MODULE 1
or space where communication occurs), and
Lesson 1: The Communication Process, Its Purpose
& Importance
Communication - is how we make sense of the
world around us and how we connect to the world
around us. It is exchanging, transferring, and
sharing information from one human being to
another.
In fact, the etymology of the word communication
itself comes from the Latin word “communis”
meaning “common.” Through derivation, this
term means “to come together” or “to share
something in common.”
Communication may also be seen as a process by
which we assign and convey meaning in an
attempt to create shared understanding.
In situations where there is no shared meaning
between communicators, conflict surely ensues.
SEVERAL ASPECTS OF THE NATURE OF
COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process
● This means that it is a series of events that
happen, entailing the creation and exchange of
meaning through symbolic interaction.
● The interaction is symbolic because the
communicators rely on words and non-verbal
behaviors to communicate meaning and feelings
to achieve their communication goals.
● The nature of communication is a process that
also implies movements or shifts, constant
changes depending on context (people, occasion,
and task), physical environment (the actual place
climate (emotional atmosphere), thus making it
dynamic.
● The process of communication involves a
sender and receiver conveying information
through a communication channel.
● For the information to be communicated
effectively, the communicator has to be careful in
the choice of medium or the means by which the
message is sent to the receiver.
● Given this definition, we are able to derive that
communication is the relational process of
creating and interpreting messages that elicit a
response.
● Harold Dwight Laswell - Political scientist and
communications theorist, defines communication
as "who says what to whom to what effect.”
Communication is complex
● Communication is never easy because there
are so many factors in play as the process occurs.
● It involves the negotiation of shared
interpretations and understandings.
● Each communication scenario is unique and
impossible to duplicate.
● It is interactive because many processes are
involved.
● It is personal & cultural because a person's
culture can add a new or different meaning to a
phrase or gesture.
● It is irreversible because once a message is
sent, it cannot be taken back.
● It is circular because it involves both original
messages and feedback which is necessary to
confirm communication.
● It is purposeful because there is always a
reason behind a message and it helps meet our
needs.
● So, at the end of the day communication
without proper action or resulting change is a
waste of time, effort, and energy.
Communication requires meaning
● Meaning refers to the implied or explicit
significance of something. It is what is shared
between communicators during the
communication process.
What a symbol represents is said to be its meaning.
They can be conveyed in many different ways with
various symbols.
● Social construction of meaning involves the
way in which symbols take on meaning in a social
context or society as they are used over time so
there are a variety of ways in which meaning can
be conveyed.
● This can be seen in professional jargon that has
meaning only to specific groups of people to
intimate code words used by couples, friends, and
closely bonded people.
Communication is relational
● The relational communication definition talks
about the process of communication involved in
personal relationships, which may include friends,
family, and a romantic partner.
● You can also tell how close people are based on
the way they communicate.
● For some people who share a deeply emotional
and personal connection, communication can
happen even with a single glance because they
know each other so well.
Communication is transactional
● Defining communication as a transactional
process means that the speaker is both a sender
and a receiver.
● It involves an exchange of information.
Communication is both presentational and
representational
When communicating, a communicator displays a
particular version of the information being
communicated (presentation) and uses specific
words, gestures, or images to convey the
information (representation).
Communication is continuous
● It continues to impact and influence future
interactions and shape our relationships.
● It has no beginning and no end.
● It never stops flowing and as a result of
this rapid feedback of new analysis and insights
multiple organizations can respond to new
knowledge at the same time.
Communication skills can be learned
● because they can always be improved.
● It benefits you greatly to be mindful of your
weaknesses in terms of communication skills so
that you can actively work on those areas and gain
more confidence in communicating.
● Take stock of your speaking skills, written
communication, listening, or relationship skills so
that you can actively find ways to improve.
Communication is culture related
Communication creates and reinforces cultural
influences.
Communication makes use of frames
● The basic form of knowledge to help provide a
definition of a scenario.
● Frames are the communicators’ personality,
background, gender, religion, worldview, and so
many unique traits that play a crucial role in how
they perceive and respond to information.
Communication is unavoidable
it is impossible to not communicate.
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication, or self- dialogue or
inner speech describes how humans communicate
with himself or herself. The prefix “intra” means
“within” or “inside” and is thus very much
ingrained in the conscious thought process.
Interpersonal communication may be dyadic (two
persons) or triadic (three people), or it may involve
a few individuals communicating with one another
in close emotional or physical proximity.
Group communication covers situations that
involve a group or larger numbers of people like in
a class, a meeting, or a forum. Groups often use
this type of communication to exchange ideas,
determine goals and motivate other members.
Mass communication involves a communicator
(almost always more than one person) using a
mass medium to communicate with infinitely large
audiences. Mass media include television,
newspapers, magazines, and various Internet
platforms.
What is purposive communication?
Purposive Communication is about writing,
speaking, and presenting to different audiences
and for various purposes.
Globalization and the advent of the Fourth
Industrial Revolution.
● Globalization involves “spatial-temporal
processes, operating on a global scale that rapidly
cut across national boundaries, drawing more and
more of the world into webs of interconnection,
integrating and stretching cultures and
communities across space and time, and
compressing our spatial and temporal horizons”
(Inda & Rosaldo 2006; p. 9).
● The fourth industrial revolution, closely
following was called the digital revolution, is the
current and developing environment in which
disruptive technologies and trends such as the
Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, virtual reality
(VR), and artificial intelligence (AI) are changing the
way we live and work.
Internationalization and Changing Demographics
● It is not uncommon in these times to find
culturally diverse educational institutions,
workforces, and communities making
communicating in multicultural and multimodal
contexts a requirement for productivity and
harmonious societies.
● One example is the US and Canada hiring
Filipino workers for their specialized skills in the
fields of nursing and healthcare, information
technology, and agriculture from Asian countries
because of their specialized skills.
● Professionals whose job descriptions include
managing information and keeping people up to
date are considered valuable company resources
because misinformation and miscommunication
lead to wasted time, money, and effort.
● A well-informed workforce and a workforce
that is composed of competent communicators are
able to keep productivity high by speeding up
critical decision-making.
Lesson 2: Principles of Effective Communication
7Cs of Effective Communication
Courteousness - This can be achieved by being
polite in words and gestures that they use, being
appreciative, and tactful, and showing respect to
the receiver.
Correctness - Correctness means choosing the
appropriate medium to use, the appropriate level
of language even the proper time and place to
communicate the information. Correctness also
entails the accuracy of facts, correct grammar,
spelling, pronunciation, and others.
Clearness - This is achieved by using the
appropriate level of language, simple sentence
structures, and being direct to the point.
Concreteness- This means being definite, vivid, and
specific rather than vague, obscure, and general.
The use of clearly outlined, actionable points,
supporting facts, figures, or images.
Completeness - Ensure the recipient has
everything they need to understand. This could be
as basic as the details of who, what, when, where,
how, and why but can also extend to the available
facts and figures and in many cases extra details.
Conciseness - This can be achieved by avoiding
wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and
direct-to-the-point sentences, including relevant
material makes also the message concise.
Coherence - the ideas are well linked together and
they flow smoothly from one to the next, logically.
Lesson 3: Communication Ethics
Ethical Communication is the application of ethical
virtues and ethical discernment in communicating
so that it cultivates to a positive state of mind and
harmonious relationships with others.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN COMMUNICATING
ETHICALLY
Principle of Beneficence - The principle of
beneficence is a moral obligation to act for the
benefit of others. It also means taking into
consideration the communication needs and rights
of the audience to information.
Principle of Non-maleficence - The principle of
nonmaleficence holds that there is an obligation
not to inflict harm on others. It also means
ensuring that we do not cause offense when
communicating.
Principle of Autonomy - means that individuals
have a right to self-determination, that is, to make
decisions about their lives without interference
from others. This means that as ethical
communicators we must respect the opinions of
others
Principle of Justice - The last principle of ethical
communication focuses specifically on fairness in
communication. Applying this principle in
communication entails ensuring that information is
properly disseminated among intended recipients.
Lastly, the principle also entails that information be
available to people when they need it.
TRAITS OF ETHICAL COMMUNICATORS
Trustworthiness. This trait includes behavioral
qualities of honesty, integrity, reliability and loyalty.
Trustworthiness also means communicating
accurate information and promptly correcting any
errors and giving credit to others for their work
and citing sources.
Respect for Audiences. As communicators, we are
morally obligated to uphold the essential worth
and dignity of all people. Respect for audiences
also means being respectful of the rights of others,
supporting the ideals of free speech, being open to
suggestions and constructive criticism, and being
careful in giving the same.
Obedient to Policy and Law. Ethical
communicators also take into account existing
policies and laws in communicating. They do not
destroy the reputation of other people in any way,
they honor policies and protocol with regard to
information dissemination and they protect
information while acting within the law.
Conscious of the Consequences of their
Communication. This entails being mindful of their
intentions and motivations in communicating.
Ethical communicators are humble and aware of
the limits of their knowledge, careful to put
themselves in the place of others, and hold
themselves to high intellectual standards. The
consciousness of one’s role in communicating
comes from a place of care and love for others.
Lesson 4: Beyond Words: Visual & Non-Verbal
Communication
The majority of communication is in fact,
nonverbal. The tone of voice, posture, facial
expressions, gestures, and eye movement of a
person also hold meaning that could confirm or
contradict what is being said. These non-verbal
signals can also give clues and additional
information and meaning over and above spoken
(verbal) communication. Communication scholars
estimate that around 70 to 80% of communication
is non-verbal.
Nonverbal communication can reinforce or modify
what is said in words. They can repeat, emphasize
or accent the message or they can also contradict
the message (validation). Nonverbal cues also
define or reinforce the relationship between
communicators and regulate the flow of
communication. Lastly, it can also substitute the
message in case of interference.
However, nonverbal cues have implicit meaning
and are therefore open to various interpretations.
Nonverbal cues are prone to misinterpretation
because it is influenced and driven by the context
in which it occurs such as lifestyle, culture, and
other factors. Misinterpretation usually happens in
cross-cultural settings where the communicators
assign different meanings to nonverbal cues.
TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Paralanguage or vocalics, is a component of
communication that refers specifically to the
qualities of voice.
Kinesics refers to the study of bodily movements.
Facial Expression can display personal emotions
and indicate an individual's intentions within a
social situation.
7 UNIVERSAL FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
1. happiness
2. sadness
3. anger
4. fear
5. surprise,
6. disgust
7. contempt
Another subcategory of kinesics refers to gestures,
or the movement of the hands, feet, and other
parts of the body that can convey a wide array of
concepts and feelings. Ex. waving, pointing, and
giving a "thumbs up" sign
Another subcategory of kinesics is Oculesics, which
is the
study of eye behavior and movement. It focuses
particularly on eye contact (direct or indirect),
voluntary and involuntary eye movement including
changes in eye direction or focus. Ex. pupil dilation,
eye movement, blinking, and gaze direction.
Haptics is the study of touching as non-verbal
communication. In some cases, words can even be
absent when communicating through touch. Ex.
handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips,
hand), back slap, "high-five", shoulder pat,
brushing arm
Proxemics refers to the study of people’s
appreciation and use of space. Proxemics is
concerned with the use of the personal territory.
Ex. they prefer to sit at the front or back of a
classroom, or whether they sit near to or far from
the head of the table at a meeting.
Chronemics refers to the nonverbal study of time.
The higher the status of a person, the more control
that person has over his/ her own time. Ex.
Waiting time, talk time, work time.
Object Communications refers to messages or
concepts conveyed by objects and things, serving
to either complement or reinforce the verbal
messages. Clothing, ornaments, body piercings,
and specific symbols have assigned or associated
meanings in different cultures, and are capable of
getting a reaction from people.
Silence happens when you don't use words or
sounds during a conversation. It can mean
different things across different cultures. In some
cultures, silence can signify respect. Other cultures
may perceive it as a lack of interest or
unwillingness to communicate
Visual communication It is the conveyance of ideas
and information in forms that can be seen. Visual
communication in part or whole relies on eyesight.
It is a broad spectrum that includes signs,
typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration,
industrial design, advertising, animation, color, and
electronic resources.
Multimodal texts include picture books, text
books, graphic novels, comics, and posters, where
meaning is conveyed to the reader through varying
combinations of visual (still image) written
language, and spatial modes.
Visual messages are very good examples of
multimodal texts. A text is anything that can
transmit an informative message that is
transmitted through one or more modes. The text
can be written or spoken and other patterns of
meaning achieved through visual, audio, gestural,
tactical, and spatial means.
Multimodal texts require the processing of more
than one mode and the recognition of the
interconnections between modes. This process is
different from the linear reading of print-based
texts.
Visual Messages, like most multimodal texts,
transmit meaning in two layers.
Literal Transmission. A literal message conveys
meaning based on what the text shows (words and
pictures). The reader interprets based on what is
explicitly stated.
Subliminal Transmission contains the underlying
meaning. A text does not express this clearly. It can
be argued that a receiver is only aware of certain
meanings associated with specific images and
words and can understand a subliminal message.
Lesson 5 Registers: Audience & Context Awareness
in Presenting Ideas
Audience and context awareness are key drivers of
purposive communication. When communicating
with various audiences and contexts the level of
formality changes as well. This is referred to as a
language register.
Perhaps the most influential work on Language
Registers were done by German linguist and
professor, Martin Joos (1967) who outlines the
different types of registers in spoken and written
language.
Frozen or Static Register. This register is seen on
preserved documents that do not change in spite
of time like prayers, bible verses, oaths of office,
and official announcements. The frozen register is
commonly seen in messages that do not require
feedback. These messages are repeated
mechanically and verbatim as the language used is
frozen or unchanging in time and form.
Formal Register. This style is impersonal and often
follows a prescriptive format. The speaker uses
complete sentences, avoids slang, and may use
technical or academic vocabulary. It is likely that
the speaker will use fewer contractions, but opt
instead for complete words.
Consultative Register. This register is formal and
acceptable speech often used in professional
settings. Some examples of this register include
discourse between teachers and students, judges
and lawyers, doctors and patients, and between a
superior and a subordinate.
Informal / Casual Register: This register is used
among friends and peers, and includes informal
language including slang and colloquialisms. The
casual register is often used among colleagues,
friends, and teammates.
Intimate register describes speech that is about
personal topics used between close
acquaintances, such as family members, close
friends, or romantic partners, and can employ
standard or nonstandard grammatical forms.
 In professional and academic writing, for
example, it would be very inappropriate to
use a casual register.
 In the same manner, using a formal register
in casual conversation would come off as
weird or out of place.
 Research has found that it is possible to be
“stuck” to only a formal or casual register,
leading to social awkwardness.
 People who are unable to shift from one
register to another find themselves
alienated in conversations.
 Offense is likely to be taken when another
register is used instead of what is
considered proper in any given situation.
 This is disadvantageous because they would
find themselves unable to tackle situations
where consultative and formal registers are
needed, like a job interview, for example, a
business presentation or formal public
speaking engagements.
 Properly using registers also allow for
proper expression of respect and tact,
which in turn reflects good social graces.
 It is important for the communicator to pay
attention to the changes that happen in the
communicative scenario that signal the
need to shift registers.
Module Summary
Let us now summarize some of the highlights of
this module.
Communication is the means by which we make
sense of the world around us and the means by
which we connect to the world around us. It is the
exchange, transfer, and sharing of information
from one human being to another.
Purposive Communication is “results-oriented
communication” that requires the application of
different communication approaches in an
evidence-based, results-oriented manner in order
to achieve positive, observable, and measurable
behavior and social change. You might
communicate with any, a combination of, or all of
the following purposes in mind: to inform, to
persuade, to request, or to build goodwill.
Effective communicators consider the objective,
their audience; appropriate style and tone that
will serve them best in communicating to achieve
correctness, clarity, conciseness, completeness,
consideration, concreteness, and courtesy by
exercising control in crafting the message.
Ethical Communication is the application of ethical
virtues and ethical discernment in communicating
so that it cultivates to a positive state of mind and
harmonious relationships with others. Ethical
communicators manifest Trustworthiness, Respect
for Audiences, and Obedience to Policy and Law.
Nonverbal communication involves
communication that is not communicated with the
use of words. It vocalics, Kinesics, Facial
Expression, Body Language, Gestures, Oculesics,
Haptics, Proxemics, Chronemics Object
Communication, Silence, and various forms of
visual communication.
diverse cultures—the worldwide integration of
humanity. Globalization requires that we pay
attention to a related concept—diversity —the
recognition and valuing of difference,
encompassing such factors as age, gender, race,
ethnicity, ability, religion, education, marital status,
sexual orientation, and income.
People we once considered strangers are now
friends and co-workers, creating the need for
people who are multiculturalists —persons
respectful of and engaged with people from
distinctly different cultures. This reality is also
causing colleges and universities to emphasize the
importance of > diversity education in curricula
offerings.
> multiculturalists persons respectful of and
engaged with people from distinctly different
culture.
> culturally confused lacking an understanding of
cultural difference
THE COST OF CULTURAL IGNORANCE
Communicators who fail to realize that persons
from different cultures may not look, think, or act
as they themselves do run the risk of having those
with whom they interact judge them to be
insensitive, ignorant, or culturally confused. The
culturally confused pay a high price. Cultural
misunderstandings often lead to lost opportunities
and increased levels of tension between people.
The following examples demonstrate the extent to
which cultural ignorance affects communication:

Audience and context awareness are key drivers of

purposive communication. We use language
registers depending on whom we are
communicating with and the situation in which we
communicate, which include: Frozen or Static
Register, Formal Register, Consultative Register,
Casual Register, and Intimate Register.

MODULE 2 COMMUNICATING IN A
MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND WORLD
Ours is an age of globalization. We define
globalization as the increasing economic,political,
and cultural integration and interdependence of

DEFINING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Whenever cultural variability influences the nature
and the effects of communication, intercultural
communication is at work. Thus, when we speak
about inter-cultural communication, we are
concerning ourselves with the process of
interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals
from different cultures. 14 Inactuality, intercultural
communication comprises a number of forms.
Among its many variations are the following:
> intercultural communication- interaction with
individuals from different cultures
> interracial communication- the interpreting and
sharing of meanings with individuals from different
races
> interethnic communication- interaction with
individuals of different ethnic origins >
international communication- communication
between persons representing different nations
> intracultural communication- interaction with
members of the same racial or ethnic group or
co-culture as yours
CULTURES AND CO-CULTURES
> culture- a system of knowledge, beliefs,values,
customs, behaviors,and artifacts that are
acquired,shared, and used by members during
daily living
> co-cultures- groups of persons who differ in
some ethnic or sociological way from the parent
culture
> assimilation- the means by which co-culture
members attempt to fit in with members of the
dominant culture
> accommodation- the means by which co-culture
members maintain their cultural identity while
striving to establish relationships with members of
the dominant culture
> separation- the means co-culture members use
to resist interacting with members of the dominant
culture
Culture Guides Communication
Culture is the lens through which we see the
world.
Ethnocentrism versus Cultural Relativism
> ethnocentrism- the tendency to see one’s own
culture as superior to all others
> cultural relativism- the acceptance of other
cultural groups as equal in value to one’s own
TAKING THE DEMOGRAPHIC PICTURE:DIVERSITY
IN FOCUS
> melting-pot philosophy- the view that different
cultures should be assimilated into the dominant
culture
> cultural pluralism- adherence to the principle of
cultural relativism
Statistics tell us an interesting story about diversity.
The growth rate of the Caucasian population is
lower than the growth rates for Asians,Hispanics,
and African Americans. It is estimated that by 2025,
the Hispanic population will be about 25 percent of
the total population. By 2025,the age distribution
will also shift. More people will be very young
(there will be a 21 per- cent increase in the people
14 or younger), fewer people will be middle-aged
(there will be a 4 percent decrease in the people
age 35–49), and more people will be very old
(there will be a 14 percent increase in the number
of people over 80). It is also expected that race and
ethnic mixing will accelerate.
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM
> individualistic cultures- cultures in which
individual goals are stressed
> collectivistic cultures- cultures in which group
goals are stressed
HIGH CONTEXT VERSUS LOW CONTEXT
> high-context communication- a tradition-bound
communication system which depends on
indirectness
> low-context communication- a system that
encourages directness in communication
HIGH POWER DISTANCE VERSUS LOW POWER
DISTANCE
>high power distance cultures- cultures based on
power differences in which subordinates defer to
superiors
> low power distance cultures- cultures that
believe that power should be used only when
legitimate
MASCULINE VERSUS FEMININE CULTURE
> masculine cultures- cultures that value
aggressiveness, strength, and material symbols of
success
> feminine cultures- cultures that value tenderness
and relationship
IDENTIFYING THE IMPACT OF STEREOTYPESAND
PREJUDICE
> stereotypes- mental images; shortcuts that guide
reactions
> prejudice- a positive or negative prejudgment
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR ABILITY
TOCOMMUNICATE INTERCULTURALLY
Focus on Service Learning Attend a local continuing
education session for persons from other countries
who want to learn English. Keep a log in which you
identify and analyze your reactions to the
persons attending, including any stereotypes you
have about them. Develop a proposal for teaching
an English as a Second Language (ESL) course for
adults on-site at a local factory.
BRITISH VERSUS AMERICAN ENGLISH
British and American English can be differentiated
in three ways:
> Differences in language use conventions:
meaning and spelling of words, grammar and
punctuation differences.
> Vocabulary: There are a number of important
differences, particularly in business terminology. O
> Differences in the ways of using English dictated
by the different cultural values of the two
countries.
Differences in language use conventions Here are
some of the key differences in language use
conventions.
1. Dates. In British English, the standard way of
writing dates is to put the day of the month as a
figure, then the month (either as a figure or spelled
out) and then the year. For example, 19 September
1973 or 19.09.73. The standard way of writing
dates in American English is to put the month first
(either as a figure or spelled out), then the day of
the month, and then the year. For example,
September 19th 1973 or 9/19/73. Commas are also
frequently inserted after the day of the month in
the USA. For example, September 19, 1973.
2. o and ou. In British English, the standard way of
writing words that might include either the letter o
or the letters ou is to use the ou form. For example,
colour, humour, honour, behaviour. The standard
way of writing such words in American English is to
use only o. For example, color, humor, honor,
behavior.
3. Through. In American English, the word through
(or thru) can be used to mean until. For example,
‘September 19th thru October 1st’, would be in
British English ‘19 September until 1 October’.
4. Hyphens. Hyphens are often used in British
English to connect prefixes with the main word. For
example, pre-emption, pre-trial, co-operation.
They are less common in American English. For
example, preemption, pretrial, cooperation.
5. z or s? In British English, s is generally used in
such words as recognise, authorise. The letter z is
used in American English in such words as
recognize or authorize. However, it is not wrong to
use z in such words when using British English as
standard.
6. Note, however, that some words must always
end in -ise whether you are using British or
American English standards. These include: i.
advertise advise
ii. arise comprise
iii. compromise demise
iv. despise devise
v. disguise enfranchise
vi. excise exercise
vii. franchise improvise
viii. incise merchandise
ix. premise revise
x. supervise surmise
xi. surprise televise
7. l or ll? In American English, a single l is used in
such words as traveled or counseled. In British
English, ll is used (e.g. travelled, counselled).
8. Note, however, that in British English, some
words that end in a double ll lose one l when a
suffix is added: skill becomes skilfully, will
becomes wilfully. In American English, the double
ll is retained: skill becomes skillfully, will becomes
willfully.
9. -re or -er? In American English, the -er ending is
used in words like theater, center, meter, and fiber.
In British English, these words are spelt theatre,
centre, metre, and fibre.
10. oe and ae. Some scientific terms retain the use
of the classical composite vowels oe and ae in
British English. These include diarrhoea,
anaesthetic, gynaecology,
11. -e or -ue?. In British English, the final silent -e
or -ue is retained in such words as analogue, axe
and catalogue. In American English, it is omitted:
analog, ax, and catalog.
12. -eable or -able?. The silent e, produced when
forming some adjectives with a suffix is generally
used in British English in such words as likeable,
unshakeable, and ageing. In American English, it is
generally left out: likable, unshakable, and aging.
The e is however sometimes used in American
English where it affects the sound of the preceding
consonant: traceable or manageable.
13. -ce or -se? In British English the verb that
relates to a noun ending in -ce is sometimes given
the ending -se. For example, advice (noun) / advise
(verb), device/devise, licence/license,
practice/practise. American English uses -se for
both the noun and verb forms of these words. It
also uses -se for other nouns which in British
English are spelt -ce, including defense, offense,
pretense.
14. Prepositions. In American English, it is
acceptable to omit prepositions in certain
situations. In British English, this habit is less
common. For example, an American lawyer might
find a certain clause in a contract to be ‘likely
enforceable’. A British colleague would be more
likely to say that it was ‘likely to be
enforceable’. An American civil rights activist
might ‘protest discrimination’, while his British
colleagues would ‘protest against
discrimination’.
15. Have and got. In American English it is quite
acceptable to use the word got without have in
sentences like ‘I got two tickets for the show
tonight’. In British English, it is more usual to say
‘I’ve got two tickets for the show tonight’.
16. Gotten. Gotten is a proper word in American that has occurred in the recent past that has an
English, but is only used as an Americanism in effect on the present moment. For example: I've
British English, except in certain phrases such as lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In
‘ill-gotten gains’. American English the following is also possible: I
lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In British
17.While or whilst? Both while and whilst are used
English the above would be considered incorrect.
in British English. In American English, while is the
However, both forms are generally accepted in
right word to use, and whilst is regarded as a
standard American English. Other differences
pretentious affectation.
involving the use of the present perfect in British
18. The past tense and past participle of the verbs English and simple past in American English include
learn, spoil, spell (only in the word-related sense), already, just and yet.
burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be
either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular
(learned, spoiled, etc.). In British English, both
irregular and regular forms are used, but the
irregular forms tend to be used more often. In AmE,
only the regular form is used.
19. Directional suffix -ward(s): British forwards,
towards, rightwards, etc.; American forward,
toward, rightward.
20. Full stops/Periods in abbreviations: In
American English, we write "Mr.", "Mrs.", "St.",
"Dr." etc., while in British it is usually "Mr", "Mrs",
"St", "Dr", etc.
21. Quotation marks: In British English, single
quotation marks are used, and in American English,
double quotation marks are used. In British English,
double quotation marks are used within the single
quotation marks, whereas in American English,
single quotation marks are used inside double
quotation marks.
22. Period and comma: In British English, the
period and comma are placed outside quotation
marks. However, if the punctuation mark is a part
of the quote itself, then the quotation mark is
placed after the period or comma. In American
English, the period and comma are always placed
inside quotation marks.
23. In British English, i.e. and e.g. are used,
whereas in American English, i.e., and e.g., are
used.
24. Serial commas are used in American English
but not in British English.
25. Use of the Present Perfect: In British English
the present perfect is used to express an action
Difference related to cultural values British and inconsistencies are left in the document.American
American English have a number of differences English has a tendency to lengthen unnecessarily
which relate to the different cultural values of the existing words in an effort to make them sound
two countries. For example, British English more important (thus transport becomes
contains a number of frequently used metaphors transportation).
relating to football (‘scoring an own goal’) and
cricket (‘a sticky wicket’), while American
English uses metaphors relating to baseball (‘in
the ball park’).

The two versions of the language also have certain

tendencies which are worth bearing in mind. These
are not absolute, since individual writers have their
own styles which may incorporate aspects of both
British and American tendencies. However, in
general:

• British English tends to react more slowly to new

words and phrases than American English.
American English enthusiastically adopts new
usages, some of which later pass into general use
(e.g. corporate citizen, social performance), and
some die out after a short period in fashion (e.g.
synergy). • British English has a slight tendency to
vagueness and ponderous diction. American
English (at its best) tends to be more direct and
vivid.

• American English tends to be more slangy than

British English.

• Both American and British English are keen on

euphemisms. In British English, these are often
used for humorous purposes (e.g. to be
economical with the truth) or to smooth over
something unpleasant. In American English they
may be used for prudish reasons (thus lavatory or
WC becomes restroom or bathroom), to make
something mundane sound important (thus
ratcatcher becomes rodent to make something
mundane sound important (thus ratcatcher
becomes rodent operative), or to cover up the
truth of something unpleasant (thus civilian deaths
in war become collateral damage).

• We would also like to recommend different

approaches to copy and substantive editing:

• doing two to three passes for substantive edits

and two passes for normal edits would suffice to
ensure that no typographical or grammatical