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RADIATIVE COOLING
The effect of clouds and relative humidity
Mike Luciuk
We’ve all experienced that chilly feeling
after sunset on a clear calm night. It
seems unusually cold, and, in the winter
as well as spring or fall, we might find
frost on our windshields. This is usually
due to radiative cooling. On the other
hand, temperature drops on cloudy
nights are more temperate. This cooling
effect is illustrated by Figure 1, which
shows that radiative cooling is the sum of
the three sources of radiation: outgoing
radiation from objects versus incoming Figure 1. Simple Radiative Cooling Illustration
sky and cloud radiation. It’s obvious that See references for source
on those clear nights, the lack of
downwelling cloud radiation results in greater radiative cooling.
Nighttime radiation cooling is very dependent on atmospheric water vapor conditions
from cloud cover and ambient relative humidity. Low humidity areas like desserts and high
elevation locations can generate large temperature drops: “… temperature differences as large
as 400C have been measured for thermally insulated approximate black bodies in the Altacama
dessert in Chile” (Eriksson and Granqvist). However, even mild winds can overwhelm the
cooling effects of radiation. Many radiation cooling studies have been carried out by the
agriculture industry. Fruit crops and certain types of seedlings are vulnerable to this
phenomenon, making it advantageous to study avoidance strategies like using protective
coverings, wind machines, fog generators, etc.
STEFAN‐BOLTZMANN LAW
To determine outgoing radiation, we can utilize the Stefan‐Boltzmann Law:
P = Aεσ T
4
Where P (watts) is the radiated power from a body of area A ( m 2 ) at temperature T (K).
ε is emissivity, a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 that determines the
efficiency of a body to radiate and absorb energy. A black body has an emissivity
of 1. Soil, asphalt and human skin have emissivity of about 0.95. The emissivity of
the night sky is approximately 0.74.
σ is the Stefan‐Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x10−8 Wm −2T −4
T is the body temperature in Kelvin. All bodies with temperature greater than
absolute zero (‐273.15 0C) radiate power.
We can estimate radiation amounts from a naked human body with the radiation law.
The average human has a skin area of about 2.2 m 2 with an average skin temperature of 33 0C
(91 0F). The emissivity of skin is about 0.95. Therefore the outgoing radiated power of that
body would be about
(2.2)(0.95)(5.67 x10−8 )(273 + 33) 4 = 1039 W .
In other words, a human body radiates power close to that of a toaster, with a peak wavelength
of about 9.5 μ m . However, in normal temperatures of 22 0C (72 0F), a room radiates about 897
watts back to the body. The net radiation loss at this skin temperature would be about 142 W.
This is why a naked person feels chilly at room temperature. With time, as skin temperature
settles toward room temperature, net body radiation loss ceases.
RADIATION COOLING
On calm nights, objects radiate power as illustrated above in Figure 1. The radiation law permits
an exact way to determine outgoing radiation. However, atmospheric and cloud complexities
do not permit an exact method of calculating incoming downward sky radiation. Field
measurements collecting such data have been made to develop quite accurate downwelling sky
radiation empirical formulas. That is how a determination of night sky emissivity was made.
Although it’s slightly dependent on water vapor content, a sky emissivity value of 0.74 is a good
approximation. Water vapor in the atmosphere from relative humidity and clouds creates a
source of radiation through greenhouse effects which can be quantified by a radiative
temperature. Carbon dioxide and ozone have a lesser greenhouse effect. A modified Swinbank
model of night time downward thermal radiation has been developed (Goforth et al):
Pthermal = (1 + KC 2 ) x 8.78 E − 13 x T 5.852 x RH 0.07195
Where Pthermal is the down‐going thermal night sky radiation, W / m 2
K = 0.34 for cloud height p 2 km, 0.18 for 2km p height f 5 km, and
0.06 for height f 5km
C = cloud cover (0.0 for clear sky through 1.0 for totally overcast)
T is the temperature in Kelvin, K
RH is the relative humidity percentage
CLEAR NIGHT EXAMPLE
Assume a clear sky, temperature 10 0C (50 0F) with a relative humidity of 25%.
At 10 0C, from the Stefan Boltzmann Law, a body of emissivity 0.95 radiates
0.95 x 5.67 E − 8 x (273 + 10) 4 = 345.5 W / m 2
The downwelling thermal radiation via the Swinbank formula is
(1 + K (0) 2 )(8.78E − 13)(273 + 10)5.852 (25)0.07195 = 246.6 W / m 2
The net outgoing radiation is 345.5 – 246.6 = 98.9 W / m 2
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We can also determine the radiative clear night sky temperature as follows:
P 246.6
T = ( )0.25 = ( )0.25 = 276.9 K = 3.9 0C
εσ 0.74 x5.67 E − 8
OVERCAST NIGHT EXAMPLE
Same temperature and relative humidity as above, with 100% cloud cover below 2 km height.
At 10 0C, from the Stefan Boltzmann Law, a body of emissivity 0.95 radiates
0.95 x5.67 E − 8 x (273 + 10)4 = 345.5 W / m 2
The downwelling thermal radiation via the Swinbank formula is
(1 + 0.34(1.0) 2 )(8.78E − 13)(273 + 10)5.852 (25)0.07195 = 330.4 W / m 2
The net outgoing radiation is 345.5 – 330.4 = 15.1 W / m 2
We can also determine the radiative overcast night sky temperature as follows:
P 330.4
T = ( )0.25 = ( )0.25 = 397.9 K = 24.9 0C
εσ 0.74 x5.67 E − 8
RADIATION COOLING TIME
Note that in these examples, there was a 34% increase in downwelling sky radiation between
an overcast (330.4 W / m 2 ) and clear sky (246.6 W / m 2 ). As a result, the net radiation loss on
the ground was 98.9 W / m 2 for clear skies and 15.1 W / m 2 for overcast skies. Therefore,
greater surface radiation losses on clear nights result in greater and faster temperature drops
than on cloudy nights. Note also the difference in the radiative sky temperatures between clear
and overcast skies, 21.0 0C. In the example above, a temperature of 10 0C and RH of 25%
implies a dew point of ‐9.1 0C. At this temperature, water vapor in the atmosphere leaves the
gaseous state, condenses as frost, and may deposit on cold objects.
Radiation cooling time for an object with outgoing radiation can be theoretically
calculated as follows (HyperPhysics):
mN Ak 1 1
tcooling = [ 3 − 3 ]
2 M εσ A T final Tinitial
Where tcooling cooling time, s m object’s mass, kg N A Avogadro’s number, 6.02 E 23
k Boltzmann constant, 1.38E − 23 m 2 kgs −2T −1 M molar mass, kg
ε emissivity, 0.0 – 1.0 σ Stefan‐Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x10 Wm T
−8 −2 −4
A object radiating area, m 2 T temperature, K
Note that increased cooling times correlate positively with increases in object’s mass and its
“initial – final” temperature range, and correlate negatively with increases in molecular weight,
emissivity and body area.
Assume we have an aluminum dish (emissivity = 0.02, density = 2700 kg / m 3 , atomic
weight = 27), 30 cm diameter and 3 mm thick and insulated from the ambient environment
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except for its zenith facing area. It’s a cloudless night, temperature 10 C, relative humidity 25%.
How long will it take for the temperature of the dish to reach 0 C?
The dish mass, m = 2700π (0.15) 2 (0.003) = 0.573 kg
The dish zenith facing area, A = π (0.15) 2 = 0.0707 m 2
Molar mass, M = 0.027 kg for atomic weight of 27
(0.573)(6.02 E 23)(1.38E − 23) 1 1
tcooling = [ − ] = 5,529 s or 92.1 minutes
2(0.027)(0.02)(5.67 E − 8)(0.0707) (273 + 0) 3
(273 + 10)3
However, this calculation assumes an outgoing radiation of 345.5 W / m 2 without downwelling
sky radiation. The actual net outgoing radiation was 98.9 W / m 2 . Therefore, we should increase
the calculated cooling time by a factor of 345.5 = 3.49 . So the true cooling time for clear
98.9
nights is 321.7 minutes or about 5.4 hours. For a totally overcast night, the net outgoing
radiation is 15.1 W / m 2 . The true cooling time would be 345.5 (92.1) = 2,107 minutes or
15.1
35.1 hours, 6.5 times longer than for a clear night. The graph below (Figure 2) illustrates
temperature profiles for the two sky conditions. Clear night cooling occurs at about 1.9 0C per
hour, and overcast night cooling about 0.3 0C per hour.
Radiative Cooling for Clear vs Overcast Skies
Ambient Temperature 10 C, RH 25%
Aluminum, 30 cm diameter x 3 mm thickness
10
9
8
7
TEMPERATURE, C
6
Red curve, overcast sky
5
Blue curve, clear sky
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME, hours
Figure 2. Night Radiation Loss Temperature Profiles
Since these hypothetical examples are based on a dish insulated from its environment, it’s
important to point out that in practice, temperature cooling would likely occur at slower rates
than shown in the graph.
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REFERENCES
Allen, R. G., Walter, I. A., Elliot, R. L., Howell, T. A., Itenfisu, D., Jensen, M. E., Snyder, R. L., 2005,
Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. American Society of Civil Engineers.
Eriksonn, T. S., Granquist C, G., 1982, Radiative cooling computed for model atmospheres. Applied
Optics Vol.21 No. 23.
Goforth, M. A., Gilcrest, G. W., Sirianni, J. D. 2002, Cloud Effects on Thermal Downwelling Sky
Radiance. SPIE Vol. 4710.
Hamberg, I., Svensson, J. S. E. M., Eriksson, T. S., Granquist, C. G., Arrenius, P., Norin, F. 1987,
Radiative cooling and frost formation on surfaces with different thermal emittance: theoretical
analysis and practical experience. Applied Optics Vol. 26 No. 11.
http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AbantyFarzana.shtml
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/22437703/MEASUREMENT‐OF‐NIGHT‐SKY‐EMISSIVITY‐IN‐
DETERMINING‐RADIANT‐COOLING
HyperPhysics, http://hyperphysics.phy‐astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/thermo/cootime.html
Onishi, O., Nakamura, M., Sakai, S., 2009,
http://www.ide.titech.ac.jp/~icuc7/extended_abstracts/pdf/
Figure 1 source:
http://www.ide.titech.ac.jp/~icuc7/extended_abstracts/pdf/375930‐1‐090512223019‐004.pdf
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