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CHEMICAL BONDING
❖ With exception of the noble gases, the other atoms of elements in the Periodic Table (such as
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), oxygen
(O) etc) have a high tendency of attaining a noble (inert) gas electronic structure (i.e. stable
electronic structure).
❖ The atoms of such elements attain stable electronic structure by mainly two ways:
(i) By transfer (gain and loss) of valency (outermost shell) electrons to form ions.
(ii) By sharing of valency electrons to form molecules.
❖ When sharing or transfer of the outermost electrons occurs between the atoms, the atoms
become united or combined together to form compounds.
❖ The force which holds two or more atoms together in a compound is called a chemical bond.

Note: Valency electrons are the outermost energy level electrons (outermost shell
electrons)

❖ There are several types of chemical bonding namely:

(i)
(ii)
(iii) Metallic bonding
(iv) Dative bonding

Ionic bonding
❖ This is the type of bonding which is as a result of complete transfer of outermost shell
electrons (valency electrons) from metallic atoms to the outermost shells of non-metallic
atoms.

Outermost (valency) ❖ After the loss and gain of electrons by

shells the metallic atoms and non-metallic
atoms respectively, both atoms attain a
stable electronic structure of noble
Metallic Non-Metallic
ato ato ❖ gases. The atoms become ions; metallic
m m atoms become positively charged while
the non-metallic atoms become
negatively charged.

❖ Since the atoms have opposite charges, they therefore strongly attract each other and a force
called ionic (or electrovalent) bond holds the ions. Ionic bonds are very strong and the
compounds that possess ionic bonds are called ionic/electrovalent compounds.
Note:

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• Only ions are formed (i.e. no molecules are formed).

• The metallic atoms can lose 1, 2 or 3 electrons depending on the group number/valency.
Ionic bonding is between metallic and non-metallic atoms.
Only the outermost (valency) electrons and hence outermost shells are involved.

❖ Examples:
(1) Formation of sodium chloride, 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍

Or

In the above combination, each sodium atom donates one electron in its outermost shell
which is accepted by an atom of chlorine. Sodium ion with a single positive charge and a
chloride ion with a single negative charge are formed. The ions with opposite charges
strongly attract one another to form sodium chloride.

(2) Formation of magnesium oxide, 𝑴𝒈𝑶

During the above combination, each magnesium atom donates two outermost electrons
which are accepted by an oxygen atom. Magnesium ion with a double positive charge and an
oxide ion with a double negative charge are formed. The ions with opposite charges strongly
attract one another to form magnesium oxide. (3) Formation of calcium chloride, 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐

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In the above combination, each calcium atom donates two electrons in its outermost shell
which are gained by two chlorine atoms, each chlorine atom accepting one electron.
Calcium ion with a double positive charge and chloride ions; each with a single negative
charge are formed. The ions with opposite charges strongly attract one another to form
calcium chloride.

Trial Questions:
Using valency electrons only, show how the following compounds are formed from their
elements.
(a) Potassium chloride (K=19; Cl=17) (e) Calcium oxide (Ca=20; O=8)
(b) Aluminium oxide (Al=13; O=8) (f) Magnesium fluoride (Mg=13; F=9)
(c) Magnesium oxide (Mg=12; S=16) (g) Sodium oxide (Na=11; O=9) (d)
Aluminium fluoride (Al=13; F=9)

❖ Definitions
• An ionic bond is one due to the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom (or radical)
to another.
• The electrovalency of an atom or group of atoms is the number electrons which it transfers
or receives.

❖ Properties of ionic (or electrovalent) compounds

Ionic compounds;
• consist of ions.
• are crystalline solids at room temperature.
• have high melting points and boiling points.
For example;
Compound 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2
Melting point (oC) 808 714
Boiling point (oC) 1465 1418

Reason: This is because of the strong electrostatic forces (ionic bonds) that hold the ions
together. Hence a lot of energy is needed to break the bonds for melting or boiling to occur.
Because ionic compounds have high boiling and melting points, they are described as
nonvolatile.
• are insoluble in organic solvents e.g. petrol, ethanol, benzene, ether, methylbenzene, carbon
disulphide, carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane) e.t.c.
• conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water (i.e. are electrolytes).
Reason: This is because water or heat breaks the strong electrostatic forces (ionic bonds)
that hold the ions together. As a result ions become free and mobile (i.e. delocalised) and
carry electric charges.
In solid state, the ions are firmly/strongly held together by strong ionic bonds and thus are
not mobile to conduct electricity.

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Covalent bonding
❖ This type of bonding/combination that involves sharing of electrons between two or more
atoms of non-metals.
❖ Compounds that are formed through covalent bonding are called covalent compounds.
❖ The force that holds the atoms together in the covalent compounds is the covalent bond.
❖ During the formation of a covalent bond, the shared electrons are contributed equally by the
bonded atoms.

Note:
(i) Only the outermost (valency) electrons which are not paired are using for bonding.
(ii) Each pair of electrons shared is a covalent bond represented by a dash (−) between the
two atoms.

❖ Examples:
(1) Formation of hydrogen molecule, 𝑯𝟐 (H=1)
During the combination, each atom of hydrogen
contributes one outermost electron to be shared.
Thus, two atoms of hydrogen share a pair of
electrons.
This results into formation of a covalent compound,
H
written as H .

(2) Formation of chlorine molecule, 𝑪𝒍𝟐 (Cl=17)

During the combination, each atom of chlorine
contributes one outermost electron to be shared.
Thus, two atoms of chlorine share a pair of electrons.
Thus, a covalent compound, written as Cl Cl
is formed.

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(3) Formation of oxygen molecule, 𝑶𝟐 (O=8)

During the combination, each atom of oxygen
contributes two outermost electrons to be
shared. Thus, two atoms of oxygen share two
pair of electrons.
Thus, a covalent compound, written as

O O is formed.

(4) Formation of nitrogen molecule, 𝑵𝟐 (N=7)

Each atom of nitrogen contributes three outermost electrons to
be shared. Thus, two atoms of nitrogen share three pair of
electrons.

NN
Thus, a covalent compound, written as is formed.

(5) Formation of hydrogen chloride molecule, HCl

Each atom of hydrogen contributes one outermost electron while
each chlorine atom also contributes one outermost electron to be
shared. Thus, the two atoms share a pair of electrons. Thus a
covalent compound, written as 𝐻 − 𝐶𝑙 is formed.

Trial Questions:
Using valency electrons only, show how the following compounds are formed from their
elements.
(a) Water molecule (H=1; O=8)
(b) Ammonia molecule (N=7; H=1)
(c) Carbon dioxide molecule (C=6; O=8)
(d) Carbon tetrachloride molecule (C=6; Cl=17)
(e) Methane molecule (C=6; H=1)

❖ Definitions
• A covalent bond is one due to the sharing of two electrons, one from each atom.
• The covalency of an atom is the number electron pairs which it shares.

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Note:
In covalent compounds/molecules, the pair(s) of electrons in the outermost shells of atoms
not used for bonding is (are) called lone pair(s) of electrons.
For example;
In a water In an
molecule ammonia
molecule

❖ Properties of covalent compounds

Covalent compounds;
• consist of molecules.
• are non-electrolytes (i.e. don’t conduct electricity) because they contain no ions.
• are mostly gases or volatile liquids at room temperature.
Reason: This is because of the weak forces of attraction that hold the molecules together.
• have low melting points and boiling points (i.e. are volatile).
For example; naphthalene which is covalent melts at 81oC whereas sodium chloride which
is ionic melts at 801oC.
Reason: This is because of the weak forces of attraction that hold the molecules together.
More data on the melting and boiling points of some selected covalent compounds. For
example;
Compound ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Melting point (oC) −259 −219 −182 120 0
Boiling point (oC) −253 −183 −161 444 100

• are generally soluble in organic solvents.

Metallic bonding
❖ This is the type of bonding that occurs between atoms of metal.
❖ In metallic bonding, each metal atom loses its outermost (valency) electrons to form metal
cations and a ‘sea’/ ‘pool’/ ‘cloud’ of delocalised electrons which are free to move within the
solid metal.

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Simplified drawing

❖ The attraction between the metal positive ions and the sea of electrons constitutes what is
called the metallic bond. The more the electrons lost, the stronger the metallic bond formed.
❖ For example; Na (2:8:1) forms weaker metallic bonds than Mg (2:8:2). This is because each
atom of sodium uses only one electron and each atom of magnesium uses only two electrons.
❖ Because of the delocalized electrons (or free and mobile electrons) in metals, metals are good
conductors of electricity and heat.

Question: Copper conducts electricity in both solid and molten states. Explain this
observation.
Answer: This is because in both solid and molten states, copper has delocalized electrons.
Dative bonding
❖ Dative bonding is another type of covalent bonding where the shared pair of electrons (or
bonding pair of electrons) is only contributed by one of the participating atoms and the other
atom simply accepts the pair of electrons for sharing.
❖ In dative bonding, the donor atom must possess a lone pair of electrons while the acceptor
atom be electron deficient so that both become stable after sharing of the electron pair
contributed.
❖ For example;
Formation of ammonium ion, 𝑁𝐻4+.
It involves sharing of electron pair between ammonia molecule (𝑁𝐻3) and hydrogen ion
(𝐻+).
The electron pair is contributed by the nitrogen atom in ammonia molecule and the
hydrogen ion accepts the pair to attain stability.

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Trial Questions
1. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of an atom and show the location of the fundamental particles

(b) 35
17 X and 37
17 W are atoms of an element (X and W are not actual symbols)
(i) State the name given to atom X and W

(ii) State the similarity and difference between atom X and W

(iii) How does the difference between X and W mentioned in b(ii) above arise?

(c) (i) Write down the electronic configuration of chlorine and sodium. (Cl=17, Na=11)

(ii) Using the outer most electrons only, draw a diagram to show how
sodium and chlorine form a compound.

(iii) State the difference in properties between chlorine molecule and sodium
chloride.

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4. Part of the periodic table is shown below

I VIII
X
II III IV V VI VII

Z E F

U P R T

(a) (i) Write down the electronic configuration of element F and R

…………………………………………...................................................................
(b) Formula of the compound formed between
(i) P and T
…………………………………………………………………………………..
(ii) E and F
…………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) How does the process of bond formation in the compounds formed between P and T
and E and F differ ( 1 mark)
…………………………………………………………………………………………..………………
(d) Which element in group I is most reactive?
…………………………………………………………………………………………

3. The atomic numbers of elements X, Y and Z are 8, 16 and 19 respectively.

(a) State the:
(i) group in the Periodic Table to which X belongs.
(ii) valency of Y.
(iii) period in the Period Table to which Z belongs.
(b) Write the formula of the compound that can be formed when X reacts with
(i) Y (ii) Z (c) State:
(i) the type of bonding in the compound in (b)(i).

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(ii) the type of bond in the compound formed in (b)(ii).

(iii) one physical property of the compound formed between X and Y in which it differs from the comp
4. The atomic numbers of elements X and Q are 11 and 17 respectively.
a. Write the electronic structure of
i. X (ii) Q
b. State the valency of
i. X (ii) Q
c. Show how the atoms of X and Q use their outermost (valency) electrons to form a compound.
d. State:

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(i) the type of bonding in the compound formed between X and Q.

(ii) whether the compound formed in (c) conducts electricity or not when in aqueous
state.
(iii) the type of bond that exists in atoms of X.
(e) Give a reason for your answer in (d)()
5. The atomic numbers of elements X and Z are 6 and 9 respectively.
(a) Write;
(i) the electronic configurations of X and Z.
(ii) the formula of the most likely ion Z forms.
(iii) valency of X.
(iv) period in the Period Table to which Z belongs.
(b) Using the outermost electrons only, briefly describe how X and Z combine to form a
compound.
(c) Writ the formula of the compound formed in (b).
6. The atomic numbers of elements W, X and Y are 6, 12 and 17 respectively.
(d) Write the electronic configurations W, X and Y .
(e) Using the outermost shell electrons only, draw a draw to show how W and Y form a
compound.
(f) State the type of bond between:
(i) X and Y (ii) W and Y. (iii) atoms of X (d) Identify the element that
exists as a diatomic molecule.
7. The atomic numbers and the positions of the elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I in the
Periodic Table are shown below. The letters are not the normal symbols of the elements.

𝑨𝟑 𝑬𝟔 𝑮𝟗 𝑯𝟏𝟎
𝑫𝟏𝟑
𝑱𝟒𝟎 𝑪𝟐𝟗 𝑭𝟑𝟒 𝑰𝟑𝟔
𝑩𝟑𝟕
(g) Which one of the elements is a noble (an inert) gas?
(h) What name is given to the elements in the group to which G belongs?
(i) Which element is likely to:
(i) react most violently with chlorine?
(ii) form a coloured compound?
(j) Write the formula of the:
(i) oxide of element d.
(ii) compound formed between element F and hydrogen.
(k) State the type of bond that would exist (i) in the chloride of element E.
(ii) between elements E and F. (iii)
between elements J and F.
(l) Which one of the elements A and B is likely to react more vigorously with water? (g)
write equation between element identified in (f) and water.
8. The full symbols of some atoms of certain elements are 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟏𝑸 and 𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟕𝑹.
(m) State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the atoms of elements.

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(n) State the type of bonding that exist between:

(ii) Q and R (ii) atoms of R
(o) Using the outermost shell electrons only, briefly describe how the bonding stated in (b)
are formed.
(p) State one property of the compound formed between atoms of Q and R.

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10 . The atomic numbers of hydrogen, oxygen and magnesium are 1, 8 and 12 respectively. (a)
Write the electronic configurations of each of the elements.
(b) By means of diagrams only, show how
(i) atoms of hydrogen and oxygen combine to form a compound.
(ii) atoms of magnesium and oxygen combine to form a compound
(c) With a reason, which of the compounds in (b) conducts electric current aqueous solution.
(d) State one other physical property of the compound formed in (b)(i) in which it differs
from the compound formed in (b)(ii).

STRUCTURES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

❖ Matter can exist with different structures. This is because of the different types of bonding
which may be ionic or covalent.
❖ There are two broad types of structures namely:
(i) Simple molecular structures (ii) giant structures.

Simple molecular structures

❖ These structures consist of simple molecules containing a few atoms.
❖ Examples of molecules/compounds with simple molecular structures are: iodine (𝐼2), chlorine
(𝐶𝑙2), bromine (𝐵𝑟2), oxygen (𝑂2), nitrogen (𝑁2), noble gases and carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2)
❖ In those compounds, between the molecules are weak i forces of attraction (called van der
Waals forces). Therefore, little energy is needed to break the weak forces in order to separate
the molecules apart. This explains why such compounds have very low melting and boiling
points. In fact, iodine sublimes easily when heated/warmed because of the weak forces
between its molecules.
❖ The other properties of compounds with simple molecular structures are:
The compounds:
(i) exist as liquids, gases and solid at room temperature and pressure.
(ii) are made of molecules.
(iii) are non-conductors of electricity (are non-electrolytes) since they contain no ions.
(iv) readily dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, carbon disulphide etc.

Giant structures
❖ There are three sub divisions namely:
(1) Giant ionic structures
❖ It is shown by compounds which have ionic bonding (i.e. ionic compounds).
❖ Examples of such compounds are: sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium oxide, and
magnesium fluoride.
❖ In giant ionic structures, the positive and negative ions are packed/arranged in an orderly way.
Between the oppositely charged ions, are strong ionic bonds.

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❖ The properties of compounds with giant ionic structures are the same as the properties of ionic
compounds already discussed.

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Trial questions:
Briefly explain the following observations.
(a) Copper(II) chloride in solid state does not conduct electricity whereas in molten form it
does.
(b) Aqueous solution of sodium chloride conducts electricity whereas solid sodium chloride
does not.
(c) Potassium chloride conducts electricity in both molten and aqueous states but not in
solid state.

❖ Part of a sodium chloride crystal showing how the oppositely charged ions are arranged is as
follows:

(2) Giant metallic structures

❖ This type of structure is formed by metals such sodium, iron, copper, zinc etc.
❖ The characteristics of metals with a giant metallic structure are already discussed in metallic
bonding.
Note:
Mercury is a metal which does not possess a giant metallic structure. This is because it is a
liquid.

(3) Giant atomic structures

❖ They are also called giant covalent structures.
❖ In giant atomic structures, there are large numbers of atoms held together by strong covalent
bonds.
❖ Examples of substances with a giant atomic structure are diamond, graphite, silicon and silica
(sand/silicon dioxide).
❖ Substances with giant atomic structures:
(i) are very hard, tough, boil and melt at very high temperatures. This is because many
strong covalent bonds between the atoms have to be broken.
(ii) do not conduct electricity except graphite . This is because they have no ions or
delocalized electrons.

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❖ Graphite is the only non-metal that conducts electricity in solid state. This is because it has
delocalized electrons.
❖ Diamond and graphite are two different forms of carbon (i.e. are allotropes of carbon). Thus,
carbon as an element exhibits allotropy.

Definitions:
• Allotropes are the different forms of an element in the same physical state.
• Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form without change in state.
❖ Detailed comparison between graphite and diamond are as follows:
Allotropes Graphite Diamond
Structure

Comments • Made up of flat layers of carbon atoms
arranged in regular hexagons.
• Between the layers are weak forces.
This makes the parallel layers to slide
over each other. Hence graphite is very
soft/slippery/greasy.
• Each carbon atom is bonded to other
three carbon atoms. Hence, some
electrons in graphite are mobile and this
allows graphite to conduct electricity.
• Carbon atoms are arranged in a
tetrahedral structure.
• Each carbon atom is bonded to other
four carbon atoms and this gives
rise to a giant atomic structure.
• In diamond all the electrons are
involved in bonding. Hence diamond
has no mobile electrons. This makes
it an insulator/nonconductor.

Uses • Making pencil nibs since it is soft, • Making jewelry since it sparkles.
black (or grey) and writes well on • Cutting and drilling glass, pottery
paper. and rock since it is so hard.
• Lubricant (for fast moving parts of • As an abrasive since it so hard.
machinery) since its greasy/slippery.
• An electrode in electrolysis since it has
mobile electrons and is inert.

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❖ The summary of the physical properties of the different types of structures are:
Physical property Giant structure Simple
molecular
Ionic Atomic Metallic structure

State at room temperature Solid Solid Solid except Gas/liquid/solid

mercury

Melting and boiling point Very high High High (Very) low
Hardness Hard and Hard except Hard and Soft
brittle graphite which malleable
is soft
Solubility Water Many are Insoluble except Insoluble None/insoluble
Soluble for a few that except sugar and
react with some that react
water with water
Organic Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble Soluble
solvents
Electrical Solid state None/bad None/bad High/good None/Bad
conductivity except graphite
Molten state High/good None/Bad High/good None/Bad
Aqueous High/good None/bad None/bad None/Bad
state except those that
react with water

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Trial Question:
Use the data in the table below to answer the questions that follow:
Substance m.pt (oC) b.pt (oC) Solubility Electrical conductance Density at
in water Solid form Molten form room temp
A 714 1418 V None Good 2.3 g/cm3
B −95 56 V None None 0.8 g/cm3
C 1083 2580 I None Good 8.9 g/cm3
D −101 −34 V None None 2.55 g/ 𝑙
E −23 77 I None None 1.6 g/cm3
F −219 −183 S None None 1.33 g/ 𝑙
V= very soluble S= slightly soluble I= insoluble

(a) (i) Identify two substances that are liquid at room temperature. (ii) Which of the two is
more volatile?
(b) Which substance(s) would dissolve in water and could be separated by from solution by (i)
fractional distillation? (ii) by evaporation of the water?
(c) Which of the substances A to F:
(i) has a structure consisting of ions? (iii) is a metal?
(ii) is a liquid which would form separate layers with water? State whether the water would
be above or below the substance.
(d) Which substances is a gas which would
(i) not be collected effectively over water? (ii) be collected effectively over water?

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