Chapter 41

Animal Reproductive
Systems

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41.1 Assisted Reproduction
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)
– Assisted reproduction method where egg and sperm are
combined outside the body
– Woman given hormones to cause production of multiple
eggs
• Mature eggs removed from her body
• Eggs combined with partner’s or donor’s sperm
– After fertilization, zygote undergoes mitotic divisions,
forming a ball of cells (blastocyst)
• Placed in woman’s uterus to develop to term

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Other Types of Assisted Reproduction
• First child conceived by IVF born in 1978
– Much concern at the time by public and some scientists
– Since then, IVF is in wide use worldwide
• Other reproduction technologies
– Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
– Using donated eggs
– Using a surrogate mother
– “Bank” eggs – freeze for later use
• Approved in 2012 by the FDA

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41.2 Modes of Animal Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
– A single individual produces offspring
– All offspring are genetic replicas of the parent
• Unless a mutation occurs
• Mechanisms of asexual reproduction
– Budding
• Of fspring grows on the body of its parent
– Fragmentation
• Piece of the parent breaks of f and develops into a new animal

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Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Mechanisms of asexual reproduction (cont’d.)
– Transverse fission
• Worm divides in two, and the two pieces regrow the missing
body parts
– Parthenogenesis
• Female of fspring develop from unfertilized eggs
• Sexual reproduction
– Gametes of two parents combine at fertilization

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Sexual Reproduction
• Egg (female gamete) and male gamete (sperm) each
receive a dif ferent combination of a parent’s alleles
– When combined, offspring has different genetic makeup
than either parent
• Sexual reproduction advantageous in a changing
environment
– New combinations of alleles may be well-suited to
environmental changes
– Asexual reproduction best in stable environment

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Variations on Sexual Reproduction
• Hermaphrodites
– Sexually reproducing animals that can make both eggs
and sperm
– Example: tapeworms and some roundworms can fertilize
themselves
• Earthworms, land snails and slugs require a partner
– Some fishes switch from one sex to another over the
course of a lifetime
• Overwhelming majority of vertebrates have
separate sexes that are fixed for life

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 Examples of Animals Reproducing

A A sexual reproduction in a B Sexual reproduction in hamlets, which are C Sexual reproduction in elephants. The male is inserting his penis into the
hydra. A new individual (lef t) is simultaneous hermaphro- dites. Each fish female. Eggs will be fer tilized and the offspring will develop inside the
budding f rom its parent. lays eggs and also fertilizes its partner’s mother’s body, nourished by nutrients delivered by her bloodstream.
eggs.

(A) Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (B) Roger Klein/WaterF/Age Fotostock; (C) © Gabriela Staebler Wildlife Photography

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External and Internal Fertilization
• External fertilization
– Occurs in aquatic invertebrates, bony fishes, and
amphibians
• Eggs and sperm released into the water, where fertilization
occurs
• Internal fertilization
– Sperm fertilize an egg inside the female’s body
– Occurs in cartilaginous fishes and most land animals
– Female may lay eggs or retain inside the body

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Nourishing the Developing Embryo
• Developing animal requires nutrients
– Embryos of most animals nourished by yolk
• Thick fluid rich in protein and lipids
• Amount of yolk increases with time to hatch
– Placental mammals produce yolkless eggs
• Nourish embryos through a placenta
• Placenta facilitates the exchange of substances between
maternal and embryonic bloodstreams
– Placenta-like organs developed independently in live-
bearing fishes and one group of live-bearing lizards

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 A Beetle depositing fer tilized eggs on a leaf. Yolk in the eggs provides
the nutrients that sustain development of the young.

B Snake (adder) giving bir th to young that recently hatched in her body.
The young were nourished by egg yolk, not by their mother.

(A) © Nature Production/naturepl.com;

C An elk examines her newborn calf. The placenta, the organ that allowed (B) © Tony Phelps/naturepl.com;

nutrients from her blood to diffuse into the calf’s blood, is visible at the (C) NPS Yellowstone/Becky Wyman.
left. It is expelled at bir th.

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41.3 Organs of Sexual Reproduction
• Gonads
– Specialized reproductive organs where gametes develop
– Eggs produced in ovaries
– Sperm produced in testes
– Number, structure, and location varies among animal
groups
• Ovaries always in abdominal cavity
• Testes can be in abdominal cavity or descended in a pouch

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Gamete Development
• Many animals reproduce only during specific breeding
period
– Gonads shrink or disappear in some species when not in
use
• Gametes conveyed in a system of ducts
– In most animals and all vertebrates
• Eggs and sperm develop from diploid germ cells
– Chromosome number halved by meiosis

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How Gametes Form
• Spermatogenesis
– Process of forming sperm
• Oogenesis
– Process of forming eggs
• Figure 41.6 on next slide illustrates both processes

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 A Spermatogenesis (sperm B Oogenesis (egg, or ovum
formation) formation)

Spermatogonium (2n) Oogonium (2n)

1 1
mitosis mitosis

Primar y Primar y
spermatocyte (2n) oocyte (2n)

2
meiosis I,
2 unequal
meiosis I, cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic
division division polar
Secondar y Secondar
spermatocyte ( n) yoocyte ( n) body

3 3
meiosis II, meiosis II, unequal cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic division
division

polar
bodies
Spermatid (n ) Ovum (n )

4 4
Sperm (n )

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41.4 Reproductive System of Human Females
• Female ovaries lie deep in pelvic cavity
– About the size and shape of almonds
– Produce and release oocytes
– Secrete sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
• Estrogens
– Trigger development of female secondary sexual
characteristics
– Maintain lining of reproductive tract

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Oviducts
• Progesterone
– Thickens lining of reproductive tract in preparation for
pregnancy
• Oviduct
– Hollow tube connecting ovary to uterus
– Also known as Fallopian tube
– Cilia in the oviduct lining propel the oocyte along the
length of the tube
– Fertilization usually occurs in the oviduct

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 pelvic clitoris
girdle uterus
labia minora urethra
urinar y ovary vagina labia
bladder
majora
anus
vagina

A Location of female reproductive organs. C External sex organs, collectively referred to as the vulva.

Ovary One of two female gonads.

Makes eggs and secretes female sex
hormones (estrogens and progesterone).
Oviduct One of a pair of ducts through
which oocy tes ar e propelled f rom an ovar y to
the uterus; usual site of fer tilization
Uterus Womb, chamber in which an embr yo
develops. Includes myometrium (smooth mus- cle
layer) and endometrium (epithelial lining). Narrowed
lower por tion (the cer vix secretes mucus into the
vagina.
urinar y
bladder opening
Vagina Organ of sexual inter c ourse; bir th canal. of cer vix

Clitoris Highly sensitive erectile organ. Only the tip is urethra

exter nally visible; bulk of the organ extends internally
on either side of the vagina.
Labium minus One of a pair of inner skin folds (the
labia minora) .
anus
Labium majus One of a pair of fatty outer skin
folds (the labia majora). vestibular
gland

B Human female reproductive organs, shown in longitudinal section.

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The Uterus
• Uterus
– Hollow, pear shaped organ
– Located above the urinary bladder and at the end of the
oviducts
– Wall made of a thick layer of smooth muscle
– Lowest portion called cervix
• Vagina
– Extends from the cervix to the body opening

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Egg Production and Release
• All production of oocytes occurs before birth
– Human females born with about 2 million oocytes
– Oocytes begin maturing at puberty, one at a time, in a
28 day cycle
– Figure 41.8 on next slide illustrates this cycle

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Ovarian Cycle

follicle primary polar secondary secondary corpus

ovary cells oocyte body oocyte oocyte luteum

1 An ovary has many 2 A fluid-filled cavity 3 The primary oocyte 4 Ovulation. The mature follicle 5 A corpus luteum 6 If pregnancy
immature follicles, each begins to form in the completes meiosis I ruptures, releasing develops f rom follicle does not occur,
consisting of a primary follicle’s cell layer. and divides unequally, a secondary oocyte cells lef t behind af ter the corpus luteum
oocyte and surrounding forming a secondary coated with secreted ovulation. degenerates.
follicle cells. oocyte and a polar body. proteins and follicle cells.

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41.5 Female Reproductive Cycles
• Menstrual cycle
– Approximately monthly changes in the uterus
– Day one of cycle begins menstruation
• Flow of bits of uterine lining and blood from the uterus out of
the vagina
– Hormones governing the cycle
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Cycle steps illustrated in Figure 41.9 on next slide

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 Cyclic changes in the concentrations of sex
hypothalamus
hormones govern female reproductive
GnRH
function.
anterior pituitary
LH
FSH

A FSH and LH levels in blood

5

1
FSH
LH

FSH and LH stimulate LH surge

follicle maturation triggers ovulation

B Follicle ch anges in an ovary. c o rp u s

6 l u t eu m corpus luteum
2 ovulation forms breaks down
follicle matures

corpus luteum
follicle secretes sec retes estrogens,
estrogens progesterone

C Est rogen and p rogest erone levels in blood

Progesterone
7
Estrogens
3

estrogens, 9
p rogeste rone,
cause uterine, lining
to thicken
low est rogen
8
D Ch anges in u t erine lining

menstrual
flow
4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Days of cycle 28
Follicu lar p h ase
Luteal p h ase
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PMS and Menopause
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
– Recurrence of symptoms caused by cycle-associated
hormonal changes
– Symptoms include irritability, depression, headaches,
anxiety, and insomnia
• Menopause
– Occurs when all follicles in ovaries have been released or
have disintegrated as a result of aging
• Menstrual cycles cease
• Occurs only in humans and two species of whales

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41.6 Reproductive System of Human Males
• Male gonads: testes, or testicles
– Produce sperm and make testosterone
– Testes enclosed in the scrotum, a pouch that forms
before birth
– Smooth muscles in the scrotum regulate temperature by
contracting or relaxing
• Sperm travel from the epididymis into the vas
deferens and into a short ejaculatory duct
– Travel down the urethra to the body surface

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The Penis
• Penis
– Male organ of intercourse
– Rounded head (the glans) at the end of a narrower
shaft
– Nerve endings make it highly sensitive to touch
– When male is not sexually excited, the foreskin covers
the penis
• Some cultures perform circumcision to remove the foreskin

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Male Reproductive Process
• Penis contains three elongated cylinders of spongy
tissue
– During sexual excitement, blood flows into the spongy
tissue faster than it flows out
• Makes normally limp penis erect
• Ejaculation
– Rhythmic smooth muscle contractions propel semen
outside the body
• Semen is made of sperm and other gland secretions

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Male Reproductive System Organs
ejaculator y duct
prostate gla nd Exocrine One of a pair of ducts that
gland that contributes carr y semen to the penis
fluid to semen
seminal vesic le
urinar y One of a pair of exocrine
bladder glands that contribute
sugar y fluid to semen

urethra Duct that conveys

semen out of the body bulbourethral gland
One of a pair of exocrine
glands that secrete mucus
into the urethra
penis Organ of intercourse
anus
vas deferens
One of a pair of long ducts that
carr y sperm toward the penis

epididymis
One of a pair of ducts in whic h sperm
mature and are stored
scrotum

cylinders of urethr testis

spongy tis sue a One of a pair of gonads that make
sperm and secrete testosterone

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Components of Semen
• Sperm makes up less than five percent of semen
volume
• Seminal vesicles
– Secrete fructose-rich fluid into the vasa deferentia
• Sperm use the fructose as their energy source
• Prostate gland
– Alkaline secretions help raise pH of female reproductive
tract
• Make it more hospitable to sperm

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Germ Cells to Sperm Cells
• Seminiferous tubules
– Located inside the testes
– Contain diploid male germ cells
– Contain large nurse cells that support developing sperm
• Spermatogenesis governed by LH and FSH
• Newly-formed sperm cannot swim
– Moved along by smooth muscle contractions
– Sperm mature and become mobile as they move through
the epididymis

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41.7 Bringing Gametes Together
• Increased activity of sympathetic nerves
– Raises heart and breathing rates in both partners
during intercourse
– Posterior pituitary increases oxytocin
• For males, intercourse requires an erection
– Ability to sustain erection peaks during late teens
– Erectile dysfunction may occur as a male ages

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Hormonal Changes During Intercourse
• When a woman becomes sexually excited:
– Blood flow to the vaginal wall, labia, and clitoris increases
– Cervix glands secrete mucus
– Labia glands produce a lubricating fluid
• Orgasm
– Endorphins flood the brain, evoking feelings of pleasure
– In males, ejaculation usually accompanies orgasm

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The Sperm’s Journey
• Each sperm is a haploid cell with a head containing
DNA and enzymes
– Enzymes help sperm penetrate an oocyte
• Sperm take carbohydrates from the female
reproductive tract to fuel their movement
• Sperm must swim through canal in cervix center
– Canal plugged with acidic mucus when woman’s estrogen
level is low
– As estrogen level rises, thin mucus forms

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Fertilization
o viduct
Fertilization

zona
pellucida

o vary oocyte zona follicle

nucleus pellucida cell
Ovulation
uterus
haploid egg and
sperm nuclei
opening of
cer vix

vagina

3 The sperm is drawn into the oocyte and

1 Fer tilization most often occurs in
the oviduct. Many sperm travel swiftly
through the vaginal canal into oviducts
(blue arrows).
Inside an oviduct, the sperm surround
a secondar y oocyte that was released
by ovulation.
the oocyte nucleus completes meiosis II. Later,
both paternal and maternal nuclear
membranes break down and chromosomes
become arranged on a bipolar spindle in
preparation for the first mitotic division.
2 Enzymes released from the cap of each sperm clear a path
through the zona pellucida. Binding of one sperm to the membrane
of the secondar y oocyte causes
the oocyte to release substances that alter the zona pellucida
and prevent other sperm from binding.

#1–3 ar t, © 2016 Cengage Learning; #3 photo, Courtesy of Elizabeth Sanders, Women’s Specialty Center, Jackson, MS.

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Fertilization
• Typically only one sperm enters the oocyte
– After fertilization, oocyte secretes proteins that
prevent more sperm from binding to the zona pellucida
• Chromosomes in the egg and sperm nuclei
– Become the genetic material of the new zygote
• Sperm also supplies a single centriole
– Helps organize for the first mitotic division

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41.8 Contraception and Infertility
• Birth control options
– Abstinence
– Rhythm method
• Abstaining from sex during fertile period
– Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina prior to
ejaculation
– Surgical methods
– Physical and chemical barriers to stop sperm from
reaching the egg

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Tubal Pregnancy and Other Problems
• Tubal pregnancy
– Embryo implants in the oviduct
– Can be caused by scarring in the oviduct
• Uterine problems can interfere with the embryo’s
ability to implant
• Male infertility
– Too little sperm or abnormal sperm
– Sexually transmitted diseases can cause blockages
– Problem with bladder-urethra valve

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41.9 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• STD: contagious disease that spreads through sexual
contact
– Women contract STDs more easily than men
– Women can infect offspring during childbirth
• Trichomoniasis
– Most common curable STD
– Untreated infection can cause infertility in both sexes

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Bacterial STDs
• Chlamydia
– Small bacteria that live as intracellular parasites
– Can be cured with antibiotics
• Gonorrhea
– Causes yellow pus to ooze from the penis and painful
urination
– Infection can damage reproductive ducts and cause
infertility
– Treated with antibiotics
• Antibiotic-resistant strains becoming more common

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Syphilis and Viral STDs
• Syphilis
– Caused by a spiral shaped bacterium
– Causes a flattened, painless ulcer at infection site
– Left untreated, infection can become systemic
• Viral STDs
– HPV
– Genital herpes
• Infected infants have a 40 percent chance of death
– HIV/AIDS

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Points to Ponder
• What propels sperm from their point of origin to
the opening where they exit the body?
• What mechanisms prevent the entry of more than
a single sperm into the egg?
• What events result in the production of identical
and fraternal twins?

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