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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY:
CONDITIONINGAND STRESS
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 1993.44:53-85. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org
by UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - CHICAGO on 11/01/05. For personal use only.
Department
of Psychiatry and Microbiologyand Immunology,
Universityof Rochester
Schoolof Medicineand Dentistry, Rochester, NewYork14642
KEYWORDS:
psychoneuroimmunology, conditioning, stress
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
..................................................................................................................... 53
CONDITIONED
MODULATION OFIMMUNITY ................................................................ 54
Effectsof Conditioning onHumoral andCell-Mediated Immunity ..................... 55
Effectsof Conditioning onNonimmunologically SpecificReactions .................. 59
Antigen
asUnconditioned Stimulus ..................................................................... 60
BiologicImpact of Conditioned Changes in Immunity ........................................ 61
Conditioning
inHuman Subjects ......................................................................... 61
STRESS
ANDIMMUNITY
......................................................................................................63
Effects
ofStress onDisease .................................................................................. 64
Effectsof StressonHumoral andCell-Mediated Immunity ................................ 66
Effectsof StressonNonimmunologically SpecificReactions .............................. 69
MEDIATION OF BEHAVIORALLY INDUCED IMMUNE CHANGES .............................. 71
SUMMARY
.............................................................................................................................. 76
INTRODUCTION
During the past 10-15 years, psychoneuroimmunology--the study of the in-
teractions amongbehavior, neural and endocrine function, and immunepro-
cesses--has developed into a bona fide field of interdisciplinary research
(Ader 1981a, 1991a). Previously unknownand unsuspected connections be-
tween the brain and the immunesystem provide a foundation for the now
numerousobservations both (a) that the manipulationof neural and endocrine
functions alters immuneresponses, and the antigenic stimulation that induces
an immuneresponse results in changes in neural and endocrine function and
(b) that behavioral processes are capable of influencing immunologicreactiv-
53
0066-4308/93/0201-0053502.00
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54 ADER & COHEN
precisely and then eliminate only the antigens it has confronted. Theseactivi-
ties are carried out by a variety of white bloodcells (leukocytes). Prominent
amongthese are T and B lymphocytesthat are capable of clonal proliferation
in response to antigens and retaining the "memory"of that encounter. Hu-
moral or antibody-mediated immunityinvolves the exposure of antigens to
bone marrow-derivedB cells. These cells effect the ultimate production of
antibodies that protect the organismagainst extracellular microorganismsand
reinfection. Cell-mediated immunityis provided by thymus-derived T cells
that protect against intracellular parasitic and viral infections. Anintegrated
immuneresponse to antigens, however, involves complexinteractions among
specialized subpopulationsof T cells (i.e. helper, suppressor, cytotoxic),
cells, other white blood cells such as macrophages,and substances (cytokines)
that are secreted by activated leukocytes. A variety of techniques have been
developedto measurethese cellular interactions in vitro. The essence of psy-
choneuroimmunology, however,is the recognition that in vivo these reactions
occur within a neuroendocrinemilieu that is demonstrably sensitive to the
organism’s perception of and adaptation to events occurring in its environ-
ment.
1
Whensplenic leukocytes from an inbred strain of Lewis rats are injected into the footpad of
hybrid (Lewis x BrownNorwegian)F~ rats, the grafted cells recognize the host as "foreign," and
local inflammatory reaction (the GvH response) ensues and can be measured by weighing the
popliteal lymphnode that drains the injection site.
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58 ADER&COHEN
from Lewis strain donors. On the day of grafting and on the following two days
they were reexposed to the CS; on the day after grafting they were also given a
low dose injection of CY. While low-dose injections of CY on Days 0, 1, and
2 dramatically suppressed the local GvHresponse, a single injection on Day l
caused only a modest decrease in the response. However, a single low-dose
injection of CYplus reexposure to the CS previously paired with CYsignifi-
cantly suppressed the GvHresponse relative to control groups that received only
the single low-dose injection of CY. As expected, unreinforced exposures to the
CS during the 7-week interval between conditioning and induction of the GvH
response resulted in extinction of the conditioned immunosuppressiveresponse.
Experimental extinction, one hallmark of a conditioned response, has also been
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 1993.44:53-85. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org
by UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - CHICAGO on 11/01/05. For personal use only.
2
DTHis an in vivo inflammatory’reaction mediatedby sensitized T cells that is evokedby
contactwith the antigen withwhichthe animalhadbeenimmunized.
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
59
males) were reexposed to the CS on Days 13, 16, and 19 of gestation, there
was a depression of humoral and cell-mediated immunity in their un-
manipulatedoffspring.
cytes that nonspecifically attack and destroy certain virus-infected cells and
tumorcells and maybe involved in preventing tumor metastasis.
T and/or B lymphocytescan be induced to proliferate in vitro by stimula-
tion with various lectins (chemical substances obtained from plants), and the
lymphoproliferative response to such mitogens has been used to indicate an
alteration of the physiological state of T or B cells in a particular lymphoid
compartment(e.g. spleen, lymphnodes, peripheral blood). Changesin mitt-
genie responsiveness, however,do not necessarily reflect an organism’sabil-
ity to respond to antigens in vivo or in an immunologically specific manner.
In a comprehensiveseries of experiments, Lysle and his colleagues (1988,
1990a,b, 1991, 1992b)characterized the conditioned suppression of a variety
of nonspecific responses in rats rcexposcd to cues previously paired with
stressful stimulation. Comparedto nonconditioned animals, to conditioned
animals exposedto novel environmentalcues, and to animals exposedto cues
explicitly unpaired with the UCS,animals reexposed to auditory (or visual)
cues paired with electric shock stimulation showeda reliable suppression of
lymphoproliferative responses to concanavalin A (Con A) and phytohemag-
glutinin (PHA)(two T cell mitogens), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (a
mitogen), interleukin-2 (IL-2)3 production, and NKcell activity. As expected,
exposure to the CSbefore conditioning retarded developmentof the condi-
tioned response, and unreinforced exposures to the CSresulted in experimen-
tal extinction (Lysle et al 1988). In addition, the conditionedresponsesvaried
as a function of both the timing of reexposureto the CSin relation to the time
of conditioning and the immunecompartment from which the cells were
obtained (Lysle et al 1990a,b; Lysle &Maslonek1991). In splenic lympho-
cytes there was a depressed response to T and B cell mitogens; in wholeblood,
there was a suppression of the response to Con A and PHA,but not to LPS;
3
Macrophages and activated lymphocytesproducesoluble products (cytokines), such as interleu-
kin-1 (IL-1), IL-2, interferons, and tumornecrosis factor that are involved in the proliferation,
differentiation, and effector functions of lymphocytes. In addition, they serve as "im-
munotransmitters"in the sense that some,if not all of themhave effects within the central nervous
systemand stimulate the release of hormones.
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60 ADER& COHEN
were substituted for half of the weekly treatments with active im-
munosuppressivedrug (CY). The onset of autoimmunedisease in the geneti-
cally susceptible (NZB× NZW)F1 mice was thereby delayed using a cumula-
tive dose of CYthat wasnot, by itself, sufficient to alter the progressionof the
lupus-like disease. Also, in lupus-prone mice that had previously been given
weeklytreatments with CY(paired with the taste of saccharin), reexposure
the CSafter discontinuation of active drug treatment prolongedsurvival rela-
tive to conditionedmice that received neither active drug nor reexposureto the
CS (Ader 1985). Analogousresults were obtained in studies of adjuvant-in-
duced arthritis in rats using either CY or cyclosporin as the UCS
(Klosterhalfen &Klosterhalfen 1983, 1990) and electric shock as the UCS
(Lysle et al 1992a), and in a study in which reexposure to a CSpreviously
paired with CYaccelerated mortality amongconditioned animals inoculated
with a syngeneic plasmacytoma(Gorczynskiet al 1985).
Recently the therapeutic potential of conditioning was examinedin differ-
ent transplantation modelsin an effort to prolonggraft survival. A/J recipient
mice typically reject allogeneic skin grafts from BALI3/cor C57BL/6donors
within two weeks. A low-dose injection of CYon the day of grafting, how-
ever, prolongs graft survival. In mice conditioned by the pairing of saccharin
and CY, reexposure to the CS alone on the day of grafting and at 5-day
intervals thereafter also prolongedsurvival of the skin allograft (Gorczynski
1990). In another recent study (Grochowiczet al 1991), reexposureof trans-
plant recipient rats to a CSpreviously paired with cyclosporin A extendedthe
survival of a heterotopic heart transplant. Experimentssuch as these hint at the
potential clinical significance of conditionedalterations in immune function.
ber of CS-UCS pairings, the CS alone elicited a skin reaction in all four
subjects. Smith& McDaniels(1983) also tried to condition a DTHresponse
humansubjects. Healthy volunteers underwent tuberculin skin testing six
times at monthly intervals. In a counterbalanced manner, the "blinded" re-
search nurse administered tuberculin obtained from a green vial to one arm
and saline drawnfroma red vial to the other arm. Onthe test trial, the contents
of the colored vials were switched; neither the experimenternor the subject
was aware that tuberculin had nowbeen put into the red vial, saline into the
green. Saline administered to the ann that had prcviously been treated with
tuberculin did not evokea skin reaction, but there was a significant diminution
of the erythema and induration elicited by tuberculin in the arm previously
injected with saline. This finding is remarkablysimilar to that reported by
Moynihanet al (1989) in mice.
The failure of saline to evokea skin reaction could be instructive, particu-
larly for the strategy underlying such research. First of all, the immunologic
mechanismsthat could dampenan immunologicallyspecific response are not
necessarily the sameas those that might elicit or enhancethat sameresponse.
In the case of immunoenhancement,an immunogenicstimulus may be re-
quired, evenif it alone is not sufficient to elicit a discernible reaction. Amore
reasonable paradigmfor the behavioral modification of an immuneresponse,
then, mayrequire the application of a minimallyeffective immunogenic stim-
ulus-one barely able to elicit a measurableresponse but sufficient to initiate
someearly event in the immunologiccascade that leads to a typical immune
reaction. If "subthreshold" stimulation is capable of being potentiated by an
alteration of the neural and/or endocrine environment in which immunere-
sponses occur, one might be more likely to observe a behaviorally induced
alteration in immunologicreactivity under immunogenicstimulus conditions
that actually approximatenatural conditions. Thus, in the present example,a
sensory stimulus (e.g. saline) that does not affect the immunesystemdirectly
maynot suffice to elicit a tuberculin-inducedskin reaction. But the superimpo-
sition of an immunologicallyneutral stimulus previously paired with activa-
tion of the immunesystem or the response induced by what wouldordinarily
be a subthreshold immunogenic stimulus maybe sufficient to elicit a discern-
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
63
function and the mediation of these effects. In addition to the quality and
quantity of environmentalstimulation and the temporal relationship betweena
stressor and immunization,one must, for example, consider the nature as well
as the concentration of antigen and the "cascade" of immuneevents that
eventuate in the production of antibody or a cell-mediated inflammatoryre-
sponse. This complexityis reflected in muchof the data describing the effects
of stressful stimulation on different aspects of immunefunction.
The relevance of the concentration of antigen used for immunization in
studies of stress has beennoted in the past (Solomonet al 1974). In our view,
studies that address immunefunction per se use what might be described as
suprathreshold levels of antigenic stimulation---concentrations of antigen cal-
culated to induce a "robust" primary and secondary response. To the extent
that behaviorally induced neuroendocrine changes are capable of modulating
immuneresponses, the use of high levels of antigenic stimulation are not
comparable to the levels of antigen exposure experienced by the organism
under natural conditions and could be counterproductiveas a research strategy
designed to elaborate behaviorally induced alterations in immunocompetence.
For these reasons, Moynihanet al (1990a) studied the effects of a stressor
(electric shock) on the response to low-dose antigenic stimulation. An im-
munizing dose of as little as 1 btg of the protein antigen keyhole limpet
hemacyanin(KLH)was insufficient to elicit a detectable primary response but
was sufficient to prime mice. Whenshock was administered for seven days
before and after immunizationor only on one day, 24 hr after priming, mice
exposed to the stressor showeda depressed antibody response to challenge
with a second injection of 1 ~tg of KLHrelative to control mice that were
simply placed into the shock apparatus or that remained unmanipulated.When
mice were challenged with a higher dose of KLH(5 lag) there were no group
differences. It is thus possible that concentrationsof antigen that uncondition-
ally elicit robust immuneresponses could maskthe effects of behavioral
interventions.
For the most part, antibody production is suppressedby stressful stimula-
tion. Althoughdifferential housing (frequently mislabeled as "crowding"or
"isolation") maynot qualify as a stressor, the mannerin which animals are
housed or a change in housing conditions is sufficient to influence primary
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
67
4
Thelimiteddata availablesuggestthat an exploration
of the long-term
effectsof earlylife
experiences
on immune flmctionwouldbe a fruitful avenueof research(Ader1983;O’Grady
Hall1991).
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
69
Electric shock stimulation has been the most frequently used stressor in
studies of nonspecifically stimulated defense reactions and thus provides the
more systematic data. Keller and his associates (1981) found that, with in-
creasing intensities of electric shock over a period of 18 hr, there was a
correspondingdecrease in the proliferation of peripheral blood lymphocytesin
response to PHA, even when the assay was based on a constant number of
cells to correct for the stressor-induced decrease in the total numberof circu-
lating lymphocytes.Less reliable effects were found in the responseof splenic
lymphocytes, although Weiss et al (1989b), using the same paradigm, found
significant suppression of lymphoproliferation of both splcnic and blood lym-
phocytes. Underthese conditions, they also found a decline in IL-2 and inter-
feron (IFN) production. Batumanet al (1990) obtained essentially the
results varying the numberof days of electric shock stimulation and measuring
the response to both Con A and PHA.The proliferative response to B cell
mitogens (pokeweedmitogen and LPS) was not influenced by the stressful
stimulation. These investigators also noted a decrease in the total numberof
splenic and peripheral blood lymphocytes,particularly of CD8+cells. In addi-
tion, IL-2 production was diminishedafter as little as one day of exposureto
the 3-hr period of stimulation.
Lysle et al (1987) also found that a single session of approximately1 hr
stressful stimulation during whichrats received 8 or 16 (but not 4) signaled
footshocks was sufficient to depress the proliferative response of splenic and
peripheral blood lymphocytesto Con A stimulation. After five days of stimu-
lation, the responseof spleen but not bloodcells had recovered.Similar effects
were obtained by Cunnicket al (1988). Thus, whether one varies the intensity
of electric shock, the numberof sessions of stimulation, or the numberof
shocks per session, the magnitudeof this form of stressful stimulation is
related to the magnitudeof the changes in at least somemeasuresof cellular
host defenses in some immunecompartments. However,results obtained by
Livnat et al (1985) and Lysle et al (1990b)with electric shockand by Weiss
al (1989b)with qualitative and quantitative differences in stressful stimulation
suggestthat this relationship maynot be linear.
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY 71
5
Studies of stressor control in human subjects (Sieber et al 1991; Weisse et al 1990) yield
imilar contrasting effects.
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72 ADER & COHEN
and stressor-induced decreases in IL-2 production that might account for the
suppression of T cell proliferation (e.g. Batumanet al 1990; Ghoneum et al
1988; Hardy et al 1990; Kandil & Borysenko 1988; Weiss et al 1989b).
However, adding IL-2 to incubated lymphocytes did not normalize the
stressor-induced suppression of lymphoproliferation (Weiss et al 1989a).
These investigators did find that electric shock decreased the expression of
IL-2 receptors on lymphocytes, suggesting that a compromisedability to re-
spond to IL-2 may contribute to stressor-induced immunosuppression(and,
via neural and/or endocrine pathways, conditioned antibody- and/or cell-medi-
ated immuneresponses, as well).
The in vitro T cell effects of behavioralinterventions appear to be differen-
tially expressed by splenic and blood lymphocytesin the case of both condi-
tioning (Lysle et al 1990a; Lysle &Maslonek1991) and stressful stimulation
(Cunnicket al 1988; Keller et al 1983, 1988; Lysle et al 1987; Rinner et al
1992). This could reflect the trafficking of lymphocytesand a resulting differ-
ence in the kinetics of the response in these two compartments(Cunnicket al
1988; Lysle et al 1987); it could also relate to differences in the mannerin
which splenic and peripheral blood lymphocyteswere cultured. However,the
fact that there is noradrenergic innervation of the spleen (Felten et al 1987)
and that the stressor-induced suppression of splenic but not blood lymphocyte
proliferation is blocked by [~-adrenergic antagonists (Cunnick et al 1990)
suggests the operation of different mediating mechanisms.
Withrespect to neuroendocrineinfluences, it is reasonable to hypothesize
that conditioned alterations of immunologicreactivity could be mediated by
conditioned ncuroendocrinechanges, but data collected thus far are inconsis-
tent with the proposition that such effects are mediatedsimplyby nonspecific,
stressor-induced changes in hormonelevels. As reviewed elsewhere (Ader
Cohen1991), an extensive literature and other recent studies (e.g. Roudebush
&Bryant 1991) directly contradict or are inconsistent with predictions that
wouldfollow from a "stress mediation" hypothesisof the effects of condition-
ing or that conditioning effects are adrenal dependent. An elevation in
glucocorticoids is a common(and sometimes defining) characteristic of
stress response, and exogenouslyadministered glucocorticoids are generally
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PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
73
the suppression of a DTHresponse in restrained mice but did not affect the
restraint-induced enhancementof contact hypersensitivity. With respect to
nonspecific reactions, electric shock in rats induced a lymphopeniathat was
adrenal dependent (Keller et al 1981); the stressor-induced suppression
mitogen responsiveness, however,was unaffected by adrenalectomy(Keller et
al 1983). The suppressed lymphoproliferative response of splenic T lympho-
cytes, in particular, has beenshownconsistently to be independentof stressor-
induced adrenal activity (e.g. Lysle et al 1990b; Monjan&Collector 1977;
Mormede et al 1988; Rabinet al 1987a, b; Weisset al 1989b). Thestressor-in-
duced suppression of NKcell activity and IL-2 production are not blocked by
adrenalectomy(e.g. Weisset al 1989b).
Both conditioned and stressor-induced alterations of immuneand nonspe-
cific defense responseshave been attributed to the actions of catecholamines.
Gorczynski& Holmes(1989), for example, reported that both chlorpromazine
and amitriptyline abolished conditioned immunosuppressiveresponses based
on the pairing of a gustatory stimulus with CY.Lysle et al (1992a) reported
that the [3-adrenergicantagonist propranololblockedthe effects of conditioned
stressor effects on the developmentof adjuvant-inducedarthritis; but propran-
olol itself maybe capable of attenuating inflammatoryresponses (Kaplanet al
1980). Cunnickand her colleagues (1990) found that propranolo! and nadolol
(a ~-adrenergicantagonist that does not cross the blood-brain barrier) blocked
the electric shock-induced suppression of splenic but not peripheral blood
lymphocytesto ConA stimulation. Propranolol also blocked attenuation of the
lymphoproliferative response of splenic lymphocytes to a CS previously
paired with electric shock (Luecken&Lysle 1992). Neither propranolol nor
nadolol influenced the conditioned suppression of B cell mitogenesis of pe-
ripheral blood lymphocyteresponses or IL-2 production, but both antagonists
attenuated the conditioned suppression of IFN-gamma. The peripherally act-
ing [~-adrenergic receptor antagonist also blocked the suppression of IFN-
gammaproduction induced by electric shock stimulation (Sonnenfeld et al
1992).
Using a different stressor (repeated exposure to cold), Carr et al (1992)
described an enhancementof splenic antigen-specific antibody production
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74 ADER & COHEN
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Preparation of this review was supported by a USPHSResearch Scientist
Award (K05 MH-06318) to R.A.
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