symbol SN Metal Symbol
1 Magnesium (best anodic) Mg 17 Inconel (Active)
2 Magnesium Alloys Mg, x 18 Brass
3 Zinc Zn 19 Copper Cu
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4 Aluminium 1100 (2S) Al 20 Bronzes
5 Cadmium Cd 21 Copper Nickel Alloys Cu, Ni

6 Aluminium 2017 (17ST) Al 22 Monel
7 Steel or Iron Fe 23 Silver Solder

8
9
Cast Iron
Chromium Steel (Active) l.c Fe
Cr,Fe
24
25
Nickel (Passive)
Inonel (Passive)
Ni
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10 Nickel-Resist Cast Iron Ni, Fe 26 Chromium Steel (Passive) Cr, Fe
11 Type 304 Stainless Steel (Active) Fe 27 Type 304 Stainless Steel Fe

(Passive)
12 Type 316 Stainless Steel (Active) Fe 28 Type 316 Stainless Steel Fe
(Passive)
13 Lead-Tin Solder Pb, Sn 29 Silver Ag
14 Lead Pb 30 Gold Au
15 Tin Sn 31 Platinum Pt
16 Nickel (Active) Ni
Stainless Steel Passivity

The basic resistance of stainless steel occurs because of its ability to
form a protective coating on the metal surface.
This coating is a "passive" film, which is resistant to further
"oxidation" or rusting.
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The formation of this film is instantaneous in an oxidising atmosphere
such as air, water, or many other fluids that contain oxygen.
Once the layer has formed, the metal becomes "passivated" and the
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oxidation or "rusting" rate will slow
These effects are due to the formation of a surface film, which acts as a
barrier to further corrosion.
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Chromium, iron, nickel, titanium and alloys containing these elements
become essentially inert and act as if they are noble metals such as
gold or platinum .
This phenomenon is not well understood and the exact nature and
composition of the surface film is unknown.
Sour or H2S Corrosion

1) Corrosion of iron to iron sulphide
✓ Reacts to black scale
✓ Significant in high concentrations
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2) H2S embitterment
✓ Migration of hydrogen ions
✓ Ions combine and degrade the metal structure
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✓ Micro-reaction sites for stress cracking
3) Sulphide stress corrosion cracking (SSC)
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✓ Applicable in low concentrations
✓ Typically most significant H2S corrosion mechanism
H2S + Fe + H2O ® FeS + 2H
Stress Cracking
Sulphide stress cracking
• Reaction of sulphur and iron ions
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• Requires H2S + moisture + tensile stress
• Affected by partial pressure of H2S, pH of water,
temperature, exposure time and material stress level
l.c
Chloride stress cracking
Chlorides themselves not significant
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•
• Complex reaction with H2S and CO2

• Alloy selection can overcome problems
Partial Pressure of H2S & CO2
Partial pressure of H2S and CO2 has a major
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impact on corrosion presence and rate
1.
l.c
Mol % H2S x Wellhead Pressure (psi)
100
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2. Mol % CO2 x Wellhead Pressure (psi)
100
Carbon Dioxide (Sweet Corrosion)

1. CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
2. Fe + H2CO3 = FeCO3
Iron Carbonic Acid Iron Carbonate
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This type of corrosion is commonly found in gas wells where carbon
dioxide is present.
Water vapour condenses in the tubing or flow lines, the carbonic acid
l.c
formed causes pitting of the exposed metal.
This occurs more often at the top of tubing and in surface flow-lines
where the lower temperatures allow water to condense.
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Higher wellhead pressures can increase the corrosion rate due to higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide being dissolved in the water.
If CO2 partial pressure is above 30 then the well stream will be corrosive.
If it is between 7.0 and 30 then there is a possibility for corrosion.
If it is less than 7.0 then the possibility of corrosion is remote.
Oxygen Corrosion
1) Anode Reaction Fe ® Fe++ + 2e-
2) Cathode Reaction O2 + 2H2O + 4e- = 4OH-
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3) Combine (1) & (2) 4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 = 4Fe (OH)3
Iron + Water + Oxygen = Ferric Hydroxide
l.c
Oxygen dissolved in water that enters a well, causes rapid corrosion
The problem become worse by the presence of hydrogen sulphide, where
oi
severe corrosion can take place with levels of oxygen as low as 0.09
ppm
“Differential aeration cell” corrosion occurs in areas of different oxygen
concentration where the steel exposed to higher oxygen become anodic
compared with others and hence corrode
Bacterial corrosion
Anaerobic bacteria where no oxygen is
present
✓ Sulphate reducing bacteria can cause corrosion.
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✓ The bacteria digest sulphates found in the well and convert
them to hydrogen sulphide which is very corrosive.
✓ This type of bacteria is controlled by the use of a solution of
l.c
100-ppm bactericide every two weeks.
Aerobic bacteria where oxygen is present in
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the well fluids
✓ Oxygen must be removed from fluids to be injected into wells.
✓ This can prevent the growth of aerobic bacteria and related
plugging of tubing and formation
Corrosion Rates
The unit of measurement used to
determine the amount of corrosion is
lb/ft.sq
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One cubic foot of steel weighs 488
pounds 0.001 inch
One square foot of steel 0.001 inch 1 sq.ft
thick weighs 0.041 pounds
l.c
Weight loss in lb/ft.sq is the unit of
measurement of weight loss used to
1 ft
oi
determine how much metal has been
1 ft 1 ft
lost during a period of contact
between pipe and acid
The normally accepted weight loss is
0.05 lbs/ft2/day
Corrosion Test Procedures

The usual method of measuring the rate of corrosion is to actually weigh a
small specimen of steel before and after exposure to the treatment fluid
under controlled conditions. The testing procedure for determining the
amount of corrosion is as follows
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1. Cut coupons from the Tubing/Steel to be used (Approximately 2-1/2 inch x 1/2
inch x 1/10 inch.
2. Clean, weigh and measure the coupons. Calculate the surface area.
3. Put the coupons in the acid at the temperature and pressure desired and leave for
the required time
l.c
4. Remove the coupons from the acid; Clean and weigh the coupons.
5. Calculate the weight loss
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6. Subtract the second weight from the first
7. Divide the difference by the surface area
▪ Since the corrosion rate of steel particularly in uninhibited acid changes with time,
and not always in a predictable way, the corrosion data is not extended beyond the
actual test period.
For example, finding a weight loss of 0.01 lb/ft2 at the end of a six hour test does
not imply that the weight loss will be 0.02 lb/ft2 after a twelve hour period.
Factors affecting the amount of metal lost

during an acid treatment:
Temperature
Higher temperatures above 200 °F cause higher metal loss due to
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increased reaction rate.
The corrosion rate of HCl doubles with every 15.0°F rise in temperature
Time
l.c
Longer contact time makes higher loss
Acid Concentration
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Higher acid concentration makes higher metal loss. An increase in acid
strength of 5.0% will increase corrosion rate by up to 30%
API* Type of Metal
J-55 has the most loss, N-80 is in between and P-110 has the least loss.
Chrome steels require special inhibitors
How acid corrode metals

Corrosion is an electrochemical process whereby electrons
flow from one part of the pipe to another part of the pipe
Electrons then combine with acidic solution to form
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hydrogen gas
Part of the metal surface in contact with the acid is
removed by dissolving the iron and the remainder with
the production of hydrogen
l.c
The basic chemical reaction is as follows
Fe + 2HCl = FeCl2 + H2°
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Above equation says that iron (Fe) will combine with
(HCl) to form ferrous chloride (FeCl2) and that hydrogen
gas is evolved.
If this process is allowed to go uncontrolled, then the
metal will develop sever corrosion pitting and holes
Corrosion Control
· Engineering design.
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· Materials Selection.
· Coatings.
· l.c
Removal of corrosive gases
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. Corrosion Inhibitors
· Cathodic protection.
Engineering Design
1. Crevices cause galvanic cell corrosion.
2.Low fluid velocities allow solids to settle which can shelter
bacteria and trace amounts of oxygen can cause concentration cells.
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3. High fluid velocities can erode protective films.
4. Dissimilar metals coupled together, can cause galvanic corrosion.
5. Poor drainage of lines and equipment may cause concentration cell
corrosion.
l.c
6. Improper selection of metals may result in sulphide embrittlement.
oi
7. Improper pump suction conditions may promote cavitation.
8. Surface lines not insulated from the well can cause corrosion due to
current flow.
Materials Selection
High cost alloys are often used where other means of
corrosion control are not possible or are ineffective. This
om
depends upon the corrosive environment encountered, the
physical requirements of the material and economics.
Galvanic corrosion is a metals selection problem and can
l.c
be controlled by avoiding contact between metals which
have large differences in galvanic potential or by the use
oi
of other corrosion reduction methods.
The use of non-metals is quite common in surface lines
and installations, though most non-metals of practical use
have low strength or temperature limitations.
Coatings
➢ Coatings can protect or restrict the metal from contact with corrosive
liquids or gases.
➢ These coatings include; paints, plastics, cement, rubber, epoxy resins and
ceramics, and are generally broken down into three groups
om
· Inorganic coatings
Include cement and ceramics.
· Organic coatings l.c

Are most common in the oil industry and include thin coatings such as paints
oi
and thick coatings such as bituminous coatings and resins.
· Metallic coatings
Such as zinc or aluminium are used to provide a galvanised surface.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Inhibitors are used to protect tanks, flow lines, tubing, casing water-flood
equipment and gas plants.
Inhibitors are used in all acid treatments to protect the customer's and contractor
equipment
A corrosion inhibitor concentration of greater than 1.0 % is normally questionable,
unless the downhole temperature is greater than 250°F.
om
At higher temperature conditions, inhibitor concentration should normally not
exceed 2.0%.
Between 200 to 250°F, a corrosion inhibitor in proper concentration (0.1 to 1.0%)
is sufficient to inhibit acid corrosion.
“intensifier” l.c
Above 250°F, it may be necessary to include more inhibitor, as well as an inhibitor
Inhibitor intensifiers are often perceived as doing nothing more than increasing the
oi
treatment cost to the customer than to provide needed corrosion inhibition.
However, varying metallurgy such as chrome steels and coiled tubing, the presence
of corrosive gases such as hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide have significant
influence on the performance of corrosion inhibitors
It is recommended to have laboratory corrosion tests run to confirm that sufficient
inhibition will take place.
How inhibitors works

A layer of inhibitor molecules must attach itself to the metal
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surface.
The layer keeps corrosive fluids away from part of the
surface and slows some of the corrosion steps.
l.c
It is believed that the inhibitors interfere with the
production of hydrogen and possibly impede the anodic
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process as well.
The amount of inhibitor needed to coat 1000 feet of 4-inch
I.D. pipe with a single layer of molecules is in the order of
0.0005 to 0.05 pounds.
om
l.c
A corrosion control tool
oi
om
l.c
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What is cathodic protection?

The most common form of cathodic protection, is called impressed
current.
Impressed current means that a current is impressed between the
buried structure and and an anode.
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This forces a reversal of the current, and causes the anode to be
consumed rather than the pipe.
This current will vary considerably, depending on the surface area
l.c
of the underground pipe, the soil and other factors.
Some systems are as small as 50 milliamps and as large as 120
amps.
oi
A typical gas wellhead is usually in the range of 2 to 6 amps,
larger pipelines are usually in the 8 to 30 amp range.
Where grid power is readily available, an AC to DC rectifier is
usually used.
In remote areas, the DC current is commonly supplied by a solar
electric system
Definitions
Cathodic Protection:
Reduction of corrosion rate by shifting the corrosion potential of the
electrode toward a less oxidizing potential by applying an external
electromotive force.
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Galvanic anode :
Provides sacrificial protection to metals that are more noble in the series,
when coupled in an electrolyte.
Cathodic Protection System:
l.c
A cathodic protection system in which the external electromotive force is
supplied by a galvanic anode.
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Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System:
A cathodic protection system in which the external electromotive force is
provided by an external DC power source.
Ground bed:
One or more anodes installed below the earth's surface for the purpose of
supplying cathodic protection.
Definitions - continued
Rectifier:
A device which converts alternating current to direct current.
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Conventional Ground bed:
A group of anodes installed remote (300 feet or more) from the structure
and spaced on 15 to 30 foot centers.
Distributed Anode Ground bed:
l.c
A group of anodes installed close (5 to 20 feet) to and along a structure to
be protected and spaced on 25 to 500 foot centers.
oi
Deep Anode Ground bed:
One or more anodes installed vertically at a nominal depth of 50 feet or
more below the earth's surface in a drilled hole.
Shallow Vertical Ground bed:
One or more anodes installed vertically at a nominal depth of 50 feet or less
below the earth's surface.
Required field tests

Regardless of the type of cathodic protection system to be installed,
two simple field tests should be conducted prior to beginning the
system design.
▪ SoilResistivity:
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Soil resistivity should be determined for the specific area where the
ground bed is to be installed.
➢ Even small differences in location can cause large differences in soil
resistivity.
➢
✓ Soil box procedurel.c
Soil resitivitiy may be determined using any one of the following:
oi
✓ Wenner (4-pin) procedure
✓ Single rod test procedure
▪ Current Requirement:
Whenever possible, a trial and error process using a temporary ground
bed and a portable power supply should be used to determine the
current required to protect the structure.
Current requirement test

1. Set up a temporary ground bed with ground rods and a
temporary power supply.
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2. Energize the system.
3. Perform an on-off survey over the structure to be protected.
4. Increase the current and repeat the survey.
5.
l.c
Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until the structure is protected
according to established criteria.
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6. If the above process is not feasible, make an assumption
about current density requirements and calculate current
requirement for the area of the structure to be protected.
7. Use typical current densities for your area.
Galvanic cathodic protection system

➢ Galvanic anodes are most efficiently used on electrically isolated coated
structures.
➢ The current output of a galvanic anode installation is typically much less than
that obtained from an impressed current cathodic protection system.
➢ Galvanic anode installations tend to be used mostly on underground structures
om
in applications where cathodic protection current requirements are small and
where earth resistances are acceptably low.
➢ Materials:
Magnesium anodes are available in a variety of shapes and sizes, bare or
➢
l.c
prepackaged with the most popular being the 17 lb. prepackaged anode.
As a general guideline, one may assume magnesium anodes to be acceptable
where soil resistivities are between 1,000 ohm-cm and 5,000 ohm-cm.
oi
➢ Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender
shapes should be employed in higher resistivity areas.
➢ Zinc anodes are also available in many shapes and sizes. They are appropriate
in soils with very low resistivities (750 ohm-cm to 1500 ohm-cm).
➢ Favourable environments are sea water and salt marshes.
➢ Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender
shapes should be employed in higher resistivity areas.
Galvanic cathodic protection system - continued

➢ Advantages:
▪ Self-powered so no external power source is required.
▪ Easy field installation.
▪ Low maintenance requirement.
om
▪ Less likely to cause stray current interference problems on other structures.
▪ When the current requirement is small, a galvanic system is more
economical than an impressed current system.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪
▪
Low driving voltage. l.c
Limited to use in low resistivity soils.
oi
▪ Low maintenance requirement.
▪ Not an economical source of large amounts of CP current.
▪ Very Little capacity to control stray current effects on the protected structure
Impressed current cathodic protection system

➢ Used to protect large bare and coated structures and structures in high
resistivity electrolytes.
➢ The design must consider the potential for causing coating damage and
the possibility of creating stray currents, which adversely affect other
om
structures.
❖ Advantages:
1) Flexibility
Applicable to a variety of applications
2)
3)
4)
l.c
Current output may be controlled
Not constrained by low driving voltage
oi
5) Effective in high resistivity soils
❖ Disadvantages:
1) Increased maintenance
2) Higher operating costs
3) May cause interference with other structures
Ground beds
➢ Ground bed Location
Should be determined early in the design process because its location may
affect the choice of ground bed type.
➢ The following factors should be considered when choosing
om
a ground bed location.
1. Soil Resistivity
2. Soil Moisture
3. Interference with other Structures
4.
5. Accessibility
l.c
Availability of Power Supply
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6. Vandalism or other Damage
7. Purpose of the Ground bed
8. Availability of Right of Way
➢ Conventional Ground beds
Normally used to distribute protective current over a broad area of the
structure to be protected.
Ground beds - continued

➢ Distributed Anode Groundbeds
▪ Used to reduce the potential for interference effects on neighbouring
structures.
▪ They are used to protect sections of bare or poorly coated structure.
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▪ They are used in congested areas where electrical shielding might occur with
other groundbeds.
➢ Deep Anode Groundbeds
▪
▪
anode and structure.
l.c
They are remote to the structure by virtue of the vertical distance between
Deep anode groundbeds therefore achieve results similar to remote surface

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groundbeds.
▪ A deep anode groundbed is an appealing choice when space is not available
for a conventional groundbed or when surface soil has high resistivity and
deeper strata exhibit low resistivities.
➢ Shallow Vertical Groundbeds
▪ are commonly used where space is limited
Power Supplies (Any reliable source of DC current will suffice)

➢ Rectifiers
▪ Are the most common power source for cathodic protection systems.
▪ Each of several manufacturers offer a dizzying array of options, most commonly
in the following areas:
1. Enclosure Type
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2. Cooling Type
3. Control Type
4. Rectifying Element
5. Circuit Type
6.
7.
AC Input
DC Volts l.c
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8. DC Amperes
➢ Solar Cells
▪ Can provide an dependable power supply in certain parts of the world.
▪ Great inefficiencies may result if the entire CP system is not designed with the
power supply in mind.
➢ Generators
(engine, wind, or turbine powered) are used in special circumstances.
Anodes
➢ Scrap iron
▪ Sometimes used as an anode simply because it is available.
▪ Non-uniform consumption, high rate of consumption, and discoloration of
surrounding structures are distinct disadvantages.
➢ Graphite anodes
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▪ are one of the most commonly used anodes for impressed current systems.
▪ Most common applications are to protect underground structures.
▪ Graphite anodes are suitable for deep, shallow vertical, or horizontal ground
beds with carbonaceous backfill.
➢
▪
l.c
High Silicon Cast Iron anodes
are widely used in underground applications in both shallow and deep
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groundbeds.
▪ Specially formulated high silicon cast iron anodes are also used in seawater.
▪ Although the performance is improved with coke breeze; its use is not critical.
➢ Platinized Titanium anodes
▪ take advantage of the low consumption rate and high current density.
▪ Voltages in excess of 10 Volts will result in severe pitting of the titanium core
causing premature failure. https://oil-com.blogspot.com/ VII.96
Anodes - continued
➢ Magnetite anodes
▪ are quite expensive but have an extremely long life.
▪ They are therefore an economical choice for some applications.
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➢ Mixed Metal Oxide anodes
▪ consist of a high purity titanium substrate with an applied coating consisting
of a mixture of oxides.
▪ The titanium serves as a support for the oxide coating.
▪
l.c
The mixed metal oxide is a crystalline, electrically-conductive coating that
activates the titanium and enables it to function as an anode.
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▪ When applied on titanium, the coating has an extremely low consumption
rate, measured in terms of milligrams per year.
▪ As a result of this low consumption rate, the tubular dimensions remain
nearly constant during the design life of the anode - providing a consistently
low resistance anode.
Backfill
➢ Carbon backfill
▪ Serves as a sacrificial buffer between the anode and the reaction environment.
▪ Carbon backfill is used to accomplish three major goals:
1) Maintain stability of the excavation (hole).
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2) Serve as the primary anodic reaction surface.
3) Lower resistance-to-earth of the system.
4) The primary objective of the carbon backfill is to electronically conduct the
➢
l.c
current discharged from the anode surface to the carbon-earth interface where
the electrochemical reaction can occur with least impact on the anode.
Metallurgical Coke
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1) Low in carbon content, porous and therefore low in specific gravity, and high
in ash and volatiles content.
2) These three characteristics cause metallurgical coke to have a relatively high
resistivity.
3) Metallurgical coke is not suitable for deep anode groundbed installations.
Backfill- continued
➢ Petroleum Coke
▪ Without heat treatment, petroleum coke is non conductive and is therefore
not suitable for backfill.
➢ Backfill Selection
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Should be based on a consideration of the following coke characteristics:
✓ Resistivity, or more significantly in-situ bulk resistivity determines how well
the objective of the carbon backfill is achieved.
✓ Specific Gravity affects compact settling. A high specific gravity helps to
✓
insure compact settling.
l.c
Carbon Content of the backfill material determines the anode system life.
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✓ Particle Sizing determines the amount of contact between anode and backfill.
For optimum contact, particle size should be small relative to the anode
diameter. Very small (less than 7.5 microns) particles should be avoided
because they are high in ash content.
✓ Particle Shape affects how well the backfill settles and the tendency for the
backfill to trap gases. A spherical shape is preferred over flat, irregularly
shaped particles

Completion 7

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Completion 7

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https://oil-com.blogspot.

Introduction to well completion

(Part.VII) -Table of contents

(Part.VII) -Table of contents - continued

Part.VII) -Table of contents - continued

Post completion problems

What Is the Sustainable Annulus

Source Of Annulus Pressure

Thermal expansion of packer fluid

Wellhead seal leaks

Down hole completion leaks

Behind casing channeling and

Liner top leaks

Risk associated with sustainable

The acceptable level of risk depends on;

Classification of SAP wells

Bleed off procedure for producers

Most Common Scales

Scaling case history

Scale associated problems

Place Of Scale Deposition

How scale forms

Cause of Scale Deposition

Barium Sulphate BaSO4 l.c Changes in temperature or pressure.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits - continued

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) or Anhydrite (CaSO4) deposits.

Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) and Strontium

Sodium chloride (NaCl) deposits

Temperature and Solubility of Sodium Chloride

°F °C Weight PPM Mg/Litre

86 30 26.8 268,000 323,000

212 100 28.5 285,000 346,500

Solubility of Various Scales in Distilled Water

Barium Sulphate 77 25 2.3

Scale Removal Procedures

2.Acid Wash using coiled tubing

3.New Scale Removal Techniques

4. Scale Blaster with sterling beads

Scale blaster System

Scale Blaster Shortfalls

Scale blaster technology

Scale blaster design Features

Fit-to-purpose removal methods

Scale removal with jet blaster case history

Scale removal case histories

Scale Prevention & Mitigation

How Metals Corrode

How metals corrode - continued

Fe° + H2S ® FeS + H2°

How metals corrode - continued

The anode and cathode may be separated by microscopic

Galvanic Corrosion - continued

Flow of Current from a Corroding Pit

Galvanic Corrosion - continued

Typical Values of Electrical Resistivity

Semi Conductors Graphite 0.0008 500

Insulators Porcelain 5 to 30 x 1013 31,200,000 x 1018 to

Galvanic Series of Metal and Alloys in Flowing Sea Water

1 Magnesium (best anodic) Mg 17 Inconel (Active)

2 Magnesium Alloys Mg, x 18 Brass

5 Cadmium Cd 21 Copper Nickel Alloys Cu, Ni

7 Steel or Iron Fe 23 Silver Solder