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Topic C: Waves

11 General Wave Properties

11.1 Describing Wave Motion

1. Wave motion is a phenomenon in which energy is transferred through
propagation of oscillatory movement or disturbance from one region to
another.
2. The particles in the medium do not move forward with the wave.
3. All waves follow the laws of reflection and refraction.
4. Mechanical waves required a medium (i.e. water or air molecules) for
propagation.
5. Electromagnetic waves are propagations of oscillations in magnetic field.
The propagation does not require a medium, thus electromagnetic waves
can travel in vacuum.
6. Waves are classified into two types based on their propagation method:
(a) Transverse (water and electromagnetic which include light, X-ray and
radio waves)
(b) Longitudinal (sound wave)
Compression Rarefaction
s

Transverse wave Longitudinal wave

11.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves
Waves which travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the vibrations

Longitudinal Waves
Waves which travel in a direction parallel to the direction of vibrations, it consists of:
1. Rarefaction – a stretched region (low pressure region) and…
2. Compressions – a compressed region (high pressure region)

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11.3 Graphical Representation of Waves

To complete describe the wave graphically, graphs of displacement-position
and displacement-time need to be plotted.

Displacement-Position Graph
1. A photograph of a wave produced by a rope shows the displacement of particles
along the waves at a particular instant.
2. Amplitude, a, and wavelength,, of a wave can be obtained from a displacement-
position graph.

Crest (peak)
Neutral position

Trough

Displacement-Time Graph
1. Look at the motion of a single particle at a particular position as the wave passes,
we are looking at the displacement of particle as time changes.
2. Amplitude a and period T of the wave can be obtained from displacement against
time graph.
3.

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11.4 Wave Terms

1. A wavefront is a line or surface, in the path of wave motion, on which all particles
are oscillating in phase
There are two types of wavefronts:
(a) Circular wavefront (close to point source of disturbance)
(b) Plane wavefront (straight wavefront far from point source of disturbance)
The amplitude of particles along the same wavefront is the same.
2. The highest points are call crests or peak while the lowest points are called
troughs.
3. The amplitude, ɑ, is the maximum displacement from the rest position. It is the
height of a crest or depth of a trough measured from the normal undisturbed
position.
4. The wavelength, λ, is the distance between two successive crests or two
successive troughs. It is also equal to distance between any two identical points on
successive waves.
5. The frequency, f, is the number of crests (or toughs) that pass a point per second.
This is equivalent to the number of complete waves generated per second. The unit
of the frequency is the hertz (Hz).
6. The period, T, is the time taken to generate one complete wave.
1 1
T= [s = ]
f Hz
7. The speed, v, of the wave is the distance moved by a wave in one second. Since
the wave crest travels a distance of one wavelength in one period, the wave speed.
λ m
ν= or ν =f λ [m/ s = or m/ s =Hz x m]
T s
8. SI units:
Units
Wavelength, λ m
Frequency, f Hz
Period, T s
Speed, v m s-1

Example

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(a) A vibration of frequency 5 Hz sends a wave of wavelength 0.8 m down a rope.

What is the speed of the wave?
(b) A wave of wavelength 1.5 m travels down a rope at a speed of 6 m/s. What is the
frequency of the wave?

Solution
(a) Speed = frequency x Wavelength (b) v 6 m/ s
f= =
=fλ λ 1 .5 m
= 5 Hz x 0.8 m = 4.0 m/s =4 Hz

Exercise:
Figures (a) and (b) shows the displacement-position graph
and displacement-time graph of a wave travelling along a length
of rope. Determine
(a) the amplitude, (0.3 m) (b) the wavelength, (1.5 m)
(c) the period, (0.4 s) (d) the frequency and (2.5 Hz)
(e) the speed of the wave. (3.75 m/s)

Ans:

12 Light

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Members of electromagnetic waves:

Wavelength (meters):
Radio microwave infrared visible ultraviolet X-Ray Gamma-Ray

103 10-2 10-5 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12

Frequency (Hz):

104 108 1012 1015 1016 1018 1020

12.1 Reflection of Light

• We are able to see an object only when the light rays coming from it enter
our eyes.
• Luminous objects give off their own light.
• Non-luminous objects do not give off light but are seen when they reflect light

Laws of Reflection

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1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane
2. Angle of incidence, i, = Angle of reflection, r

Incident ray Reflected ray

i r

Plane mirror

Types of reflection

1) Regular reflection 2) Diffuse reflection

parallel parallel parallel reflected rays

incident rays reflected rays incident rays

Characteristics of an Image form in a plane mirror

1. Virtual (cannot be capture on a screen)
2. Upright.
3. Same size as object.
4. Image distance from the other side of the surface of reflection is the same as the
object’s distance from the surface of reflection.
5. Laterally inverted (left-to-right inversion).

Ray Diagrams and Mirrors

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By drawing a number of rays coming out from a point we can develop a model of the
formation of an image by a mirror. The image I is marked so that IM = OM.

O M I

12.2 Refraction of Light

- The change in direction (or bending) of light when it passes from one
medium to another is called refraction.
- Refraction of light occurs due to the change in the speed of light as it
travels from one medium to another.

If a light ray enters another medium perpendicular to the boundary (or along
the normal), no deviation of the ray is observed even when there is a change in
optical density.

incident ray

air 90o

glass or
water Light is
undeviated

Refraction of light through a Glass Blocks

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Incident ray
bent towards
the normal
i1

Air
A
P Q

r1 Glass
r2
refracted ray bent away
S R the normal
B Air

i2
emergent ray

- At A, light travels from a less dense medium (air) to a denser medium (glass), its
speed decreases and it is refracted toward the normal.

Angle of refraction in glass < Angle of incidence in air

r1 < i 1
- At B, light travels from a denser medium (glass) to a less dense medium (air), it is
refracted away from the normal.

Angle of refraction in air > Angle of incidence in glass

i2 > r2

- As the sides PQ and SR of the glass block are parallel, the ray emerging from the
glass block at B parallel to the incident ray at A.

i1 = i2 , r1 = r2

Laws of Refraction
1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident all lie on the
same plane.
2) Snell’s Law: For two given media, the ratio (sin i) / (sin r) is a constant, where i is
the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction

Refractive Index

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Light ray passing from air (vacuum) into a given medium, the constant ratio
(sin i) / (sin r) is known as refraction index.

sin (angle in air )

a nm =
[ratio (no unit )]
sin (angle in medium)

Medium Refractive index anm

Water 1.33
Glass 1.50
Diamond 2.42

Example
The refractive index of glass is 1.50.
(a) A ray of light is incident on a glass block at an angle of 45 o. What is the angle of
refraction in glass?
(b) A ray of light emerging from a glass block is incident on the glass surface at an
angle of 30o. Calculate the angle of refraction in air. (48.59 o)

Solution

(a) Refractive index of glass is

sin (angle in air ) 45o

a nm=
sin (angle in glass ) Air
sin 45 o Glass
1. 5=
sin r
0 .7071 r
sin r=
1.5
r=28 .13o
(b) Refractive index of glass is
sin (angle in air )
a nm = x
sin (angle in glass ) Air
sin x
1. 5= Glass
sin 30o
30o
sin x=(1 . 5)(0 , 500)
x=48 . 59o
Fact: Swimming pool looks shallow compared to its actual depth.

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At the water-air boundary, light is refracted away from the normal. As a result, the eye
sees the light as though it comes a point higher up. The apparent depth is less than the
real depth.

real depth
a nm =
apparent depth

Refractive Index and Speed of Light

The refractive index, n, of a medium may also define as the ratio of the speed of light in
a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium. The higher the refractive index of a
medium, the slower the speed of light through it. In other words, speed of light is slower
in a denser medium as compared to in a less dese medium.

Speed of light in vacuum or air c m/s

n= = [ Ratio= ]
Speed of light in medium v m/ s

Example
I the speed of light in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s (300 Mm/s) find the speed of light in diamond.
(Refractive index of diamond = 2.42)

c
Solution n=
v
3 .0 x 10 8 m/s
2. 42=
v
3. 0 x 108 m/s
v= =1 .24 x 10 8 m/s
2. 42

Total Internal Reflection

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When light passes from an optically less dense medium to an optically denser medium,
it refract towards the normal.

When light passes from an optically dense medium to optically less dense medium, if
the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then the ray will not leave the
denser medium at all. Instead, it is reflected internal within the denser medium. This is
known as total internal reflection.

The critical angle, c, is defined as the angle of incidence in the optically denser
medium for which the angle of reflection in optically less dense medium is 90o.

air
a) i < c, when the angle of
incidence increases, the
glass angle of refraction of the
emerging ray also
(c) increases.
b) i = c, refracted ray along
i=c boundary (r = 90o)
(b) c) i > c, the ray total reflected
(a within the glass.
)

Optically less
dense medium

Optically denser
medium

Critical angle (c) and Refractive Index (n)

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Refractive index,
o
sin (angle in air ) sin 90 1
a nm = = =
sin (angle in medium ) sin c sin c
1
sin c=
n

Example
Calculate the critical angle for
(a) water of reflective index 1.33,
(b) glass of reflective index 1.50.

1 1 1 1
Solution (a) sin c= = =0 . 7519 (b) sin c= = =0 . 6667
n 1 .33 n 1 .50
c=48. 7 o c=41. 8o

Applications of Total Internal Reflection

 Glass prism are used to reflect light internally in periscopes and binoculars

Exercise:

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In Figure, the refractive index of a semi-circular glass block is 1.48. If a light ray is
incident through the glass block at Point X, the path of the ray after Point X is

(a)
(b)

X
(c)
45 o

Ans: (d)

Refractive index: 1.48 = 1 / sin c

Incident ray
(d) Critical angle c = 42.50

Figure

12.3 Thin Lenses

• Converging lenses are thicker in middle than at edge
• Diverging lenses are thinner in middle

Converging lens converge rays Diverging lens diverge rays of

of light passing through it. light passing through it.

Converging Lens

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1. If incident beam is parallel to principal axis, lens focuses the parallel beam to a
point on principal axis called principal focus
2. Since light can pass through a lens from either the left or right side, a lens has two
principal foci.
3. If incident beam is not parallel to principal axis of the lens, lens focuses the
parallel beam to a point on focal plane.

principal axis

focal plane

principal axis

Terms used in Lenses

Rules to apply on constructing Ray Diagrams for Thin Converging Lenses

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted by the lens to pass through F.
2. A ray through the optical center C is not deviated.
3. A ray through F is retracted parallel to the principal axis.

Exercise:

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In the diagram shown below, Y is the principal focal of a convex lens. A ray Q is
converged at R after passing through the lens. Another ray M parallel to ray Q is
directed to the lens. Which point in the diagram will ray M pass through?

Lens
M

Principal axis
Q Y Z

Diagram

(a) X
(b) Y Ans: R
(c) Z
(d) R

Locate Images of Converging Lens Using Ray

(Note the 2 lines which passing through optical centre and principal focus)

(a) Object at infinity: telescope

The image is real, inverted and diminished.

(b) Object between 2F and infinity: camera lens

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The image is real, inverted and diminished.

(c) Object at 2F: photocopier

The image is real, inverted and of the same size as the object.

(d) Object between F and 2F: projector, objective lens of microscope

The image is real, inverted and magnified.

(e) Object at F: Spotlight and eyepiece of telescope

No image, parallel rays

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(f) Object between c and F: magnifying glass, spectacles for correcting long-
sightedness.
The image is virtual, upright and magnified.
Virtual ray and virtual images are drawn using broken lines.

Notes
- A real image is formed when actual rays of light are brought to a focus.
- A real image is inverted and can be formed on a screen.
- Virtual image is upright and cannot be formed on a screen

Exercise:
An object AB, 2.0 cm high is placed 4.0 cm in front of a thin convex lens as shown in
Figure. The convex lens has a focal length of 8.0 cm. The diagram is drawn to scale of
1:2.

2.0 cm f

B 4.0 cm 8.0 cm

Figure

(a) Copy the diagram in Figure and construct the light rays on your diagram to show
the position and height of the image formed.
(b) Briefly describe the characteristics of the image formed.
(c) Suggest a new position to place the object AB to generate a real, inverted and
magnified image.

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‘A’
Ans: (a) (

A
(1/1) 2.0 cm f

‘B’ B 4.0 cm 8.0 cm

Drawing scale 1:2

Figure

(b) The image is virtual, upright and magnified.

(c) Place object AB in front of the convex lens with distance between one to
two focal length of the convex lens (f to 2f).

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