ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

General Biology Sexual and asexual reproduction are both common

among animals

• Asexual reproduction
Chapter 27
Reproduction and Embryonic Development – Budding
– Fission

– Fragmentation,
accompanied by
regeneration

– Development of an
unfertilized egg
(parthenogenesis)

• Sexual reproduction
• Advantages of asexual reproduction
– The fission of two haploid gametes from two
– A single individual reproduces. parents to form a diploid zygote.
– Many offspring are produced rapidly. – Internal fertilization
– External fertilization requires a moist habitat.
• Disadvantage of asexual reproduction
– Little or no genetic variation.
 • Advantages of sexual reproduction Fertilization and
– Increases genetic variation. Development – external
fertilization
– Enhances reproductive success in changing
environments.

• Disadvantage of sexual reproduction

– Locating a mate.

Three Developmental
Strategies of Internal • Rotifers can reproduce Head”
Fertilization: both asexually and Intestine
Oviparity sexually. Ovary
Ovoviviparity
Viviparity Eggs

• Hermaphroditism
– A single individual
has both male and
female reproductive
systems.
• In some organisms, environmental conditions can • Sequential hermaphroditism: an individual
determine sex of offspring. reverses its sex during its lifetime.

• Protogynous: female first sequential

hermaphroditism.

• Protandrous: male first sequential

hermaphroditism.

Reproductive anatomy of the human female

Reproductive anatomy of the human female
Diploid cell In embryo

• Ovaries Differentiation and

onset of MEIOSIS I
– Contain follicles that nurture eggs.
– Produce sex hormones. PRIMARY OOCYTE,

arrested in prophase Present at birth

of MEIOSIS I
• Oviducts
– Convey eggs to the uterus. Completion of MEIOSIS I
and onset of MEIOSIS II

• Uterus SECONDARY OOCYTE,

arrested at metaphase
First
polar body
– Development of fertilized egg. of MEIOSIS II;
released from ovary

– Opens into the vagina.

Entry of sperm triggers

• Vagina
completion of MEIOSIS II

– Receives penis during intercourse. OVUM

Second

– Forms the birth canal. (haploid) polar body

Oogenesis: Produces ova in the ovaries

• Oogenesis
– Most of the process occurs within the ovaries.

– Lifetime supply of primary oocytes is present

at birth.

– One primary oocyte matures each month to

form a secondary oocyte.

– If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, it

completes meiosis and becomes a haploid
ovum.

Follicles of ovaries Development of an ovarian follicle and Oogenesis

• Each follicle consists of one egg cell surrounded

by one or more layers of granulosa cells.
- Follicles produce the primary female sex
hormones (estrogens) : estradiol.
- Follicle cells nourish and protect the developing
egg cell.
- A woman is born with about 400,000 follicles.

vOnly several hundred of which will release

eggs during a female’s reproductive years.
• Usually one follicle matures and releases its egg
during each menstrual cycle.

• After ovulation the remaining follicular tissue

develops into the corpus luteum.

• Secretes estrogens and progesterone.

• Maintain the uterine
lining during pregnancy.
• If pregnancy does not
occur the corpus luteum
disintegrates.

• At ovulation the egg is released into the Hormones synchronize cyclical changes in the
abdominal cavity near the opening of the oviduct. ovary and uterus
• The cilia-lined funnel-like opening of the oviduct
draws in the egg.
• Cilia convey the egg through the oviduct to the
uterus.
• Endometrium: highly vascularized inner
lining of the uterus.
• The neck of the uterus, the cervix, opens
into the vagina.
• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that
forms the birth canal and is the repository
for sperm during copulation.
 (3) OVARIAN CYCLE

Corpus Degenerating
(1) CONTROL BY HYPOTHALAMUS Inhibited by combination Growing
Mature Ovulation luteum corpus
of estrogen and follicle
progesterone follicle luteum
Hypothalamus
Pre-ovulatory phase Post-ovulatory phase
Stimulated by high
Releasing levels of estrogen
hormone Estrogen Progesterone
and estrogen
Anterior pituitary
(4) OVARIAN HORMONES
IN BLOOD
FSH LH

(2) PITUITARY HORMONES

IN BLOOD LH peak triggers Estrogen
ovulation and
corpus luteum Progesterone
formation
Estrogen Progesterone
and estrogen
LH
(5) MENSTRUAL CYCLE
FSH
Endometrium
FSH LH

Days
Menstruation

Reproductive anatomy of the human male

 • Testes are located in the scrotum, outside the
body cavity.
• Testes are the male gonads.

• Consists of many highly coiled seminiferous

tubules surrounded by layers of connective
tissue.
• Sperms form in seminiferous tubules.

• Leydig cells, scattered between

seminiferous tubules produce androgens -
testosterone.

• From the seminiferous tubules sperm pass to the
coiled tubules of the epididymis.
• In the epididymis sperm become motile and gain
the ability to fertilize.
• Ejaculation propels sperm from the epididymis to
the vas deferens.
• The vas deferens run from the scrotum and
behind the urinary bladder.
• Here each vas deferens joins with a duct
from the seminal vesicle to form an
ejaculatory duct.
• The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra.
• The urethra drains both the excretory and
reproductive systems.
• Accessory sex glands add secretions to
semen.
• A pair of seminal vesicle contribute about
60% of total semen volume.
• Seminal fluid is thick, yellowish, and
alkaline.
• It contains mucus, fructose, ascorbic
acid, and prostaglandins.
• The prostate gland secretes directly into the
urethra.
• Prostatic fluid is thin and milky.
 • A male usually ejaculates about 2 – 5 mL of semen
• The bulbourethral glands are a pair of small each milliliter containing about 50 – 130 million
glands along the urethra below the prostate. sperm.

• Prior to ejaculation they secrete a clear • In the female reproductive tract:

mucus that neutralizes any acidic urine
• Prostaglandins in semen thin the mucus at the
remaining in the urethra.
opening of the uterus and stimulate uterine
contractions
• The alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
environment of the vagina.

Sphincter Urinary
Contractions Urethra region here expands
contracts bladder
and fills with semen
• The penis is composed of three layers of of vas deferens

spongy erectile tissue. Contractions

of seminal
vesicle

Sphincter contracts
Contractions
of prostate
gland Contractions
of epididymis
1

Sphincter remains
contracted Semen expelled

Contractions
of muscles
around base
of penis

Contractions
Sphincter of urethra
relaxes
2
 Stimuli from other
Spermatogenesis: produces sperm in the testis
areas in the brain
• Androgens Hypothalamus

stimulate sperm
production.
Releasing
hormone

Negative feedback
– They also Anterior
pituitary

maintain
homeostasi
s by a FSH LH

negative
feedback Androgen
mechanism. production

Testis
Sperm
production

Sexual activity can transmit disease Contraception prevents unwanted pregnancy

• Contraception prevents pregnancy in one of

three ways
– Blocking the
release of
gametes

– Preventing
fertilization

– Preventing
implantation
PRINCIPLES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Fertilization results in a zygote and triggers • Only one of these
embryonic development sperm will penetrate
this human egg cell
• The shape of a human sperm cell is adapted to
to initiate fertilization.
its function.

– Fertilization is the
union of a sperm
and an egg to
form a diploid
zygote.
 Process of fertilization

卵子細胞膜電位轉變
同時使外圍Jelly coat產生新的鍵結

Cleavage produces a ball of cells from the zygote

• Cleavage in a
sea urchin
• Cleavage is the first major phase of embryonic
development. ZYGOTE
2 cells

– It is the rapid succession of cell divisions.

– It creates a multicellular embryo from the zygote. 4 cells

8 cells
– It partitions the multicellular embryo into
developmental regions. Blastocoel

Many cells
(solid ball)

BLASTULA Cross section

(hollow ball) of blastula
 Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo Animal pole Blastocoel
• The three layers
1
produced in
• Gastrulation is the second major phase of gastrulation. Vegetal pole BLASTULA
embryonic development. Blastopore

– Ectoderm (Blue) 2

– It adds more cells to the embryo.

– Endoderm (Yellow) Blastopore
– It sorts all cells into three distinct cell layers. Archenteron
– Mesoderm (Pink) 3
– The embryo is transformed from the blastula
into the gastrula.

Frog gastrulation Yolk plug

GASTRULA

Organs start to form after gastrulation Neural tube

• Somites are Notochord
Neural plate blocks of Somite
Neural Neural
fold plate mesoderm that Coelom
will give rise to
Neural fold segmental
Notochord
Ectoderm
structures. Archenteron
Mesoderm

Endoderm (digestive cavity) Somites Tail bud

Archenteron
• The body cavity,
Neural folds Outer layer or coelom, also
of ectoderm develops from
the mesoderm. Eye

Neural tube
 Changes in cell shape and cell migration give
form to the developing animal
Ectoderm
• Tissues and organs
take shape in a
developing embryo as a
result of
– cell shape changes.

– cell migration.

Embryonic induction initiates organ formation

– programmed cell
death (apoptosis)
• Induction is the mechanism by which one group
modifies embryo Cell of cells influences the development of other
tissues. suicide
cells by chemical signals.
• Induction usually turn on the expressions of
Dead cell specific genes to regulate differentiation.
engulfed and
digested by Lens ectoderm Optic cup Cornea
adjacent Lens
brain
cell.
Optic Optic
vesicle Retina
stalk 2 3
Pattern formation organizes the animal body Pattern formation of bird’s wing
ANTERIOR
Bird
embryo VENTRAL
• Pattern formation is the emergence of a body Normal wing
form with structures in their correct relative
Limb bud
positions. DISTAL
DORSAL PROXIMAL
– It involves the response of genes to spatial
variations of chemicals in the embryo. POSTERIOR
Graft of cells Wing with
from pattern- duplication
forming Graft
Donor zone
limb Limb
bud bud

Donor Host pattern-forming zone

cells

Development is tightly controlled by conserved genes

Ontogeny
Fly chromosome Mouse chromosomes
recapitulates
Homeobox phylogeny
genes are
conserved in
different
organisms.
Fruit fly embryo (10 hours) Mouse embryo (12 days)

Adult fruit fly Adult mouse

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The embryo and placenta take shape during the first • Human development begins with fertilization in
month of pregnancy the oviduct.

• Gestation means pregnancy

Cleavage starts

Fertilization
of ovum
– It begins at conception and continues until birth. Ovary
Oviduct

– Human gestation is 266 days.

Secondary
oocyte
Blastocyst
(38 weeks or 9 months) (implanted)

Ovulation
Endometrium

– Mouse gestation is 1 month. Uterus

– Elephant gestation is 22 months.

• Cleavage produces a • The trophoblast secretes enzymes to enable

ENDOMETRIUM the blastocyst to implant in the uterine wall.
blastocyst.
Inner cell mass
– A blastocyst is a ENDOMETRIUM Blood vessel
(maternal)
hallow ball of
Future embryo
embryo - blastula.
Multiplying cells
– The inner cells of Cavity
Future
of trophoblast

the blastocyst form yolk sac

the baby.
Trophoblast Trophoblast

– The outer cells form

the embryo UTERINE CAVITY

trophoblast.
 • Gastrulation occurs to generate three embryo
layer - ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. • The four embryonic membranes develop.

Amniotic
Amnion
– Amnion Chorion Chorionic villi
cavity

– Chorion Amnion EMBRYO:

Allantois Ectoderm

Mesoderm
– Yolk sac Mesoderm
Endoderm
cells Chorion
Yolk sac
– Allantois

Yolk sac

• The embryo floats in the fluid-filled amniotic cavity, • The placenta allows for a variety of substances
while the chorion and embryonic mesoderm form to pass from mother to fetus.
the embryo’s part of the placenta.
– Protective antibodies
Placenta Mother’s blood
vessels
– German measles virus
• The placenta’s
Allantois

chorionic villi
Yolk sac
Amniotic
cavity
– HIV
Amnion
absorb food Embryo
– Drugs (prescription and nonprescription)
and oxygen
from the Chorion – Alcohol
mother’s blood.
– Chemicals in tobacco smoke
Chorionic villi
 Human development from conception to birth is
divided into three trimesters
• First trimester
– First three months
– The most rapid changes occur during the first
trimester.

• Second trimester • Third trimester

– Increase in size of fetus. – Growth and
preparation
– General refinement of human features.
for birth.
Childbirth is hormonally induced and occurs in
three stages • Oxytocin is a powerful stimulant for the smooth
muscles of the uterus.
• Hormonal changes induce birth.
– Oxytocin also stimulates the placenta to make
prostaglandins that stimulate the uterine
muscles to contract even more.
– Labor is controlled by a positive feedback
mechanism. • Uterine contractions stimulate the release of
more and more oxytocin and prostoglandins.
– Estrogen released from the ovaries increases
the sensitivity of the uterus to oxytocin.

ESTROGEN OXYTOCIN
• There are three
from
ovaries
From fetus
and pituitary stages of labor.
Placenta
Induces oxytocin
Positive feedback

receptors on uterus • Dilation of the cervix Umbilical

is the first stage.

cord

Stimulates uterus Uterus

to contract

– Cervix reaches full Cervix

Stimulates
placenta to make dilation at 10cm.
PROSTAGLANDINS
– Longest stage of
labor (6-12 hours 1 Dilation of the cervix

or longer).
Stimulates more
contractions
of uterus
• Expulsion is the second stage.
• The delivery of the
– Period from full dilation of
the cervix to delivery of placenta is the final
the infant. stage of labor.
Uterus

– Uterine contractions – Usually occurs Placenta

occur every 2-3 minutes. within 15 minutes (detaching)

after the birth of the

– Mother feels urge to push
baby.
down with her abdominal
muscles. 3 Delivery of the placenta Umbilical
– Infant is forced down and 2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant cord
out of uterus and vagina
within a period of 20
minutes.

Reproductive technology increases our

• Hormones continue to be important after the reproductive options
baby and placenta are delivered. • Reproductive technology
– Decreasing progesterone and estrogen levels – Hormone therapy can increase sperm or egg
allow the uterus to return to its pre-pregnancy production.
state.
– Surgery can correct blocked oviducts.
– Oxytocin and prolactin stimulate milk secretion.
• Assisted reproductive
technology Collected
8-cell
egg Implantation
Zygote embryo
– In vitro fertilization
(IVF)
• Surrogate motherhood Collected
In vitro fertilization
sperm