Last edited: 9/13/2021

GLIAL CELLS
Neurology | Glial Cells: Medical Editor: Sohani Kashi Puranic

OUTLINE II) ASTROCYTES

I) OVERVIEW
II) ASTROCYTES
III) SATELLITE CELLS
IV) OLIGODENDROCYTES & SCHWANN CELLS
V) EPENDYMAL CELLS
VI) MICROGLIA
VII) APPENDIX
VIII) REVIEW QUESTIONS
IX) REFERENCES
Figure 1. Astrocytes
I) OVERVIEW ONLY found in the CNS
Contain foot processes that extend off cell body
Nervous tissue is made of neurons and glial cells Functions:
Glial cells are supportive cells to neurons in both the CNS o Blood Brain Barrier
and PNS o Potassium Buffer
o Removes Excess Neurotransmitters
o Glycogen Reserve

(A) BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)

(1) Components of BBB from inner to outer (3) Astrocytes and the BBB

(i) Endothelial lining of blood vessels Astrocytes release growth factors

 With tight junctions located between endothelial

cells

(ii) Basal lamina (4) Circumventricular Organs

 Made of Connective tissue Regions in the brain where BBB is broken (absent)
Locations:
(iii) Foot process of astrocytes
(i) Area postrema
Pericytes also present
 This area is sensitive to toxins and drugs and can
(2) Functions of BBB trigger vomiting
Regulates what leaves the blood and enters the neural (ii) Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
tissue in the CNS:
 These sample the osmolality of blood triggering
(i) Substances that diffuse passively ADH release or thirst
 The osmoreceptors are:
 Oxygen, carbon dioxide
 Lipid soluble substances (a) Sub-Fornicular Organ (SFO)
(ii) Substances that require transporters (b) Organum Vasculosum of Lamina
 Water, electrolytes (Na+, Cl-) Terminalis (OVLT)
(iii) Substances that should not pass (iii) Hypothalamic pituitary axis
 Proteins  Allows neurotransmitters to be release from
hypothalamus and enter bloodstream

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 (B) POTASSIUM BUFFER

Figure 3. Potassium Buffer

(1) Mechanism (2) Why is this a problem?
During repolarization phase of action potential If K+ in the ECF accumulates

In addition, during rest

This results in a lot of K+ sitting in ECF

(3) How do astrocytes act as a K+ buffer?
They express specialized K+ transporters on their
membrane

They also contain gap junctions

(C) REMOVES EXCESS NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Figure 4. Removes excess Neurotransmitters

(2) What do astrocytes do about this excess
(1) Glutamate glutamate?
When glutamate is released from a presynaptic neuron in Astrocytes express glutamate transporters and uptake
the CNS it binds to ligand gated ion channels present glutamate
on postsynaptic neurons

Afterwards, Glutamate dissociates from receptor

Astrocytes release Glutamine, which is taken up by other

 Glutamate then sits in the synapse and can exert nearby neurons that make GABA
longer stimulatory effects

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 (D) GLYCOGEN RESERVE

Figure 5. Glycogen Reserve

(1) ATP
Neurons utilize glucose to make ATP
When there is decreased ATP in neurons, the astrocytes
have the ability to sense the low ATP levels
(2) What do astrocytes do for neurons with low ATP?
Astrocytes use GLUT-1 transporters on BBB to uptake
glucose that crosses BBB
When neurons need ATP, astrocytes break down
glycogen→ glucose→ pyruvate→ lactate

III) SATELLITE CELLS

Figure 6. Satellite Cells

(A) STRUCTURE (B) FUNCTION

(i) Only found in the PNS (i) K+ Buffer

(ii) Surround cell bodies in the PNS (ii) Removes excess neurotransmitters
(iii) Glycogen reserve
 Surrounds cell bodies of autonomic ganglion

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 IV) OLIGODENDROCYTES & SCHWANN CELLS

Figure 7. Oligodendrocytes v/s Schwann cells

(A) OLIGODENDROCYTES (B) SCHWANN CELLS

(1) Structure of Oligodendrocytes (1) Structure of Schwann cells
Only in CNS Only in PNS
One oligodendrocyte myelinates up to 30-60 axons Multiple Schwann cells myelinate one axon
(2) Functions of Oligodendrocytes (2) Functions of Schwann cells

(i) Myelinate axons of CNS (i) Myelinate axons of PNS

 This includes brain, spinal cord and cranial nerve
II (optic nerve)
 Cannot regenerate if damaged/demyelinated
 Demyelinating disease in CNS is most commonly
Multiple sclerosis
 This includes spinal nerves and cranial nerves III-
XII
 Demyelinating disease in PNS is most commonly
Guillain Barre syndrome

(ii) Process of myelination

 Schwann cells surround axon of neuron and twist
around axons multiple times creating a concentric
ring around axon called myelin sheath

 Neurilemma allows Schwann cells to regenerate if

damaged/ demyelinated

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 (C) MYELIN

Figure 8. Myelin
(1) Structure (4) Conduction velocity
Made of proteins and lipids
Wrap around axons creating small little bare spaces of
(i) Dependent upon degree of myelination
just axon between myelin sheath called Node of Ranvier  Examples:

(2) Function (a) Type A: fastest conduction velocity

Myelin helps neurons to conduct electrical signals down
axons faster via the process called saltatory conduction
(b) Type B: moderate conduction velocity
(3) How does myelin increase speed of conduction?
When an action potential is generated
(c) Type C: slow conduction velocity

(ii) Dependent upon diameter of axon

The Na+ ions quickly move down the axon to the next
(a) Larger diameter
Node of Ranvier and activate those voltage gated Na+
channels causing more Na+ to enter axon and cause
depolarization (b) Smaller diameter
This process repeats down the length of the axon during
the depolarization phase
So, effectively myelin sheaths concentrate Voltage gated
channels at Nodes of Ranvier

V) EPENDYMAL CELLS
(B) FUNCTION
Cuboidal cells located in the ventricles of CNS Component of blood CSF barrier (choroid plexus) which
o Lateral ventricles are found in ventricles
o Third ventricle
(1) Choroid Plexus
o Fourth ventricle
Forms the Blood-CSF barrier
Layers from inner to outer

(i) Endothelial cells with fenestrations

(ii) Basal lamina
 Made of connective tissue

(iii) Ependymal cells with tight junctions located

between them
 Plays the most crucial role in selective
permeability across choroid plexus
This choroid plexus regulates what leaves the blood and
enters the CSF in ventricles
The ependymal cells also contain cilia that move and
circulate CSF throughout the ventricular system in CNS

Figure 9. Ependymal Cells

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 VI) MICROGLIA
(A) STRUCTURE (B) FUNCTION
Only in CNS (1) Immune system of the CNS
Contains multiple dendritic like extensions
Migrated from Red bone marrow as a monocyte that Example:
became a permanent resident of the CNS now called
microglia

Figure 10. Microglia

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 VII) APPENDIX

Figure 11. Glial Cells

VIII) REVIEW QUESTIONS IX) REFERENCES

1) Which glial cell acts as potassium buffer? ● Sabatine MS. Pocket Medicine: the Massachusetts General
Hospital Handbook of Internal Medicine. Philadelphia: Wolters
a) Astrocytes Kluwer; 2020.
b) Microglia ● Le T. First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2020. 30th anniversary
c) Oligodendrocytes edition: McGraw Hill; 2020.
● Williams DA. Pance Prep Pearls. Middletown, DE: Kindle Direct
d) Ependymal cells Publishing Platform; 2020.
● Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ, Rabow MW. Current Medical
Diagnosis & Treatment 2018. New York: McGraw-Hill
2) Myelin in CNS is produced by: Education; 2017.
a) Oligodendrocytes ● Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL,
b) Astrocytes Loscalzo J. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twentieth
Edition (Vol.1 & Vol.2). McGraw-Hill Education / Medical; 2018
c) Schwann cells ● Marieb EN, Hoehn K. Anatomy & Physiology. Hoboken, NJ:
d) Satellite cells Pearson; 2020.
● Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Medical Physiology.; 2017.
3) Unmyelinated axons undergo which type of electric ● Netter FH, Felten DL, Józefowicz Ralph F. Netter's Atlas of
conduction? Human Neuroscience. Teterboro, NJ: Icon Learning Systems; 2004.
Netter FH. Atlas of Human Anatomy. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2018.
a) Saltatory
● Westover MB. Pocket Neurology.
b) Continuous ● Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2016.
c) Both a & b
d) None of the above

4) The following are areas of the brain without BBB

EXCEPT:
a) SFO
b) Area Postrema
c) OVLT
d) Cerebral cortex

5) Which cells are called the ‘immune cells of the CNS’?

a) Astrocytes
b) Microglia
c) Oligodendrocytes
d) Ependymal cells

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