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EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE :
 Every human differ with respect to their psychical and
Psychological characteristics. This is due to the interaction

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of their genetic endowments and environmental demands.

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 Biologist believes that species were not always like this,

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they have evolved to their present form from their pre
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 Evolution refers to gradual and orderly biological changes
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that results in a species from their pre existing forms in

response tochanging adaptational demands of their
environment.
 Evolution occurs through 'NATURAL SELECTION'
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3 Important features of 'modern human
beings' :

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 Developed Brain (with increased capacity for

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cognition and behaviour)

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 Developed ability of walking (can walk upright
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on two legs)
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 A free hand (with a workable opposing thumb)

BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ROOTS :

 As human beings, we not only share biological system,

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but also certain cultural systems.

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 Culture provides us with different experiences and

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opportunities of learning by putting us in various
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situations. Such experiences, opportunities, and
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demands also influence our behaviour considerably.
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 Thus, beside biological basis there are cultural basis of

behaviour also.
 NEURONS : -
 Neuron is the basic unit of nervous system. Specialised cells
that converts various forms of stimuli into electrical impulses.

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Also specialised for reception, conduction, and transmission of

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information in the form of electrochemical signals.

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 They receive information from sense organs or from other
adjacent neurons carry them to the central nervous system and
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bring motor information from the central nervous system to
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the motor organs.
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 They are of many types and vary considerably in shape, size,

chemical composition, and function. Despite these differences
they share three fundamental components, i.e, Soma,
Dendrites and Axon.
• SOMA - cell body, contains nucleus. Genetic material of the neuron is stored in
nucleus. Soma also contains most of the cytoplasm of the neuron.
• DENDRITES - receiving ends of neurons. receive the neural impulses from several
adjoining neurons or directly from the sense organs.
• Axon - The longer single branched extension. Received information is passed to

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axon so that the information is relayed to another neuron or to muscles.

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• TERMINAL BUTTONS - terminal points of axon. These buttons transmits the
information to another neuron, gland and muscle.

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NERVE IMPULSES
 information travels within the nervous system in the form
of nerve impulse.

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 the nerve fibre work according to 'all or none principle'

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which means that they either respond completely or do

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not respond at all.
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 a neurone is never physically connected with another
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neurone rather, there is a small gap between the two. The

cap is known as synaptic cleft.
 the neural impulses from one neurone is transmitted by a
complex synaptic transmission process to another neuron.
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The Brain & Behaviour :

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 Hindbrain
There are 3 structures or part under hindbrain.
 Medulla oblongata: - lowest part continue with Spinal

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cord, regulate basic life supporting and autonomic

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activities, vital centre of brain.

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 Pons: - Connected with medulla and midbrain, receives
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auditory signals, involved in sleep mechanism, affects
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respiratory movement and facial expressions.
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 Cerebellum: - wrinkled part and high developed,

maintains and controls posture and equlibrium,
coordination of muscular movement, stores memory of
movement.
Midbrain
 Small in size and connects forebrain and

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hindbrain

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 Neural centers are present here.

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 Reticular activating system (RAS)
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 Makes us active and to select information
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from environment.
 Forebrain
Important part of brain that performs cognitive, emotional
and motor activities. It has 4 major parts :

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 Hypothalamus:

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- small structure, regulates physiological processes

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- regulate and controls internal body environment
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- also regulates secretion of hormones.
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 Thalamus :
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- egg shaped cluster of neurons

- exchanges sensory signals between sense organs and
cortexes.
 Limbic system:
-composed of group of structures form old mammalian
brain, maintains internal homeostasis, close links with

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hypothalamus, consists of hippocampus(long term

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memory) and amygdala (emotional behavior)

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 Cerebrum(cerebral cortex)

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-regulates higher cognitive skills -⅔ of mass of brain, 1.5 mm
to 4 mm thick and contains neurons, neural net and
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bundles of axon, make us able to do different actions.
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Divided into cerebral hemispheres, looks identical and

functionally one is dominative, these two are connected
with corpus callosum that exchange message between both
hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex has also been divided into 4 lobes :
1. Frontal lobe - cognitive functions, exerts inhibitory effects
om autonomic and emotional responses.

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2. Parietal lobe - cutaneous sensation and their

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coordination with visual and auditory sensations.

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3. Temporal lobe - process auditory information.
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4. Occipital lobe - visual information .
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 Physiologists and psychologists said that no activity is
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performed by a single part of cortex. But localisation of

functions is present.
 The whole brain acts as well as coordinated unit in which
different parts contribute their functions separately.
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Heredity : Genes & Behaviour
 The study of inheritance of physical & Psychological
characteristics from ancestors is referred to as Genetics.

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 The child begins life as a single zygote cell.

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 Zygote, a tiny cell with a nucleus in center that contains

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inherited chromosomes.
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Chromosomes from Mother & Father

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GENES :

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 The traits, which which can be passed to

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offsprings through genetic material is called

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genotype.

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 Change of a gene from one form to another is
called mutation.
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 The type of mutation that occurs spontaneously

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in nature provides variation in genotypes and

permits the evolution of new species.
 Concept of CULTURE :
 Culture refers to the 'man made part of environment.' It
comprises diverse 'products' of behaviour of many people
including ourselves. (Products = material objects, ideas and

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social institutions.)

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 The relationship between individuals and their social

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surroundings is interactive, they constitute each other. This
perspective emphasizes that human beings are not passive
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residents of cultural forces, instead they themselves create the
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context in which their behaviour is shaped.
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 Culture includes behavioral products of others who preceded

us. Thus, culture is already there as we begin life. It contains
values that will be expressed and language in which to express
them. It contains a way of life that will be followed by most of us
who grow up in that context.
Cultural Transmission
:
 The process of 'enculturation' and 'socialization' makes us
cultural beings.

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 Enculturation refers to all learning that takes place

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without direct deliberate teaching. We learn certain ideas,

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concept, and values simply because of their availability in
our cultural context. yc
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 Socialisation generally means the activity of mixing
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socially with others. It is a process by which individuals

acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions which enable
them to participate as effective members of group and
society.
Socialisation Agents :
 - A number of people who relate to us possesses power to
socializes us. Such people are called socialization agents.

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Acculturation :
 Aculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes
resulting from contact with other cultures. Contact may

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be direct or indirect, voluntary or involuntary.

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 According to Jhon berry, there are two important issues
faced by aculturating individuals. One relates to the

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degree to which there is a desire to maintain one's own
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culture. Another relates to the degree to which there's a
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desire of engaging in daily interaction with members of
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other cultural group.

 Based on people's positive or negative answers to these
issues, there are four aculturative strategies have been
derived.
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 s
“ While GENES write the script of

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biological transmissions, MEMES write
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the script of cultural transmission. ”
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Topics Covered :
 EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

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 BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ROOTS

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 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR

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- NEURONS
- NERVOUS SYSTEM yc
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- THE BRAIN & BEHAVIOUR
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- THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- HEREDITY : GENES & BEHAVIOUR
- CONCEPT OF CULTURE