K.

Animal Reproduction And Development -The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on
the process and the species
Reproduction Methods
Sexual Reproduction
-Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces
genetically identical offspring, or sexual when the genetic material
Hermaphroditism
from two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse
-a hermaphrodite is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive
offspring.
organs and -Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with another
of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring.
Asexual Reproduction 
- Self fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are
not motile, such as barnacles and clams
Fission 
- asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies.
Sex Determination 
In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its genetic
-Mammalian sex determination is determined genetically by the presence
material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into two
of X and Y chromosomes
parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of
-Individuals homozygous for X (XX) are female and heterozygous
DNA
individuals (XY) are male
The presence of a Y chromosome causes the development of male
Budding
characteristics and its absence results in female characteristics
-form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part
- The XY system is also found in some insects and plants.
of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the original
organism into two individuals
Fertilization
- Budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as
-Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in
corals and hydras
a process called fertilization
-This can occur either inside ( internal fertilization) or outside
Fragmentation 
( external fertilization) the body of the female
-the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration.
External Fertilization
If the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a
-a mode of reproduction in which a male organism's sperm fertilizes a
separate individual will regrow
female organism's egg outside of the female's body
Parthenogenesis
Internal Fertilization
-form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete
individual without being fertilized
-sperm are introduced via insemination and then combine with an egg
inside the body of a female organism
-In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the
embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk and the young are
fully developed when they are hatched
-In viviparity the young develop within the female, receiving
nourishment from the mother’s blood through a placenta. The offspring
develops in the female and is born alive

Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis

-The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and
development of offspring.  -Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through
the process of meiosis
Male Reproductive Anatomy -Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop
from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
-Oogenesis is the type of gametogenesis through which ova, also called
the female gametes are formed and the produced female gamete is known
as an ovum

Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction

-The male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones

released from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary as well as
hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. 

Female Reproductive Anatomy Male Hormones 

-Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual
characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates
spermatogenesis
- These secondary sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice,
the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the beginnings of the
sex drive. -The menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the
uterine lining. 
Female Hormones
-Estrogen is the reproductive hormone in females that assists in
endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption
-it is also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of females
like breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period
necessary for bone maturation
-Progesterone assists in endometrial regrowth and inhibition of FSH
and LH release. 

-The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and

release of eggs Human Pregnancy and Birth

-Human pregnancy begins with fertilization of an egg and proceeds

through the three trimesters of gestation.
-The labor process has three stages (contractions, delivery of the fetus,
expulsion of the placenta)
Human Gestation -Gestation is a term that describes the time between
conception and birth, during which a baby grows and develops in the
pregnant parent's uterus.
-The gestation period is divided into three equal periods or trimesters

-The first trimester lays down the basic structures of the
body, including the limb buds, heart, eyes, and the liver
- The second trimester continues the development of all of
the organs and systems. 
-The third trimester exhibits the greatest growth of the fetus
and culminates in labor and delivery.
Contraception and Birth Control 
-hormonal birth control is a type of birth control that uses hormones to
prevent pregnancy. Hormonal contraceptives contain estrogen and
progesterone, or progesterone only
-Nonhormonal birth control prevents pregnancy without affecting your
hormones. The types of non hormonal birth control include copper IUDs,
barrier methods, spermicide, and natural family planning
-Infertility is the inability to conceive a child or carry a child to birth.
Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
-The early stages of embryonic development begin with fertilization. The
process of fertilization is tightly controlled to ensure that only one sperm
fuses with one egg. 
Fertilization
- a complex multi-step process that is complete in 24 hours. The sperm
from a male meets an ovum from a female and forms a zygote; this is
the point in which pregnancy begins and leads to a 280-day journey for
a female
Cleavage and Blastula Stage
-During cleavage, the cells divide without an increase in size
(without growing); so the large single-celled zygote divides
into smaller and smaller cells called blastomeres. After the
cleavage has produced over 100 blastomeres, the embryo is
called a blastula
Gastrulation
-an early developmental process in which an embryo
transforms from a one-dimensional layer of epithelial cells
(blastula) and reorganizes into a multilayered and
multidimensional structure called the gastrula
Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
Organogenesis is the formation of organs from the germ
layers. Each germ layer gives rise to specific tissue types. The
first stage is the formation of the neural system in the
ectoderm.  including current population size, factors affecting reproduction (like
Vertebrate Axis Formation a process based on tissue-
autonomous mechanisms of force generation and intertissue
mechanical coupling whose failure leads to severe
developmental anomalies such as body truncation and spina
bifida
VIII. Ecology
Ecology 
-the study of living organisms' interaction with their environment
- One of its core goals is to understand the distribution and abundance of
living things in the physical environment
- Attainment of this goal requires the integration of scientific disciplines
inside and outside of biology, such as mathematics, statistics,
biochemistry, molecular biology, physiology, evolution, biodiversity,
geology, and climatology.
Ecologist
-Ecologists study the relationships between organisms and their
environment
-They study environmental problems and determine what caused them
and how to improve the situation.
A. Ecology and the Biosphere
Levels of Ecological Study
Conservation biologist needs to collect accurate data,
physiology and behavior), habitat requirements (such as plants and soils),
and potential human influences on the endangered population and its
habitat (which might be derived through studies in sociology and urban
ecology). Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four
general levels, which sometimes overlap. These levels are organism,
population, community, and ecosystem
Organismal Ecology
- interested in the adaptations that enable individuals to live in specific
habitats; morphological, physiological, and behavioral
- ask questions about the butterflies’ preferred thoracic flight
temperature (a physiological question), or the behavior of the
caterpillars when they are at different larval stages (a behavioral
question)
Population Ecology  portions of the ecosystem
- population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of
the same species living in the same area at the same time
-conspecifics are organisms that are all members of the same species
-  study of population ecology focuses on the number of individuals in
an area and how and why population size changes over time
- population ecologists are particularly interested in counting the Karner
blue butterfly because it is classified as a federally endangered species
- ask questions about the factors leading to the decline of wild lupine
and how these affect Karner blue butterflies.
Community Ecology
-  biological community consists of the different species within an
area, typically a three-dimensional space, and the interactions within
and among these species.
-heterospecifics interactions between various species; members of
different species
-interested in the processes driving these interactions and their
consequences
-Questions about conspecific interactions often focus on competition
among members of the same species for a limited resource.
Ecosystem Ecology
- an extension of organismal, population, and community ecology
-ecosystem is composed of all the biotic components (living things) in
an area along with the abiotic components (nonliving things) of that area
- ask questions about how nutrients and energy are stored and how they
move among organisms and through the surrounding atmosphere, soil,
and water
-ask questions about the importance of limited resources and the
movement of resources, such as nutrients, through the biotic and abiotic
Biogeography
- is the study of the geographic distribution of living things and the
abiotic factors that affect their distribution
-Energy Sources: energy from the sun is captured by green
plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and photosynthetic protists. These
organisms convert solar energy into the chemical energy
needed by all living things
-Temperature affects the physiology of organisms as well as
the density and state of water. Temperature exerts an important
influence on living things because few living things can survive
at temperatures below 0 °C due to metabolic constraints. 
-Migration, the regular movement from one place to
another, is an adaptation found in many animals, including
many that inhabit seasonally cold climates. It solves
problems related to temperature, locating food, and finding a
mate.
- Hibernation enables animals to survive cold conditions, and
estivation allows animals to survive the hostile conditions of a hot, dry
climate
-Water is required by all living things because it is critical for cellular
processes. Plants have a number of interesting features on their leaves,
such as leaf hairs and a waxy cuticle, that serve to decrease the rate of
water loss via transpiration and convection.
-Inorganic Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are important -A forest biome made up primarily of coniferous evergreen trees that can
in determining the distribution and the abundance of living things. Soil tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons.
structure (particle size of soil components), soil pH, and soil nutrient -Boreal forests are found between about 50˚ and 60˚ N in Europe, Russia,
content together all play an important role in the distribution of plants and North America.
-This subarctic biome has a very cold climate, and plant growth is more
Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth constrained by temperature than precipitation.
-Net primary productivity is an estimation of all of the -The soil is nutrient-poor due to slow decomposition.
organic matter available as food; it is calculated as the total amount of
carbon fixed per year minus the amount that is oxidized during cellular
respiration. Temperate Seasonal Forest
-Annual biomass production is directly related to the abiotic -Temperate seasonal forest A
components of the environment. Environments with the greatest biome with warm summers and
amount of biomass produce conditions in which photosynthesis, plant cold winters with over 1 m (39
growth, and the resulting net primary productivity are optimized.  inches) of precipitation annually.
-Found in the eastern United
Terrestrial Biomes (Dennis Bruce) States, Japan, China, Europe,
Chile, and eastern Australia.
Tundra  -Dominated by broadleaf
-A cold and treeless biome with low- deciduous trees such as beech,
growing vegetation. maple, oak, and hickory.
-In winter, the soil is completely frozen. -Warmer summer temperatures favor decomposition; soils generally
-The tundra's growing season is very contain more nutrients than those of boreal forests.
short, usually only about 4 months
during summer. Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert
-The underlying subsoil, is permafrost -Temperate grassland/cold desert A
biome characterized by cold, harsh
which is an impermeable, winters, and hot, dry summers.
permanently frozen layer of soil -Lowest average annual precipitation of
any temperate biome.
Boreal forest  -Found in the Great Plains of North
America, in South America, and in
central Asia and eastern Europe.
-Plant growth is constrained by both insufficient precipitation in Savannas 
summer and cold temperatures in winter. -grasslands with scattered trees, and they are located in Africa, South
-Plants include grasses and nonwoody flowering plants well-adapted to America, and northern Australia
wildfires and frequent grazing by animals. - usually hot, tropical areas with temperatures averaging from 24 °C to 29
°C (75 °F to 84 °F) and an annual rainfall of 10–40 cm (3.9–15.7 in).
Tropical Rainforest - have an extensive dry season; for this reason, forest trees do not grow as
-Tropical rainforest A warm and wet well as they do in the tropical wet forest (or other forest biomes).
biome found between 20° N and 20° S
of the equator, with little seasonal
temperature variation and high
precipitation.
-Average annual temperatures exceed
20˚C.
-Found in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and
northeastern Australia.
-Precipitation occurs frequently; warm and wet with little temperature Aquatic Biomes
variation.
-Contain more biodiversity per hectare than any other terrestrial biome; Marine Biomes 
contain up to two-thirds of Earth's terrestrial species. The ocean is the largest marine biome. It is a continuous body
of salt water that is relatively uniform in chemical composition.
Chaparral   Ocean
-also called the scrub forest and is  Coral Reefs
found in California, along the
Mediterranean Sea, and along the Estuaries
southern coast of Australia - biomes that occur where a source of fresh water, such as a river, meets
-annual rainfall in this biome ranges the ocean
from 65 cm to 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in), - both fresh water and salt water are found in the same vicinity; mixing
and the majority of the rain falls in the results in a diluted (brackish) saltwater
winter
- very dry Summers and many chaparral plants are dormant during the Freshwater Biomes 
summertime
-Humans rely on freshwater biomes to provide ecosystem benefits,
which are aquatic resources for drinking water, crop irrigation,
sanitation, and industry
Lakes and Ponds  population density, the number of individuals within a specific area or
Rivers and Streams  volume
Wetlands
Present Climate Change
-Phenology is the study of the effects of climatic conditions
on the timing of periodic life cycle events
-Glacier National Park in Montana is undergoing the retreat of many of
its glaciers, a phenomenon known as glacier recession
-This loss of ice is leading to increases in the global sea level. On
average, the sea is rising at a rate of 1.8 mm per year
- Researchers have shown that 385 plant species in Great
Britain are flowering 4.5 days sooner than was recorded earlier during
the previous 40 years. In addition, insect-pollinated species were more
likely to flower earlier than wind-pollinated species.
B. Population and Community Ecology
Population Demography  releasing them back into the environment to allow them to mix with the
-demography is the statistical study of population dynamics that uses a
series of mathematical tools to investigate how populations respond to
changes in their biotic and abiotic environments
-life tables are tools that detail the life expectancy of individuals within
a population and were initially developed by life insurance companies
to set insurance rates. Divide the population into age groups and often
sexes, and show how long a member of that group is likely to live
Population size and density
- are the two main characteristics used to describe and understand
populations
- population size (N) is the total number of individuals, and its
- For example, populations with more individuals may be more stable
than smaller populations based on their genetic variability, and thus their
potential to adapt to the environment. Alternatively, a member of a
population with low population density (more spread out in the habitat),
might have more difficulty finding a mate to reproduce compared to a
population of higher density
Population Research Methods
-simply counting all of the individuals within the habitat is the most
accurate way to determine population size(but is not feasible, especially
when studying large habitat
-quadrat is a way of marking off square areas within a habitat, either by
staking out an area with sticks and string, or by the use of wood, plastic,
or metal square placed on the ground. It is used for immobile organisms
such as plants, or for very small and slow-moving organisms
-mark and recapture involve marking a sample of captured animals in
some way (such as tags, bands, paint, or other body markings), and then
rest of the population. It used is For mobile organisms, such as mammals,
birds, or fish
-using the ratio of marked and unmarked individuals, scientists determine
how many individuals are in the sample.
Species Distribution
-Species dispersion patterns (or distribution patterns) show the spatial
relationship between members of a population within a habitat at a
particular point in time
-Individuals in a population can be equally spaced apart, dispersed
randomly with no predictable pattern, or clustered in groups. These are
known as uniform, random, and clumped dispersion patterns,
respectively

Demography
- the statistical study of population changes over time: birth rates, death
rates, and life expectancies. Used to study the dynamics of a population
-age structure is the proportion of population members at specific age
ranges
- female-biased sex ratio is the ratio of males to females
-the demographic characteristics of a population can influence how the
population grows or declines over time. If birth and death rates are
equal, the population remains stable
-also uses life tables that provide important information about the life
history of an organism. Include mortality rate or the probability of
individuals dying before their next birthday
-example of a life table
C. Ecosystems
-An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and their interactions
with their abiotic (nonliving) environment.
-Life in an ecosystem is often about competition for limited resources, a
characteristic of the theory of natural selection
-Equilibrium is the steady state of an ecosystem where all organisms are
in balance with their environment and with each other
-resistance(the ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite
of disturbances) and resilience( the speed at which an ecosystem
recovers equilibrium after being disturbed) are two parameters used to
measure changes in ecosystems
 -Food web is a graphic representation of a holistic, nonlinear
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on web of primary producers, primary consumers, and higher-level
their general environment: consumers used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics
Freshwater - it is the
-are the rarest, occurring on only 1.8 percent of the interconnection of numerous food
Earth's surface. Lakes, rivers, streams, and springs comprise chain
these systems -2 types of food web:
Ocean water grazing food web has plants or
- are the most common, comprising over 70 percent other photosynthetic organisms at
of the Earth's surface and consisting of three basic types: its base, followed by herbivores
shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean surfaces and various carnivores and the
Terrestrial detrital food web consists of a
-also known for their diversity, are grouped into base of organisms that feed on
large categories called biomes, such as tropical rain forests, decaying organic matter (dead
savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and organisms), called decomposers
tundra. or detritivores.

Food Chains and Food Webs Ecosystem dynamics

-the study of the changes in ecosystem structure caused by changes in the
-Food chain is a linear sequence of environment (disturbances) or by internal forces 
organisms through which nutrients and -holistic ecosystem model attempts to quantify the
energy pass: primary producers, primary composition, interaction, and dynamics of entire ecosystems; it is the
consumers, and higher-level consumers most representative of the ecosystem in its natural state(ex. food web)
-mesocosm is partitioning a part of a natural ecosystem that can
-energy is lost as heat between be used for experiments
each trophic level due to the second law of -microcosm is the recreation of an ecosystem entirely in an
thermodynamics making it lesser as it reaches indoor or outdoor laboratory environment
higher trophic levels -conceptual model is an ecosystem model that consists of flow
charts to show interactions of different compartments of the living and
nonliving components of the ecosystem.  It is useful for describing
ecosystem structure and dynamics and for demonstrating the relationships
between different organisms 
 -analytical model is an ecosystem model that is created using
simple mathematical formulas to predict the effects of environmental
disturbances on ecosystem structure and dynamics. It often uses simple,
linear components of ecosystems, such as food chains, and are known
to be complex mathematically.
-simulation model is an ecosystem model that is created
using complex computer algorithms to holistically model ecosystems
and predict the effects of environmental disturbances in ecosystem
structure and dynamics. Simulation using supercomputers is considered
to be the most accurate and predictive of the complex responses of
ecosystems to disturbances.
-pyramids of biomass: pyramid measures the amount of
energy converted into living tissue at the different trophic levels
Consequences of Food Webs: Biological Magnification 
- Biomagnification is the increasing concentration of
persistent, toxic substances in organisms at each trophic level, from the
primary producers to the apex consumers
- ex. of substances that biomagnifies are polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), which were used in coolant liquids in the United
States until their use was banned in 1979, and heavy metals, such as
mercury, lead, and cadmium.

Energy Flow through Ecosystems Biogeochemical Cycles

- autotrophs: organisms capable of synthesizing their own - is the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their
food (more specifically, capable of using inorganic carbon as a carbon environment
source) 2 types; - Examples include:
- photoautotrophs: organisms that use sunlight as an energy
source and are critical for all ecosystems The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
- chemoautotrophs: use inorganic molecules as an energy -water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within
source and are primarily bacteria that are found in rare ecosystems the Earth and atmosphere
where sunlight is not available such as  hydrothermal vents at the
bottom of the ocean

Modeling Ecosystems Energy Flow: Ecological Pyramids

-Ecological
pyramids visualize  the
structure of the ecosystem and
show the relative amounts of
various parameters (such as
number of organisms, energy,
and biomass) across trophic
levels
 - nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is
converted into multiple
chemical forms as it circulates among atmosperic, terrestrial, and marine
ecosystems.

The Phosphorus Cycle

- Phosphorus Cycle is the
biogeochemical cycle that
describes the transformation and
translocation of phosphorus in
soil, water, and living and dead
organic material

The Carbon Cycle 

-carbon cycle is most easily studied
as two interconnected sub-cycles: one
dealing with rapid carbon exchange
among living organisms and the other
dealing with the long-term cycling
of carbon through geologic processes
-carbon cycle is nature's way of
reusing carbon atoms, which travel
from the atmosphere into organisms
on the
Earth
and then back into the atmosphere
The Sulfur Cycle
-sulfur cycle describes the movement of
sulfur through the geosphere and biosphere
D. Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
-Biodiversity is a term used to describe the
enormous variety of life on Earth
The Biodiversity Crisis
- adaptive radiation is a rapid branching through speciation of
a phylogenetic clade into many closely related species where typically,
the species “radiate” into different habitats and niches

The Nitrogen Cycle

 - adaptive radiation generally occurs when an organism Biodiversity hotspots are geographical areas that contain high
enters a new area and different traits affect its survival numbers of endemic species. The purpose of the concept was to identify
- Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a important locations on the planet for conservation efforts, a kind of
group of kinds, usually a species conservation triage. By protecting hotspots, governments are able to
-mass extinction event is when species vanish much faster protect a larger number of species.
than they are replaced. -To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two
strict criteria: It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics
Types of Biodiversity
-Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic
characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species, it ranges widely from
the number of species to differences within species and can be
attributed to the span of survival for a species
-Chemical diversity is where different species produce a
variety of chemicals in their cells, both the proteins as well as the
products and byproducts of metabolism thus it provides one way to
measure diversity that is important to human health and welfare
- Ecosystem diversity deals with the variations in ecosystems
within a geographical location and its overall impact on human
existence and the environment. It addresses the combined
Biodiversity Change through Geological Time
characteristics of biotic properties and abiotic properties
- The Five Mass Extinctions:
The Ordovician-Silurian extinction event is the first recorded
mass extinction and the second largest and during this period,
Patterns of Biodiversity
about 85 percent of marine species (few species lived outside
-  Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in
the oceans) became extinct
one geographic region: some are endemic to a particular continent,
The late Devonian extinction appears to have mostly affected
some to part of a continent, and others to a single island
marine species and not so much the plants or animals inhabiting
- heterogeneity is a term used to describe different genetic
terrestrial habitats and its causes are poorly understood
mechanisms that produce the same or similar phenotypes
The end-Permian extinction(largest in the history of life)
-Biogeography is the study of the distribution of the world’s
made Earth became nearly devoid of life during this extinction
species—both in the past and in the present
event. Estimates are that 96 percent of all marine species and 70
percent of all terrestrial species were lost
 The Triassic–Jurassic extinction occurred just before the
breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea, although recent
scholarship suggests that the extinctions may have occurred
more gradually throughout the Triassic
The Cretaceous extinction event that about 65 million years
ago, the majority of the dinosaurs, the dominant vertebrate
group for millions of years, disappeared from the planet (with
the exception of a theropod clade that gave rise to birds)
The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
Human Health
- humans have been using plants for medicinal uses for thousands of
years
- Many medicines were once derived from plant extracts but are now
synthesized. It is estimated that, at one time, 25 percent of modern
drugs contained at least one plant extract.
Agricultural Diversity
- human groups have been breeding and selecting crop varieties
-Each variety has been bred to thrive at particular elevations and soil
and climate conditions
-Disease resistance is a chief benefit of crop biodiversity, and lack of
diversity in contemporary crop species carries similar risks and the
ability to create new crop varieties relies on the diversity of varieties
available and the accessibility of wild forms related to the crop plant
Wild Food Sources
-humans obtain food resources from wild populations, primarily fish
populations
-aquatic resources provide the main source of animal protein for r
approximately 1 billion people worldwide
Psychological and Moral Value
-humans benefit psychologically from living in a biodiverse world  negatively affects species in seasonal environments
-E. O. Wilson argues that human evolutionary history has adapted us to
live in a natural environment and those city environments generate
psychological stressors that affect human health and well-being
-There is considerable research into the psychological
regenerative benefits of natural landscapes that suggests the hypothesis
may hold some truth
Threats to Biodiversity
-The core threats to biodiversity are human population growth and
unsustainable resource use. The threats are as follows
Habitat Loss 
-Habitat loss occurs through deforestation, damming of rivers, and other
disruptive human activities. 
Overharvesting
-depletes some species to very low numbers and drives others to
extinction
-is a threat particularly to aquatic species, while the taking of bush meat
in the humid tropics threatens many species in Asia, Africa, and the
Americas
Exotic Species
-have been the cause of a number of extinctions and are especially
damaging to islands and lakes
- Exotic species’ introductions are increasing damaging native
ecosystems around the world because of the increased mobility of human
populations and growing global trade and transportation
Climate Change
- warming trend presently escalating, is recognized as a major extinction
threat, particularly when combined with other threats such as habitat loss
and the expansion of disease organisms.
- also affects adaptations to the timing of resource availability that
- Global warming will also raise sea levels, eliminating some islands - zoos use captive breeding as a tool to prevent the extinction of
and reducing the area of all others a species that cannot survive in the wild, often due to the deterioration of
a species' habitat
Preserving Biodiversity

Measuring Biodiversity
-DNA barcoding is a new technological method that facilitates the
cataloging of the planet’s biodiversity
-this takes advantage of rapid evolution in a mitochondrial gene
(cytochrome c oxidase 1) present in eukaryotes, except for plants, to
identify species using the sequence of portions of the gene
-Numerous computer databases provide information about named
species and a framework for adding new species
Changing Human Behavior 
-Legislation throughout the world has been enacted to protect species.
- International treaties such as the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulate the
transportation of endangered species across international borders
Conservation in Preserves 
-preserve is an area of land set aside with varying degrees of protection
for the organisms that exist within the boundaries of the preserve
-this is effective for a short term in protecting both species and
ecosystems
-buffer zones allow organisms to exit the boundaries of the preserve
without immediate negative consequences from predation or lack of
resources
Habitat Restoration 
-restoration can improve the biodiversity of degraded ecosystems as it 
holds considerable promise as a mechanism for restoring and
maintaining biodiversity
The Role of Captive Breeding