BIO 204/L HANDOUT Stratum Corneum - prevents unwanted materials
from entering, and excessive loss of water from exiting
the body
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - Your
integumentary system is your body's outer layer. It
consists of your skin, hair, nails and glands. These
FUNCTIONS OF SKIN:
organs and structures are your first line of defense
against bacteria and help protect you from injury
and sunlight. Your integumentary system works
with other systems in your body to keep it in
balance.
 Defensins- can kill bacteria or inhibiting
bacterial growth through a multiplicity of
antimicrobial mechanisms such as direct
membrane disruption (11, 65, 66) and
inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis (67–
69).
 Secretin - a hormone released into the
bloodstream by the duodenum (especially in
response to acidity) to stimulate secretion by
the liver and pancreas.
 Melanin - Produced by melanocytes – protects
living skin from exposure to UV rays
 Sebum - Secretion that helps prevent drying of
the skin and hair also it inhibits bacterial
growth on the skin.
 Eccrine Glands - A type of simple sweat gland
that is found in almost all regions of the skin.
These glands produce sweat that reaches the
surface of the skin by way of coiled ducts
(tubes). The body is cooled as sweat
evaporates from the skin.
 Free nerve endings - The encapsulated nerve
endings in the dermis are the receptors for the
cutaneous senses of touch and pressure.
- This is in the dermis, they function in the
sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, itching, and
tickling.
 Cerumen - protects the ear from infection and
provides a barrier to insects and water.
Stratum Basale - The layer of the epidermis that
contains stem cells undergoing mitosis
Stratum Spinosum - The stratum spinosum helps
make your skin flexible and strong.
Stratum Granulosum - help to form a waterproof
barrier that functions to prevent fluid loss from the
body.
Stratum Lucidum - to protect the areas most common
to damages such as palms of the hand, side fingers and
the bottoms of the feet. It is usually an extra layer of
skin.
 Epidermal growth factor - The substance that
helps promote mitosis in epidermal skin cells
1. Vitamin D synthesis
2. Protection
3. Excretion of wastes
4. Temperature regulation
 Keratinocytes - produce the protein that helps
protect the skin and underlying tissues from
light, heat, microbes, and many chemicals
 Melanocytes - produce a pigment that
contributes to skin color and absorbs
ultraviolet light
 Langerhans cells - The cells that arise from red
bone marrow, migrate to the epidermis, and
participate in immune responses
 Merkel cells - cells is thought to function in
the sensation of touch
 Arrector pili - characterized by smooth
muscles associated with the hair follicles;
when contracted, they pull the hair shafts
perpendicular to the skin's surface.
 Lamellar granules - released in the stratum
granulosum characterized by a lipid-rich
secretion that functions as a water-repellent
sealant
 Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles - is most
pressure
a-sensitive cells found mostly in the
subcutaneous layer
 Sebaceous glands - associated with hair
follicles, these secrete an oily substance that
helps prevent hair from becoming brittle.
 Reticular region - deep region of the dermis
composed primarily of dense irregular
connective tissue
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - The functions
of the respiratory system include gas
exchange, acid-base balance, phonation,
pulmonary defense and metabolism, and the
handling of bioactive materials.
  Oxygen in blood is carried primarily in the
form of oxyhemoglobin while carbon dioxide
is carried as three types.
1. dissolved CO2
2. Carbamino compounds
(carbaminohemoglobin)
3. bicarbonate ion
 There are three main steps of cellular
respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
REMEMBER THIS: For inhalation to occur, air
pressure in the alveoli must be less than atmospheric
pressure; for exhalation to occur, air pressure in the
alveoli must be greater than atmospheric pressure.
Structural changes occur from primary bronchi to
terminal bronchioles:
1. The mucous membrane changes from
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
to nonciliated simple cuboidal epithelium.
2. The amount of smooth muscle increases.
3. Incomplete rings of cartilage disappear.
 Pharynx - functions as a passageway for air
and food, provides a resonating chamber for
speech sounds, and houses the tonsils.
 Alveoli – where External respiration occurs
 Larynx - connects the laryngopharynx with the
trachea and houses the vocal cords
 Pleura - structure which is characterized by a
serous membrane that surrounds the lungs
 Nose - functions in warming, moistening, and
filtering air; receives olfactory stimuli and is a
resonating chamber for sound
 type I alveolar cell - simple squamous
epithelial cell that forms a nearly continuous
lining of the alveolar wall; the main sites of
gas exchange
 type II alveolar cell - cuboidal epithelial cells
that secrete alveolar fluid; also called septal
cells
 Thyroid cartilage - structure that forms the
anterior wall of the larynx
 Trachea - is a tubular passageway for air
connecting the larynx to the bronchi
 Cricoid cartilage - forms inferior wall of
larynx and is a landmark for tracheotomy
 Epiglottis - This organ prevents food or fluid
from entering the airways.
 Bronchi - This is the air passageways entering
the lungs
 Carnia - A ridge covered by a sensitive
mucous membrane and where irritation
triggers cough reflex.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - The digestive
system breaks down food into nutrients such
as carbohydrates, fats and proteins. They can
then be absorbed into the bloodstream so the
body can use them for energy, growth and
repair. Unused materials are discarded as
faeces (poo).
 The small intestine wall has four layers: the
outermost serosa, muscularis, submucosa,
and innermost mucosa.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER:
1. carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism
2. excretion of bilirubin
3. synthesis of bile salts
4. activation of vitamin D
 The alimentary Tubes is a continuous tube
through which food passes directly. It consists
of the Stomach, small intestine, mouth,
large intestine, anus and etc.
 Esophagus - A collapsed, muscular tube
involved in deglutition and peristalsis.
 Appendix - structure described as a coiled tube
attached to the cecum
 Mouth - responsible for ingestion, mastication,
and deglutition
 Stomach - digestive organ responsible for
churning, peristalsis, storage, and chemical
digestion with the enzyme pepsin
 Pancreas - contains acini that release juices
containing several digestive enzymes for
protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and nucleic acid
digestion and sodium bicarbonate to buffer
stomach acid
 Tongue - This organ forces the food to the
back of the mouth for swallowing, places food
in contact with the teeth.
 Salivary Glands - produce a fluid in the mouth
that helps cleanse the mouth and teeth and that
lubricates, dissolves, and begins the chemical
breakdown of food
REMEMBER:
 The soft palate, uvula, and epiglottis prevent
swallowed foods and liquids from entering the
respiratory passages.
 The coordinated contractions and relaxations
of the muscularis, which propels materials
through the GI tract, is known as peristalsis.