PRESENTE

 Presente simple: verbo (+es/s tercera persona) / dont (doesnt)/ do (does)

Angie teaches French / terms ends on 21st December

 Presente simple empático: do + verbo infinitivo

I do like playing cards

 Present continuous: are + ing

Actions happening now
The boys are doing their homework / When are you taking your driving test?

 Present perfect simple: have + vb. pasado

Situations and states that started in the past and are still truth
I’ve been a member of the club for over 5 years / She’s been awarded a scholarship

 Present perfect continuous: have + been + verbo ing

Actions and situations continuing up to the present (or just before the present)
We’ve been wondering what to get tony and we can’t decide

PAST

 Past simple: verbo + ed (menos irregulares)

Single completed actions
We moved house a year ago

 Emphatic past simple: did + verbo infinitive

I did enjoy the party

 Past continuous: verbo was + verbo ing

Actions in progress at a particular moment in the past
Were you chatting with her last night? / I was getting frustrated

 Past perfect simple: had + verbo pasado

Situations and states before the past
Had you had your computer long before it broke? I had managed to fix her bag

 Past perfect continuous: had + been + verbo ing

Actions and situations continuing up to a moment in the past
She had been writing computer games for over ten years before she finally had a hit

 Would: past habits (distant past)

Greeks would rely on the power of slaves

 Used to
it used to seem strange to be able to communicate over long distances

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 FUTURE

 Will: predictions, future facts, decisions, promises

It looks as if jake will lose his job / the factory will open on Sunday
o Ofertas y sugerencias en forma pregunta: shall. Shal i help you?
o Para requerir: would/could/can. Can you give me a bag?
o Para renegar: couldn’t/can’t. No, I couldn’t help you

 Be going to: predictions based on present evidence intentions

It looks as if its going to fall down / im going to get my degree

 Present continuous: be + verbo ing

arrangements/ intentions
Im meeting with him today

 Present simple: fixed future events.

the shop closes at 3pm next Sunday.

 Future perfect simple: will + have + verbo en pasado

completed or continuing situations before a certain time
it looks as if jack will have lost his job by the end of the week/ this next month, I’ll have
worked at the company for 25 years

 future perfect continuous: will+ have + been + v. ing

continuing situations up to a certain time (empatiza duration)
this next month, I’ll have been working at the company for 25 years

 future continuous: will + be + vb.ing

situations in progress at a certain time in the future, will happen
this time next month, I’ll be travelling around Russia

 time clauses: cuando aparece when, while, once, as soon as, no se usa will or be going to, se usa
present simple, present continuous, present perfect simple or continuous

other ways to xpress future:

 be (just) about to -> very near future.

Im just about to ask for my pay rise
 be (just) on the point/ verge of-> very near future.
Im just on the verge of asking for it
 be due to -> formal arrangements.
Im due to meet my boss
 be to do -> obligations, formal announcements.
The factory is open on Sunday/ you’re going to get it done before Monday

future in the past

we look back at what was the future once.

 Will becomes would.

I thought the factory would open on Sunday
 Present simple – past simple:
I was in a rush because the train left at 4.

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 VOZ ACTIVA

Subject + verb + object

Tell us what a person or thing does. The subject performs the action (verb) on the object

Anna painted the house/ Ali posted the video online

VOZ PASIVA

Object + verb (past participle) + subject

 Tell us what is done to someone or something

 The subject is being acted upon

The house was painted by anna/ The video was posted online by ali

Impersonal passive

Noun + verb in passive form + infinitive/perfect infinitive

Tourism is expected to become a major part of the country’s economy

There + verb in passive form + infinitive/perfect infinitive

There are reported to have been a record number of accidents on the road this year

Agree, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, expect, feel, find, guarantee, know, mean, presume,
regard, report, say, suppose, think, understand

It + verb in passive form + that clause

It is thought that the new railway will provide employment opportunities for people

Accept, Agree, argue, assume, believe, calculate, claim, consider, estimate, expect, feel, know, presume,
report, say, suggest, suppose, think, understand

Direct and indirect object

Bring, buy, get, give, leave, lend, make, offer, owe, pass, pay, promise, refuse, send, show, take, teach,
tell, write

 Active sentence: Michael gave the plane tickets to jill

 Indirect object as subject of passive verb: jill was given the plane tickets by Michael
 Direct object as subject of passive form: the plane tickets were given to jill by Michael

With the verbs explained and suggest, the preposition before indirect object pronouns cannot be
omitted.

How to drive a train was explained to me

Avoiding the passive

 In progress
Preparations for the flight will be being made as he arrives
Preparations for the flight will be in progress as he arrives

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  In training
At the end of this year, I will have been being trained as a pilot for four years
At the end of this year, I will have been in training as a pilot for four years

 On display
Vintage cars have been being displayed in the town centre all this week
Vintage cars have been being on display in the town centre all this week

 Under consideration
By the time they came to a decision, the problem had been being considered for some time
By the time they came to a decision, the problem had been under consideration for some time

 Under construction
The new railway station has been being built for two years now
The new railway station has been under construction for two years now

Verbs not used in passive

 Contrast verbs: appear, arrive, die

 Verbs used statively: Consist, deserve, fit, have, lack, look, mind, realise, resemble, seem, suit
 Verb let when it means allow (except phrasal verbs)

CAUSATIVE

 Get/have something done: Had + subject + verbo past participle

Actions we arrange for other people to do for us/things we experience (usually negative or nor
intended)
Did you finally get your bike fixed?/ I heard that Susie had her bike stolen

 Get something to do / have something to do

Actions we make somebody/something do for us
Did you get Alex to drive you all the way to London?

 Get/ have somebody doing

Actions we make somebody/something star doing
We will soon have your car running like new

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 MODALS AND SEMI MODALS

 Nine main modals (will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must) have only one form
and are followed by a simple or continuos bare infinitive (could do, be doing). They can also be
followed by a bare infinitive in the passive (could be done, have been done)
 Semi modals: need to, ought to, had better, have got to. Some can change tense or person (have
got to). Some can be used in combination with modals, producing phrases (might have to)

Ability

Real ability

 Current or general ability can, can’t

You can’t really speak seven languages fluently, can you?
 Past ability could, couldn’t
There is no way you could read when you were two
 Decision made now about future ability can, can’t, could, couldn’t
I can get you a paper if you like
 Future ability will/won’t be able to
All adults will be able to read and write

Hypothetical ability

 Current or general hypothetical ability could/couldn’t

I couldn’t go on a quiz show. I’ll be too scared.
 Future hypothetical ability could/couldn’t
I could go with them, but I won’t because…
 Past hypothetical ability could have, couldn’t have
They could have asked hum much more searching questions.

Permission

Asking for permission may, could, couldn’t, can, can’t

Can I finish watching it?

Giving/ refusing permission may, may not, could, couldn’t, can, can’t

No, you can’t

Advice

Asking for and giving advice should, had better (only in questions), ought to, might, may

You should trey to get a poem published

Criticism

 Criticism past behavior should have, ought to have

You shouldn’t have spoken to him like that
 Expressing annoyance at past behavior could have, might have
You could/might have told me you were going to be late

 Criticism general behavior will

He will slam the door every time

 Criticism a specific example of someone general behavior would

You would take the car just when I wanted to go out

 Suggest criticism might as well

I might as well be dead for all you care

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Obligation

 Current or general obligation must, have (got) to

You have to be a good communicator to be a press spokesperson

Degrees of certainty

 Certainty about now, the future or generally

Will, would, must, could
There is someone at the door /that’ll be the postman/it can’t be. He’s already been

 Certainty about the past

Will have, would have, must have, can have
They won’t have heard the news/they must have heard the news

 Probability about know, the future or generally

Should, ought to, may/might well, could well, might easily
The weather should be good tomorrow/ it says it may well rain

 Probability about the past

Should have, ought to have, may/might well have, might easily have
Jan should have finished…/she may well have done

 Possibility about now, the future or generally

Could, may, might, could just
I might just have time to get to the store before it closes

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 CONDITIONALS

 Zero conditional (if/when/whenever + present tense, present tense)

General or specific facts and definitions
If you burn fossil fuels, carbon dioxide is produced

 First conditional (if + present tense, will + bare infinitive/imperative)

Real conditions in the present or future and their results in the present or future
If we continue to pollute out planet, future generations will suffer
To give conditional instructions
If the people from green place call, tell them ill call later
Instead of will, it can be used be going to, can, could, may, might, shall, should, have to, ought to
We might prevent disaster if we change the way we live

 Second conditional (if + past simple/past continuous, would + bare infinitive)

Hypothetical conditions in the present or future and their hypothetical results in the present or
future
What would the local government do if there was an earthquake in the area?
Instead of would, it can be use might and could

 Third conditional (if + past perfect, would have + past participle)

Hypothetical conditions in the past and their results in the past
A lot more people would have been trapped by the flood if there hadn’t been a warning
Instead of would, it can be use might, could or should

 Mixed conditionals
Hypothetical conditions in the past and their results in the present
You might not be in so much trouble if you hadn’t started gambling
Hypothetical conditions in the present and their results in the past
If I were you, I would have made Paula buy her own lottery ticket

 Inverted conditionals
More formal form of the first conditional (with should)
Should the drought continue, many people will be forced to leave their villages (= if the
drought should continue/ if the drought continues)
More formal form of the second conditional
Were we to stop using fossil fuels tomorrow, it would still take decades for the planet to
recover (=if we were to stop/if we stopped…)
More formal form of the third conditional
Had drawing not visited the Galapagos islands, he might never have developed his theory
of evolution (=if Charles drawing hadn’t visited…)

 When the verb to be inverted is negative, we put not after the subject
Had we not attended the meeting, we would have had no idea of the councils plans
 When if the clause comes before the result clause, we usually separate the two clauses with a
comma. When the result clause comes first, we do not use a comma
If you share a car to work, you can save on energy
You can save on energy if you share a car to work

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Other conditional structures

 As /so long as
We’ll go up to the mountains this weekend as long as the weather’s okay
 Provided/providing (that)
You can have a pet provided that you promise to look after it
 On condition (that)
Applications for membership are accepted on condition that applications are over 18
 Suppose/supposing
Supposing the price of oil triples tomorrow. What do you think would happen?

 If it wasn't/weren't for + noun

I think I'd be quite lonely if it wasn't/weren't for my dog, Buster.
 Were it not for + noun
Were it not for my dog, Buster, I think I'd be quite lonely.
 But for + noun
But for your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
 If it hadn't been for + noun
if it hadn't been for your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
 Had it not been for + noun
Had it not been for your help, I wouldn't have been able to quit gambling.
 If ... (should) happen to
If you (should) happen to see Davina, ask her whether she would look after the cats this
weekend.
 If ... should
If you should see Davina, ask her whether she would look after the cats this weekend.
 If ... happened to
If you happened to see someone drop litter in the street, what would you do?
 If ... were to
Do you think it would reduce pollution if the government were to introduce a new tax
on petrol?
 If so/not
Are you concerned about the environment? If so, you might be interested in joining
Greenpeace.
 Otherwise
You should have your air conditioner serviced, otherwise you'll waste a lot of energy.
 Unless
Unless governments act now, the environment is really going to suffer.
 In case of + noun
In case of fire, leave the building by the nearest emergency exit.
 In case
Take a coat with you in case the weather gets worse.

Other uses of if

 To mean ‘if it is true that: if you were at the meeting, why didn’t you raise the issue?
 To mean ‘if you are willing to’: if you’ll follow me, I’ll show you the park
 To mean ‘im saying this in case’: if you like zoos, the one in Singapore is fantastic

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 UNREAL TIME
Conditionals
 For hypothetical and unlikely current, future or general conditions
I wouldn't accept a job unless I was absolutely sure what the salary was.
If you were travelling to Russia, would you get roubles before you left or when you
arrived?
 For hypothetical past conditions
If I had known, I would have taken some dollars with me
If I had been running the bank, I would have given you an overdraft!

imagine / what if / suppose / supposing

 To consider hypothetical or unlikely current, future or general situations
Supposing you were given ten million euros, what would you spend it on?
What if you were walking down the street and you suddenly found a wallet? Would you
hand it in?
 To consider hypothetical or unlikely past situations
Suppose you had won the lottery last night. What would you have done?
Imagine you'd been working there for 40 years. What kind of pension would you have got?
 We can also use a present tense instead of past simple or past continuous after these words and
phrases. This indicates that the situation is more likely to happen.
Supposing you become a millionaire, how will it change your life? (More likely)
Supposing you became a millionaire, how would it change your life? (Less likely)

as if / as though
 For current, future or general untrue, hypothetical comparisons
Colin acts as if/though he were making a million pounds a month.
 For past untrue, hypothetical comparisons
Tony looks as if though someone had just handed him a million euros.
It's almost as if though they'd been working for free.

Questions and requests

 To make questions and requests more polite
How much money did you want to spend, madam?
I was wondering whether you might be able to Eve me some advice

it's (high/about) time

 To suggest that something should be done now or in the immediate future
It's (high/about) time I got a mortgage.

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would rather/sooner
 For current, general or future preference
Jan would rather/sooner we bought a house than carried on renting.
Would you rather/sooner I was begging in the streets?
 For past preference
We'd rather/sooner you hadn't lent Kurdip the money.
 Would rather/sooner + past simple/continuous is only used to talk about preference regarding
someone else. When there is no change of subject, we use would rather/sooner + bare infinitive,
or would prefer + full infinitive.
She'd rather not borrow any money from you.
She'd prefer not to borrow any money from you.

wish / if only
 Wishes about now, the future or generally
Do you wish you had a bigger house?
If only I was earning a reasonable salary.
 Wishes about the past
If only I'd bought a lottery ticket this morning.
Carla wished she'd been keeping a much closer eye on her investments.

Other structures with wish / if only

 To criticize other people or wish for a situation to be different Wish / If only + would
I wish they would offer me a pay rise.
 Wishes about ability or permission Wish / If only + could
I wish I could find a job that pays well.
 Wishes about past ability or permission Wish / If only + could + perfect infinitive
I wish I could have got a mortgage with a fixed interest rate.
To express desires in a very formal way Wish + full infinitive
I wish to speak to the bank manager.
 To wish someone luck/happiness/success/etc Wish + noun
I wish him every success

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 ADJETIVES
Position of adjectives
 Before a noun
After verbs such as appear, be, become, feel, get, grow, look, seem, smell, sound, taste and
turn
The material this dress is made out of feels rough.
The verbs above are not normally followed by adverbs. However, some of them can be followed by
adverbs when the verb refers to an action.
She looked angrily at the man behind the counter.
After as, how, so, this (= so), that (= so) and too, adjectives come before the article.
I could never live in as crowded a city as Tokyo. / Tokyo's so/that crowded a city that I'd hate to
live there.
How crowded a city is Tokyo?/I could never live in Tokyo - it's too crowded a city.
Some adjectives only appear after a verb and not before a noun. These include adjectives beginning with
a, such as afraid, aghast, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, etc
A boy was asleep in the street.

Position of multiple adjectives

 When more than one adjective is used before a noun, they usually appear in the following order,
sometimes separated by commas: judgement, size, shape colour, origin, material, purpose
We've got a lovely little wooden cabin in the mountains.

Adjectives used as nouns

 To refer to members of a general social group
We need to provide better housing for the poor.
 To refer to members of a specific group
When the building collapsed, the injured were rushed to hospital.
 To refer to some nationalities
The French have introduced new housing regulations in Paris.

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 ADVERBS
Position of adverbs
There are three places in a clause where an adverb (or adverbial phrase) might appear: at the beginning,
at the end and with the verb. Different kinds of adverb go in different positions, and some may go in more
than one position.
 Adverbs do not normally appear between a verb and its direct object
X They built very quickly the house.
They built the house very quickly.
 With verbs formed using auxiliary verbs, the adverb normally follows the (first) auxiliary.
The town has always been popular with tourists.
Our house will probably have been decorated by the time you get there.
 Adverbs of frequency (always, often, etc) follow auxiliary verbs and be and come before other
verbs.
I'm rarely in the city centre.
I rarely go to the city centre.
 Connecting adverbs usually go at the beginning of a clause.
We bought it as an investment; then, all the property prices in the area fell
Comparisons
 Comparative: to compare things or people that are different
Your flat is much bigger and more comfortable than ours
 Superlative: to compare one member of a group of people or things with the whole group
Mexico City is probably my least favorite city
Comparative and superlative modifiers
 Modifiers with comparatives: (quite) a bit, a great deal, a good deal, a little, (quite) a lot, any,
considerably, even, far, just, noisier in the last ten years. little, much, no, slightly, somewhat
This area has become considerably more crowded and far nosier in the last ten years
 Modifiers with superlatives: by far, far and away, easily, far from, much, quite
If you ask me, Ladybridge is easily the nicest area of town to live in.

Structures used to make comparisons

 (nearly/almost Just /half/twice/easily/etc) as ... as
Platinum is about twice as expensive as gold.
 not (nearly/quite) as/so ... as
Iron isn't nearly as hard as diamond.
 nothing like as ... as / nowhere near as ... as
Iron is nothing like as / nowhere near as hard as diamond.
 the ..., the ...
The taller the building, the greater the fire risk.

12
Gradable and ungradable adjectives
Ungradable adjectives describe qualities which are extreme, and which cannot be 'more' or 'less',
amazing, dead, exhausted, fantastic, helpless, impossible, incredible, necessary, perfect, pointless,
right, splendid, unacceptable, wonderful, wrong, etc. Other adjectives are gradable
 Modifiers with ungradable adjectives: absolutely, completely, quite, totally, utterly, etc
After working on the building site all day, Tim was absolutely exhausted.
 Modifiers with gradable adjectives: a bit, a little, fairly, quite, really, too, very, etc
Pete was a bit tired after working on the building site all day, but it wasn't too bad.
When quite is used with gradable adjectives, it means 'rather, fairly. When quite is used with ungradable
adjectives, it means 'absolutely, completely.
Our flat's quite nice, but not perfect.
I love your flat! The balconies are quite splendid!

Confusing cases
Some words have the same form as an adjective and as an adverb and some also form adjectives with -ly.
The different forms can have different meanings. These include:
 fair / fairly
 free / freely
 late / lately
 straight
 fine / finely
 high/ highly
 short / shortly
 fast
 right / rightly
 hard / hardly
 wide / widely
 near / nearly
 well
Sandstone is not a very hard material.
I could hardly hear the music.
Hit it too hard and you'll break it.
X Hit it too hardly and you'll break it.
Some adjectives end in -ly, eg costly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely.
 They do not form adverbs, but we often use a phrase such as in a ... way to describe how
something is done.
She looked at me in a very friendly way.

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CLAUSES
Relative pronouns in relative clauses
 Who
to refer to people (and animals when we want to give them a personality)
There are a lot of people who hate having injections.
 Which
to refer to things and concepts (and animals when we don't want to give them a personality)
This is the prescription which the doctor gave me.
 whom
a formal word for who; as an object; must be used directly after a preposition
That's the consultant with whom I spoke.
 that
a more informal word for who, which, when, where, why; only used in defining relative clauses
This is the prescription that the doctor gave me.
 when
to refer to time; = in/on/etc which
I'll never forget the day when I broke my finger.
 where
to refer to place or situation; = in/at/etc which
Harley Street, where she was born, is famous for its clinics.
 why
often after the word reason; = the reason for which; only used in defining relative clauses
And that's (the reason) why I wanted to become a vet.
 whose
the possessive of who and which; can also come after a preposition
There are several kids in my class whose parents are doctors.
 what
= the things) which; only used in defining relative clauses
What I don't understand is why she didn't take her pills.

When we use a preposition with a relative pronoun, it is more formal to put the preposition before the
pronoun.
 This is the medical encyclopaedia to which I referred. (very formal)
 This is the medical encyclopedia which I referred to. (less formal)
Which can refer to the whole preceding clause, rather than just the preceding noun.
 She announced that she wanted to be a pathologist, which really shocked us. (= the
announcement shocked us)

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Defining and non-defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
These tell us which one of a group of things/people we are talking about. The sentence doesn't usually
make complete sense if we remove the relative clause.
That's the doctor who did Karen's operation.
 We can use that instead of who/which/etc. This is more informal.
That's the doctor that did Karen's operation.
 We don't use a comma or commas.
That's the doctor who did Karen's operation.
 We can omit the relative pronoun if it is the object.
That's the doctor who she saw. (more formal)
That's the doctor she saw. (less formal)
 When, where and why can be omitted.
I'll never forget the day when I broke my arm.
I'll never forget the day I broke my arm.
 We cannot put a number or a determiner such as some, none, much and many before of which
or of whom.
Non-defining relative clauses
These simply give us more information about someone/something. The sentence makes complete sense
if we remove the relative clause.
Dr Lake, who has been working here for over ten years, is a very experienced surgeon.
 We cannot use that instead of who/which/etc.
 We must use a comma or commas.
Dr Lake, who is an experienced surgeon, is my uncle.
 We cannot omit the relative pronoun.
Dr Lake, who is my uncle, is 50 years old.
 We do not use why.
 We cannot omit where and when.
Harley Street, where she was born, is famous for its clinics.
 We can put a number or a determiner such as some, none, much and many before of which or
of whom.
I bought some drugs, some of which were expensive.
Participle clauses
 To replace a relative clause
She was the nurse looking after the patients at the time. (who was looking)
The boy taken to hospital was 13 years old. (who was taken)
 With prepositions and conjunctions
After giving blood, I went home.

15
  To explain the reason for something
Having had several operations before, Ali wasn't particularly nervous this time.
 To talk about actions happening
Sitting in the waiting room, I could hear the sound of the dentist drilling.
at the same time
 To talk about actions happening in sequence
Having found an optician close to the office, I made an appointment for that evening.
 As an alternative passive form
Given an aspirin, I began to feel better. (when /because / was given an aspirin)
 As an alternative conditional form
Given the chance, I'd definitely study pharmacology. (if I were given the chance)
Infinitive clauses
 To start a sentence
To be a successful surgeon is the dream of many young children. (= it is the dream of
many young children to be a successful surgeon.)
 After the verb to be
My job was to give the patients their lunch.
Concession clauses
 although / though / even though
Even though she'd put on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
Tamsin got burnt, though she had put on sun cream.
Tamsin put on sun cream. She still got burnt, though.
 in spite of / despite (+ noun or -ing)
Despite putting on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
In spite of the fact that she put on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
Despite the sun cream, Tamsin still got burnt.
 while/whereas
While antibiotics are effective against bacteria, they do not work against viruses.
Bacterial infections can be cured with antibiotics, whereas viruses cannot.
 however
Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic. However, some people are allergic to it.
Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic. Some people are allergic to it, however.
Penicilin is a powerful antibiotic. Some people, however, are allergic to it.
 other phrases and structures
Try as he might, he couldn't put up with the pain.
However hard he (might have) tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.
Hard though/as he tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.
Much as he tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.

16
 COMPLEX SENTENCES
Inversions with negative adverbial words and phrases
 hardly ( ... when)
Hardly had the new law been introduced when the mistake was realised.
 scarcely ( ... when)
Scarcely had I opened the front door when I heard a noise from the kitchen.
 barely ( ... when)
Barely had we solved one problem when another one arose.
 no sooner ( ... than)
No sooner had the alarm gone off than the police arrived.
 Only
Only in an emergency should you dial 999.
 only after
Only after I had checked that the burglars had left did I call the police.
 only when
Only when we agree what measures are needed will we be able to solve the problem.
 not until
Not until the next election will we know how the public feel about this news.
 at no time/point/stage
At no point did I realise that he was the Prime Minister.
 in no way
In no way does this decision represent a change in government policy.
 little
Little did Ralph know that the burglar was still inside his house.
 never
Never have I heard such a ridiculous suggestion!
 Not
Not one vote did the proposal receive
 not only ( ... but also/too)
Not only has this government failed but it has also stolen ideas from other parties.
 on no account
On no account should you try to tackle a burglar yourself.
 seldom
Seldom do people leaving prison stay out of trouble.
 rarely
Rarely do the newspapers present a balanced view of current events.
 under no circumstances
Under no circumstances will we accept an increase in working hours.

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Inversions with adverbial expressions of place (* verb of movement/position)
 here
Here comes the Minister now
 there
There stood the next king of England
 adverbial phrases
At the top of society are the aristocracy.
Beside the Town Hall stood the public library.
In this prison are housed some of the most dangerous criminals.
On the corner of the street sat a homeless man.
 participle phrases
Running down the road was a young man with a woman's handbag under his arm.
Other inversions
 in short answers using So, neither, and nor
I voted for Smith '
I don't believe a word this government says.'
'Did you? So did I'
'No, neither do I.'
 after as, than, so and such
I am very worried about bullying in the school, as are a lot of the parents.
The police in this area make more arrests than do officers in other parts of the country.
So rare is burglary here that many people don't bother to lock their doors.
Such public interest was there in the story that it was on the front pages of the
newspapers.
 in conditional sentences
Were the Foreign Secretary to resign, it would cause serious problems for the Minister.
Should the Foreign Secretary resign, it would cause serious problems for the Minister.
Had I known about the crime problem, I would never have moved here.
Cleft sentences
 all (that)
All that Keith wanted was to get his money back.
To get his money back was all that Keith wanted.
 It is/was ... who/which/that
It was Carol who/that called the police.
 the ... thing
The first thing is to check to see what's missing.
To check to see what's missing is the first thing.

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  the day/etc when/that the day/etc on/in/at which
The year when this government came to power was 2006.
2006 was the year when this government came to power.
2006 was the year in which this government came to power.
 the person who/that
The person who stole the money was Thomas.
Thomas was the person who stole the money.
 the place where
The place where the Queen stays in Scotland is Balmoral Castle.
Balmoral Castle is the place where the Queen stays in Scotland.
 the reason (why)
The reason (why) / joined this political party was to make a difference.
To make a difference was the reason (why) I joined this political party.
 the thing that
The thing that annoys me is the boss's attitude.
The boss's attitude is the thing that annoys me
 what
What annoys me is the boss's attitude.
The boss's attitude is what annoys me.
 what ... do/did
What Churchill did was bring people together.
 what happens happened is/was
What happened was that a witness saw the man leave the house.
so/such/too/enough
 so
It all happened so quickly that I didn't have time to see the man's face.
This problem has gone on for so long that I don't think they'll ever find a solution.
 such
This problem has gone on for such a long time that I don't think they'll ever find a
solution.
 too
I had too little time to get a good look at his face.
The police responded too slowly to have any chance of catching the burglar.
 enough
There just aren't enough police officers on the streets.
The police weren't quick enough to catch the burglar
Enough usually comes before nouns and after adjectives and adverbs.

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Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a verb form which does not take -s in the third person singular.
It is possible to use the subjunctive in that clauses after words suggesting that something is necessary or
preferable.
The doctor suggested that Sam take some time off work.
The subjunctive forms for be are I be, you be, etc.
It's absolutely essential that I be informed as soon as the President arrives.
We can also use should.
The doctor suggested that Sam (should) take some time off work.

REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech: tense changes

 If the reporting verb is in the past (said), we usually have to change the tense of what the person
actually said. The general rule is go back one tense but there are some exceptions.
 with past perfect simple and continuous there is no tense change.

 When something is still true, we can change tense but we don't have to.
The article said that fishing is/was the most popular sport in Britain.
 When we are reporting a scientific or historical fact, we don't usually change tense.
Alan told me that Queen Victoria hated Gladstone, the Prime Minister.
 Although we can usually leave out that (Alan told me (that) Oueen Victoria ... ), we cannot leave
out that after the verbs reply and shout.
I replied that going swimming in such cold water was a ridiculous idea.
Reported speech: modal and semi-modal changes
 If the reporting verb is in the past (eg said, we sometimes have to change modals and semi-
modals.
 Could, would, should, ought to, had better and need do not change
I could swim when I was three,' said Lizzie. -> Lizzie said that she could swim when she
was three

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  When we are expressing obligation, must in direct speech usually changes to had to, be to or
should in reported speech.
You must do what the referee tells you,' said the coach -> The coach said that we had to
/ were to / should do what the referee told us.
 When we are expressing obligation, mustn't can become mustn't, be not to or shouldn't.
You mustn't cheat under any circumstances!"
We were told that we mustn't / were not to / shouldn't cheat under any circumstances
 Must doesn't usually change to had to or should when we are expressing probability.
'It must have felt wonderful when they won!' said Dave.
Dave said that it must have felt wonderful when they won

Reported speech: pronoun and determiner changes

Reported speech: time and place changes

Reported commands and requests

Reporting verbs
 Different reporting verbs take different grammatical patterns. Some verbs can take more than
one pattern, deny doing, deny sth, deny (that) ....
 Common reporting verbs include: accuse, agree, apologise, ask, beg, claim, command, cry,
deny, explain, instruct, order, promise, refuse, reply, respond, say, shout, state, suggest, tell,
whisper

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