Operational Amplifiers

Lesson #5
Chapter 2

BME 372 Electronics I – 138

J.Schesser
 Operational Amplifiers
• An operational Amplifier is an ideal
differential with the following
characteristics:
– Infinite input impedance
– Infinite gain for the differential signal
– Zero gain for the common-mode signal
– Zero output impedance Invertingv1
input

- vo
– Infinite Bandwidth
v2 +
Non-Inverting input

BME 372 Electronics I – 139

J.Schesser
 Operational Amplifier Feedback
• Operational Amplifiers are used with negative feedback
• Feedback is a way to return a portion of the output of an
amplifier to the input
– Negative Feedback: returned output opposes the source signal
– Positive Feedback: returned output aids the source signal
• For Negative Feedback
– In an Op-amp, the negative feedback returns a fraction of the
output to the inverting input terminal forcing the differential input
to zero.
– Since the Op-amp is ideal and has infinite gain, the differential
input will exactly be zero. This is called a virtual short circuit
– Since the input impedance is infinite the current flowing into the
input is also zero.
– These latter two points are called the summing-point constraint.

BME 372 Electronics I – 140

J.Schesser
 Operational Amplifier Analysis Using the
Summing Point Constraint
• In order to analyze Op-amps, the following steps
should be followed:
1. Verify that negative feedback is present
2. Assume that the voltage and current at the
input of the Op-amp are both zero (Summing-
point Constraint
3. Apply standard circuit analyses techniques
such as Kirchhoff’s Laws, Nodal or Mesh
Analysis to solve for the quantities of interest.

BME 372 Electronics I – 141

J.Schesser
 Example: Inverting Amplifier
1. Verify Negative Feedback: Note that a
portion of vo is fed back via R2 to the
R2
inverting input. So if vi increases and,
i2 therefore, increases vo, the portion of vo fed
i1=vin/R1 0 back will then have the affect of reducing vi
R1

vi
- -
(i.e., negative feedback).
+ + + + RL
vin 2. Use the summing point constraint.
- vo
- 3. Use KVL at the inverting input node for
both the branch connected to the source and
the branch connected to the output

vin  i1 R1  0 since vi is zero due to the summing - point constraint vin i1 R1

i1  i2 due to the summing - point constraint Z in    R1
i1 i1
v0  i2 R2  0 since vi is zero
R2
- vin which is independent of RL (note that the output is opposite to the input : inverted)
R1
BME 372 Electronics I – 142
J.Schesser
 Op-amp

• Because we assumed that the Op-amp was

ideal, we found that with negative
feedback we can achieve a gain which is:
1. Independent of the load
2. Dependent only on values of the circuit
parameter
3. We can choose the gain of our amplifier by
proper selection of resistors.

BME 372 Electronics I – 143

J.Schesser
 Another Example: Inverting Amplifier
1. Verify Negative Feedback:
i4 2. Use the summing point constraint.
R2 R4

i2 i3 R3 3. Use KVL at the inverting input node for the

i1=vin/R1 0 branch connected to the source and KCL &
R1

vi
-
KVL at the node where the 3 resistors are
+
vo RL connected
vin

vin  i1 R1  0 since vi is zero due to the summing - point constraint

i1  i2 due to the summing - point constraint
vi  i2 R2  i3 R3  0  i2 R2  i3 R3 since vi is zero
i4  i3  i2
vo   R4i4  R3i 3
BME 372 Electronics I – 144
J.Schesser
 Another Example: Continued
R2
i2 R2  i3 R3  i3  i2
i4 R3
R2 R4
vin
i2 vin  i1 R1  0; i1  i2  i2 
i3 R3 R1
i1=vin/R1 0
R1 R2 R 1
i4  i3  i2  (  1)i2  ( 2  )vin
- R3 R3 R1 R1
vi
+
vo RL R2 1 R v
vin vo   R4i4  R3i 3   R4 (  )vin  R3 2 in
R3 R1 R1 R3 R1
R2 R4 R4 R2
 vin (   )
R3 R1 R1 R1
vo RR R R
Av   ( 2 4  4  2 )
vin R3 R1 R1 R1
vin  i1 R1  0 Z in  Rin 
vin
 R1
i1
i1  i2
Why would we use this design over the simpler one?
i2 R2  i3 R3
1. Same gain but with smaller values of resistance
i4  i3  i2
2. Higher gain
vo   R4i4  R3i 3 BME 372 Electronics I – 145
J.Schesser
 Non-inverting Amp
1. First check: negative feedback?
Iin= 0
2. Next apply, summing point constraint
+ io
3. Use circuit analysis +
vi -
+

-- RL
vin  vi  v f  0  v f  v f vin + R2 vo
--
R1 +

vf  vo  vin ; vf R1
R1  R2 --
--

vo R2  R1 R
Av    1 2
vin R1 R1
Note:
vin
Since iin  0; Z in   1. The gain is always greater than one
iin 2. The output has the same sign as the
input
BME 372 Electronics I – 146
J.Schesser
 Non-inverting Amp Special Case
What happens if R2 = 0?
Iin= 0
io
vin  vi  v f  0  v f  v f +
+

vi -
+
R1 RL
vf  vo  vo  vin ; --

R1  0
+
vin vo
--

vo 0  R1
Av   1
vin R1 --

vin
Since iin  0; Z in  
iin

This is a unity gain amplifier and is also called a voltage follower.

BME 372 Electronics I – 147

J.Schesser
Some Practical Issues when Designing Op-amps
• Since ratios of resistor values determines the gain,
choosing the proper resistor values is crucial
– Too small means large currents drawn
– Too large yields another set of problems
• Open Loop Gain is not constant but a function of
frequency
• Non-linearities of the amplifier
– Voltage clipping
– Slew rate
• DC imperfections
– Offsets
– Bias Currents

BME 372 Electronics I – 148

J.Schesser
 Selecting Resistor Values

• Let say we want a gain of 10. This

means that R2 = 9R1. Iin= 0
• If we chose R1=1Ω, then for a 10 volt +
+ io
output, there will be 1 A flowing threw vi -
+

R1 and R2. +
--
R2
vin vo
• THIS IS DANGEROUS!!!! --
+
vf R1
• On the other hand if R1=10 MΩ, then --
there may be unwanted effects due to --

pickup of induced signals Av  1 

R2
• Therefore choosing values between R1
100Ω and 1MΩ is optimum

BME 372 Electronics I – 149

J.Schesser
 Frequency Issues
• Let’s assume that the open loop gain of our Op-amp
is a function of frequency.
20 log |AOL( f )| dB
20 log |A0OL|
AoOL
AOL ( f ) 
1  j ( f / f BOL )
where AoOL is the open-loop gain for f  0,
f BOL is called the open-loop break
frequency since when f  f BOL
then AOL ( f )  AoOL / 2 or at the half power point.

fBOL
Note that when f  AoOL f BOL , AOL ( f )  1
This is will define an important relationship for the amplifier
when feedback is used

BME 372 Electronics I – 150

J.Schesser
 Frequency Issues Iin= 0

+ io
+
AoOL Vi +
AOL ( f )  -
1  j ( f / f BOL ) --

Using phasors: Vin + R2 Vo

--
R1 R1 +
Vf   VO   VO ; where   Vf R1
R1  R2 R1  R2
--
--
V
Vin  V i   VO  O   VO ; since V O  V i AOL AoOL
AOL
AOL ( f ) AOL ( f ) 1  j ( f / f BOL )
VO AOL ACL ( f )   
 ACL   1   AOL ( f ) 1   AOL ( f ) 1   AoOL
Vin 1   AOL
1  j ( f / f BOL )
AoOL
(Note for the ideal Op-amp AOL  
1  j ( f / f BOL ) AoOL
1 R1  R2 R  
and ACL    1 2 1  j ( f / f BOL )  AoOL 1   AoOL  j ( f / f BOL )
 R1 R1 
1  j ( f / f BOL ) 1  j ( f / f BOL )
which what we expected.)
AoOL
1   AoOL AoCL
 
f f
1  j( ) 1  j( )
f BOL (1   AoOL ) f BCL
BME 372 Electronics I – 151
J.Schesser
 Iin= 0

Frequency Issues +
+ io
Vi -
+

20 log |AOL( f )| dB 20 log |A0OL| +

--
R2
Vin Vo
--
+
Vf R1
20 log |AOL( f )| dB 20 log |A0CL| --
--

fBOL fBOL(1+AoOL)

A interesting factor now comes to light: Where:

AoOL AoOL
AoCL f BCL  f BOL (1   AoOL )  AoOL f BOL AoCL  and f BCL  f BOL (1   AoOL )
1   AoOL 1   AoOL
The gain bandwidth product is constant!!!
BME 372 Electronics I – 152
J.Schesser
 Example
• For an amplifier with Open-loop dc gain of 100
dB with Open-loop breakpoint of 40 Hz the
Bandwidth product for β=1, 0.1, 0.01

β AOCL AOCL(dB) fBCL

1 0.9999 0 4 MHz
0.1 9.9990 20 400 kHz
0.01 99.90 40 40 kHz

BME 372 Electronics I – 153

J.Schesser
 20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage clipping Iin= 0
-10
+ io
+
-20 Vi -
+

--
• The Op-amp has a limit as to how + 3k
large an output voltage and current Vin Vo
--
can be produced. (See figure 2.28) +
Vf 1k
• For example for the circuit shown it --
has the following limitations: ±12 V --

and ±25 mA
a) If the load resistor is 10k Ω, what is
Vo max V 12 12
the maximum input voltage which can b) I o max   o max    123mA
be handled without clipping RL R1  R2 100 3000  1000
b) Repeat for 100 Ω For this case, maximum output current will occur
AvCL  1  3 / 1  4 before maximum output voltage is reached.
Vo max V 12 12 Vo max V V Vo max
a ) I o max   o max  4  I o max   o max  25mA  o max 
RL R1  R2 10 3000  1000 RL R1  R2 100 3000  1000
 4.2mA Vo max  2.44V
For this case, maximum output voltage will occur Vin max  2.44 4  0.61V
before maximum output current is reached.
BME 372 Electronics I –
Vin max  12 4  3V 154
J.Schesser
 Slew Rate
• Slew Rate is a phenomenon which occurs
when the Op-Amp can not keep up the
change in the input.
• Therefore, we identify the maximum rate of
change of the Op-amp as the Slew Rate -
SR

BME 372 Electronics I – 155

J.Schesser
 DC imperfections
• We saw that we have to provide DC voltages to an
amplifier in order to provide it with the power to support
amplification.
– For a differential amplifier which must handle both positive and
negative voltages
• The process of designing this DC circuitry is called biasing
• As a result, biasing currents flow through the amplifier
which affects its performance.
• In particular, a voltage during to the biasing will appear at
the output without any input signal.
• These extra voltage can be due to:
– Bias currents flowing in the feedback circuitry
– Bias current differentials
– Voltage offsets due to the fact that the Op-amp circuitry is not
ideal
BME 372 Electronics I – 156
J.Schesser
 Special Amplifiers

• Summer (Homework Problem)

• Instrumentation Amplifier
– Uses 3 Op-amps
– One as a differential amplifier
– Two Non-inverting Amps using for providing
gain

BME 372 Electronics I – 157

J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
+ R5
-
R6
v2 + R2 -
--
+
R1 vo
R3
R1
R4
R2
-

+ Differential Amplifier
+
v1
--
Non-inverting Amplifier
BME 372 Electronics I – 158
J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
+ R5
-

v2D R6
v2 + R2 -
--
+
R1 vo
v1D R3
R1
R4
R2
-

+ Differential Amplifier
+
v1
--
Non-inverting Amplifier
BME 372 Electronics I – 159
J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Differential Amplifier v2 D  vx vx  vo

R5 R6 R5
vx v2 D 1 1 v
 vx (  )  o
v2D R6 R6 R6 R5 R5
v2 D R  R6 v
-

vi=0  vx ( 5 ) o
+ R6 R6 R5 R5
vo R4
v1D R3 vy  v1D  vx  vi  vx
vy R3  R4
R4 v2 D R4 R  R6 v
 v1D ( 5 ) o
R6 R3  R4 R6 R5 R5
R5 R  R6 R4
vo  (v1D 5  v2 D )
R5  R6 R4 R6 R5 R3  R4
Chose 1
R5 R3  R4 R5  R6 R4
Chose 1
R4 R5  R4 R6  R5 R3  R5 R4 R5 R3  R4
R4 R6  R5 R3 R5
vo  (v1D  v2 D )
R6 R3 R6

R5 R4 BME 372 Electronics I – 160
J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
+ R5
-
R6
v2 + R2 -
--
+
R1 vo
R3
R1
R4
R2
-

+ Differential Amplifier
+
v1
--
Non-inverting Amplifier
BME 372 Electronics I – 161
J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
+ v2 D  v2 v2  v A

-
v2D R2 R1
v2 + R2
1 1 R2
v2 D  R2 (  )v2  v A
--

R1 R2 R1 R1
vA v1D
R1  R2 R2
R1 v2 D  v2  v A
R1 R1
R2
- Likewise
+
R1  R2 R2
v1 D  v1  v A
v1
+
R1 R1
--
Non-inverting Amplifier
BME 372 Electronics I – 162
J.Schesser
 Medical Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
+ R5 R5
vo  (v1 D  v2 D )
-
R6
R6
v2 + R2 -
R1  R2 R
--
v2 D  v2  2 v A
R1 R1
+
R1 vo
R3 R1  R2 R
v1D  v1  2 v A
-

R1 R1 R1
R4
+

R2 R5 R1  R2 R R  R2 R
vo  [ v1  2 v A  ( 1 v2  2 v A )]
-
Differential Amplifier R6 R1 R1 R1 R1
R5 R1  R2
+
R R
+
vo  ( )(v1  v2 )  5 (1  2 )(v1  v2 )
v1
-- R6 R1 R6 R1
Non-inverting Amplifier

BME 372 Electronics I – 163

J.Schesser
Wheatstone Bridge as a sensor

R2

V v2D R1
rC rD
-

+
vo
rB rA v1D R3

R4

BME 372 Electronics I – 164

J.Schesser
 Wheatstone Bridge

V V
rC rD rC rD

V2 r V2 V1
rA rB rA
V B

rC rD
V1
Using Thevinin's Theorem on the Wheatstone Bridge
Left side Right side
V2 r V1 r rr r rr
B rA V2  B V;r2  B C V1  A V;r1  A D
rB  rC rB  rC rA  rD rA  rD

+ r2 + r1
V2 V1
-- --

BME 372 Electronics I – 165

J.Schesser
 Wheatstone Bridge
V
rC rD

V2 r V1
B rA

rB r
VBridge  V2  V1  (  A )V
rB  rC rA  rD
rB r r r
When bridge is balanced  A  rB rD  rA rC  A  B
rB  rC rA  rD rD rC
(nominally, rA  rB  rC  rD )
and VBridge  0

BME 372 Electronics I – 166

J.Schesser
 Wheatstone Bridge
V2  v x v x  vo

R2 R1  r2 R2
V2 1 1 v
 vx (  ) o
vx R1  r2 R1  r2 R2 R2
V2 R  R2  r2 v
 vx ( 1 ) o
-

R1 R1  r2 (R1  r2 )R2 R2
+ r2 +
R4
V2 vo vx  v y  V
R3  r1  R4 1
--
+ r1 R3
V2 R4 R  R2  r2 v
V1  V1 ( 1 ) o
R1  r2 R3  r1  R4 (R1  r2 )R2 R2
-- R4 V2 R4 R  R2  r2 V1 v
 ( 1 )  o
R1  r2 R3  r1  R4 R2 (R1  r2 ) R2
R2 R4 R  R2  r2
vo  [( )( 1 )V1 V2 ]
R1  r2 R3  r1  R4 R2
R1  R2  r2 R4
Chose 1
R2 R3  r1  R4
R2 R2 r r
vo  (V1 V2 )  ( A  B )V
R1  r2 R1  r2 rA  rD rB  rC

BME 372 Electronics I – 167

J.Schesser
 Wheatstone Bridge
R2

vx
R1  R2  r2 R4
-
Chose 1
R1 R2 R3  r1  R4
+ r2
R1  R2  r2 R3  r1  R4
+
V2 vo 
--
+ r1 R3 R2 R4
V1 rB rC rArD
R1  R2  R3   R4
rB  rC rA  rD
-- R4 
R2 R4

Hard to deal with; then let's make sure that r2  R1  R2 and r1  R3  R4

R1  R2 R3  R4
  R2 R3  R2 R4  R4 R1  R4 R2  R2 R3  R4 R1
R2 R4
R4 R2

R3 R1
R2 r r
vo  ( A  B )V
R1 rA  rD rB  rC
Note that the output depends on the unbalance of the bridge and when the bridge is balanced vo  0
R2
Gain is still
R1
BME 372 Electronics I – 168
J.Schesser
 Integrators and Differentiators
C vin (t )
i1 (t )   i2 (t )
R
i2
i1 0
R 1t 1 t
vo    i2 ( x)dx    vin ( x)dx
vi
- C0 RC 0
+
vo
vin

i2
i1 0
C Cdvin (t )
i1 (t )   i2 (t )
vi
- dt
+
vo
vin dvin (t )
vo  i2 (t ) R   RC
dt

BME 372 Electronics I – 169

J.Schesser
 Frequency Analysis
i1=vin/Z1
i2
Z2 Vin ( j )  I 1 ( j )Z1 ( j )  0 since vi is (virtually) zero
0

Z1 -
I 1 ( j )  I 2 ( j ) due to the summing - point constraint
vi
vin
+ vo Vo ( j )  I 2 ( j )Z 2  0 since vi is (virtually) zero
Z2
- V ( j ) which is independent of Z L
Z1 in
Vo ( j ) Z
- 2
Vin ( j ) Z1
C
R
i1=vin/Z1
i2 i1=vin/Z1
R 0 i2
C 0
vi -
vi -
+ vo ZL
vin vin
+ vo ZL

Vo ( j ) Z Vo ( j ) Z
 - 2   1 an integrator  - 2   jRC a differeniator
Vin ( j ) Z1 jRC Vin ( j ) Z1

BME 372 Electronics I – 170

J.Schesser
 Frequency Response
Vo ( j ) Z 1
- 2 
Vin ( j ) Z1 jRC
i2
i1 R 0 C

-
vi
+
vo
vin
ω
Vo ( j ) Z
i2  - 2   jRC
i1 0
R Vin ( j ) Z1
C
-
vi
+
vo
vin
ω
BME 372 Electronics I – 171
J.Schesser
 Frequency Response
R2 Vout Z R 1 R 1
 2  2  2   tan 1 ( C2 R2 )
Vin Z1 R1 (1 j C2 R2 ) R1 1 ( C R ) 2
2 2

i2
i1 R1 0 C2 2,500
R1 51 C1 10mf R2 100k

2,000
-
vi 1,500
+
vo 1,000
vin 500
0
1.E+00 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06 1.E+08
HZ
Vout Z R jC1 R1 R C1 R1 
 2  2  2    tan 1 (C1 R1 )
i2 Vin Z1 R1 (1  jC1 R1 ) R1 1  (C1 R1 ) 2 2
0
R2
i1 R1 51 C1 10mf R2 100k
-
2,500
vi
R1 C1 2,000
+
vo 1,500
vin
1,000
500
0
1.E+00 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06 1.E+08
BME 372 Electronics I – HZ
172
J.Schesser
 Integrators and Differentiators
• Integrators and Differentiators are used in analog
computers
• An analog computer solves a differential equations
• By using Integrators and Differentiators one can
“program” a particular differential equation to be solved
• Usually only integrators are used since the gain of a
differentiator occurs at high frequencies while the opposite
is true for the integrator.
• Since the frequency response of an real Op-amp attenuates
high frequencies, using a differentiator conflicts with the
characteristics with a real Op-amp
• Also noise (high frequencies) are amplified by
differentiators

BME 372 Electronics I – 173

J.Schesser
 R-Wave Detector

BME 372 Electronics I – 174

J.Schesser
 Positive Feedback
• What happens to our Op-amp circuit if positive
feedback is used?
R
Using KCL at the input :
i1  i2  iin  0
i2
i1 iin iin  0; since Amplifier has infinite input impedance
R
vi  vin vi  vo
vi
+
 0
- R R
vo RL
vin vo  AOL vi where AOL is the open loop gain
1 1
vi  (vin  vo )  (vin  AOL vi )
2 2

• Even if vin = 0 and there is a slight voltage at vi then

– vo = AOLvi will increase vi
– vo will grow even larger
– Eventually this will reach an extreme since there is not
infinite energy in the circuit
BME 372 Electronics I – 175
J.Schesser
 Positive Feedback
• Then our positive feedback design will operate
between its positive and negative extremes, say ±5V
R

i2 1
iin vi  (vin  vo )
i1
R
2
vi
+ For vo to be at  5V , vi  0
-
vo RL 1 1
vin vi  (vin  vo )  (vin  5)  0
2 2
This is true as long as vin  -5V
Vo For vo to be at  5V , vi  0
+5 1 1
vi  (vin  vo )  (vin  5)  0
2 2
-5 +5 Vin This is true as long as vin  5V

-5

BME 372 Electronics I – 176

J.Schesser
 Homework
• Probs 2.2, 2.5, 2.6, 2.10, 2.22, 2.24, 2.25,
2.28
• Calculate and plot the output vs frequency
for these circuits. R1=1k, R2=3k, C=1μf Use
Matlab to perform the plot R2

-
C R2 R1 C vi
+
- vin vo
vi
R1 +
vin vo
R2
R1 R2

C -
C vi
+
vi -
vin vo
R1 +
vin vo
BME 372 Electronics I – 177
J.Schesser
 Homework
V
rC =
R-ΔR rD=R+ΔR

V2 r = V
B rA = 1
R+ΔR R-ΔR

Wheatstone Bridge - Strain Gauge

• A strain gauge shown here is used with a difference amplifier. Calculate the
amplifier output signal as a function of ΔR and difference amplifier resistors.
Assume that ΔR<<R.
• For the strain gauge calculate the value of each of the difference amplifier
resistors for a value of R=10Ω and a percent change in R of ±10% if the
output of the amplifier is less than ±5 volts. Assume that the bridge is
powered with 5 volts.
BME 372 Electronics I – 178
J.Schesser
 Homework
Calculate and plot the output vs frequency for
this circuits. R1=1k, R2=3k, C=1μf. Use
Matlab to perform the plot.
C

R1 R2
+

vi
C -
vo
vin

BME 372 Electronics I – 179

J.Schesser