“DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

WASTE FOOD COMPOSTING MACHINE”

A Project Report Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
Mechanical Engineering

by
SHASHANK KUMAR VERMA (1616440104)
SHASHWAT MAHAJAN (1616440106)
SHUBHAM GANGWAR (1616440114)
SUYASH SINGH (1616440118)
Under the Supervision of
Mr. MANOJ KUMAR YADAV
(Asst. Professor)
Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur

to the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

DR. A. P. J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

LUCKNOW
July, 2020

i
 “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
WASTE FOOD COMPOSTING MACHINE”
A Project Report Submitted
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
Mechanical Engineering
by

SHASHANK KUMAR VERMA (1616440104)

SHASHWAT MAHAJAN (1616440106)
SHUBHAM GANGWAR (1616440114)
SUYASH SINGH (1616440118)

Under the Supervision of

Mr. MANOJ KUMAR YADAV
(Asst. Professor)
Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur

to the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

DR. A. P. J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

LUCKNOW
July, 2020
ii
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that Shubham Gangwar (1616440114), Suyash Singh (1616440118),

Shashank Kumar Verma (1616440104), Shashwat Mahajan (1616440106) has carried
out the research work presented in this project entitled “Design and Fabrication of
Waste Food Composting Machine” for the award of Bachelor of Technology from Dr.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, under my supervision. The project
embodies results of original work, and studies are carried out by the student their self and
the contents of the project do not form the basis for the award of any other degree to the
candidate or to anybody else from this or any other University / Institution.

Signature: Signature
Mr. Manoj Kumar Yadav (External Examiner)
Asst. Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Date:

iii
 ABSTRACT

Each day urban cities generate more and more waste and this is overloading our
municipal systems, systematic management of waste is a big problem. Composting is a
known and easy process of organic waste management. It is a biological conversion self-
heating, which generates desired end products such as substrates for the cultivation of
Mushrooms, biogas, and fertilizers.
The proper maintenance of temperature and humidity in pulverized organic waste will
increase the process of bio-degradation. The study is done to evaluate the performance of
the compost machine. The proper management of temperature and humidity is important.
The aim is to decrease unscientific landfilling, segregation of waste, and to increase the
quality of compost or manure.
The massive cost involved in the packing and transportation of domestic waste in
countries accounts for not less than 65% of the total budget for waste management. The
design of a budget-friendly composting machine for small-scale production of manure
(compost) from waste is achieved. The actual efficiency of 64.09% was recorded as
compared to the theoretical efficiency of 80%.In INDIA, approximately 50%
Biodegradable Waste is generated in total MSW composition and now the numbers are
increasing.
So we have come up with an idea SMART Composting Machine. The design of the
machine is such that every-day we can process 15 to 25 kg of organic waste.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project
undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to Mr. Manoj
Kumar Yadav, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pranveer Singh
Institute of Technology, for his constant support and guidance throughout the course of
our work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of
inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the
day.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Nitin Srivastava,
Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, for his full support and assistance during the development of the project.

We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all faculty
members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the
development of our project. Last but not the least; we acknowledge our family & friends
for their contribution in the completion of the project.

Signature: Signature:
Name: Shubham Gangwar Name: Suyash Singh
Roll No.:1616440114 Roll No.:1616440118
Date: Date:

Signature: Signature:
Name: Shashank Kumar Verma Name: Shashwat Mahajan
Roll No.: 1616440104 Roll No.: 1616440106
Date: Date:

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Content Page No.

Certificate iii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements v
List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xi

CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION 1-22

1.1 Factors Affecting Composting 33
1.1.1 Aeration and Oxygen 33
1.1.2 Nutrients 33
1.1.3 Degradability 44
1.1.4 Moisture 44
1.1.5 Surface area 44
1.1.6 Temperature 44
1.1.7 Time 4 4
1.2: History of Composting 6 6
1.3: The Advantages of Composting 7 7
1.4: The Biology of composting: 7 7
1.5: Composting Steps 8 8
1.6: Home Composting 1212
1.6.1: Why should I compost 12
12
1.6.2: What should I compost 13
1.6.3: How much time and energy will it take 1414
1.6.3.1: Standard method 14 14
1.6.3.2: Slow Method 15 15
1.6.3.3: Fast method 16 16
1.6.4: Will the bad pile smell 1717
1.6.5: Can I compost during the winter in cold climates 1717
1.6.6: How does composting work 1717
1.6.7: How Do I Use Compost 2121
CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE REVIEW 23-34
23-34
2.1: The Art and Science of Composting 23 23
2.2 Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries 23 23
2.3 Additives aided composting of green waste 23 23
2.4 Rapid composting technology 24
2.5 Comparative Evaluation of Compost Quality 25
2.6 Rapid production of organic 25
2.7 Characterization and Recycling of Organic Waste after Co-Composting 2525
2.8 Rapid Composting Methods-IISC 25
25
2.8.1Phospho-Sulpho-Nitro-Compost (PSNC)x 26
25
2.8.2Institute of Biological Sciences (IBS) Rapid Composting Technology 26
25
2.9: Biowaste and its worldwide production 26

vi
2.10: Risks and problems associated with solid waste 27
2.11: Study based on different Research papers 29
2.12: Environmental Benefits of Composting 29
2.13 Reduction of synthetic fertilizer use 29
2.13.1: Soil erosion reduction 32
2.13.2: The Economics of Composting 34
2.13.3: Economic benefits for educational institutions 34
CHAPTER 3: PROJECT DESIGN 35-46
3.1: Design criteria 35
3.1.1: Frequency of use 35
3.1.2: Product handling 35
3.1.3: Product size 35
3.1.4: Visual permeability 35
3.1.5: Odour free 35
3.1.6: Low noise 35
3.1.7: Easy process 35
3.1.8: Portable 35
3.1.9: Aesthetics 35
3.2: Methodology 35
3.3: Project Subsystems and components 38
3.3.1: Agitation Motor 38
3.3.2: Exhaust fan 38
3.3.3: Heater 39
3.3.4: Temperature sensor 39
3.3.5: Main PCB 40
3.4: Design Calculations 41
3.4.1: Composting tank 41
3.4.2: Shaft Diameter 42
3.4.3: Shaft Key Design 43
3.4.4: Maximum Volume of Food Waste 43
3.4.5: Design for the Gear 44
3.4.6: Heat Generated and Power Consumed By the Heater 44
3.4.7: Design for Hopper 45
3.4.8: Volume of Hopper 46
CHAPTER-4: FABRICATION 47-49
4.1: Making the main body with top and bottom slab 48
4.2: Attaching mixing blades with shaft 48
4.3: Connection of motor with shaft 48
4.4: Attaching all the other parts at their required place 48
4.5: Putting hopper and shredder at its position. 48
4.6: Connecting all with power board. 49
CHAPTER-5: TESTING AND ANALYSIS 50-53
CHAPTER-6: RESULT AND DISCUSSION 54-55
CHAPTER-7: CONCLUSION 56
CHAPTER-8: FUTURE SCOPE 57-60
REFERENCES

vii
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure No. Page No.

Fig: 1.1 Composing 1

Fig: 1.2 Hierarchy of Waste Management 2

Fig: 1.3 Typical composition of residential waste 3

Fig: 1.4 Comparison of Food Waste across world 5

Fig: 1.5 Process of compos 9

Fig: 1.6 Compostable and Non-compostable items 10

Fig: 1.7 Material pie chart 13

Fig: 3.1 System’s Block Diagram 37

Fig: 3.2 Agitation motor 38

Fig: 3.3 Exhaust fan 38

Fig: 3.4 Heating Coil 39

Fig: 3.5 Temperature Sensors 39

Fig: 3.6 PCU Board 40

Fig: 3.7 Composting tank 41

Fig: 3.8 Shaft 42

Fig: 3.9 Shaft Key Design 43

Fig: 3.10 Hopper 46

Fig: 5.1 Different readings for the experiment 50

viii
 LIST OF TABLE

Figure No. Page No.

Table 1.1: Compostable and Non-compostable items 11

Table: 1.2: What goes in your pile 14

Table 1.3: Trouble Shooting Guide Problem Possible Cause Solution 20

Table1.4: How much compost to apply 22

Table: 5.1: Experiment-1 51

Table: 5.2:Experiment-2 52

Table 5.3: Cost Analysis 53

Table 6.1: C:N Ratio 55

ix
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBRIVIATIONS

ADP Annual Development Plan

AIILSG All India Institute of Local Self Government
APL Above Poverty Line
ATR Action taken Report
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization
GoI Government of India
M Municipality
MIC Mayor in Council
M3 Cubic Meter
MIS Municipal Information System
WRD Water Resource Department
NGO Non Government Organization
NP Nagar Parishad
O&M Operation & Maintenance
OHT Over Head Tank
OSD Open Sewerage Disposal
PHED Public health Engineering Department
PWD Public Work Department
HUDCL Housing and Urban Development Corporation Ltd
SWM Solid Waste Management
INTACH Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
ULB Urban Local Body
UADD Urban Administration and Development Department

x
 CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION
Composting is a natural process, it occurs by using microorganisms under specific
conditions, which leads to decomposition of organic waste. As we know that food waste
is a global problem nowadays, it could be a school, at home, at canteens, at hotels and at
any food service sector. One of the recent stats shows that about 1.4 billion tons of food
is wasted every year.

The Composting is beneficial in soil fertility enhancement, stabilizing the environment,

decreasing the global warming, improving the waste management system etc. The
composting technique reduces
reduces the volume of organic waste and kills the pathogens. Also
organic composting converts the ammonia waste to useful nitrogen rich product. The
manure when used in soil increases its fertility. For natural organic composting with the
help of micro-organisms, 30 40 days required. The segregation is required for
ms, near about 30-40
natural organic composting but the desirable conditions obtain for microorganisms to
degrade the waste then there will be less time requires for producing organic compost

Fig.1.1-Composing

Composting is the decay of natural waste by microorganisms under controlled conditions.

To process the compost we require wet natural matter known as green waste (leaves, food
own into humus for a specific period. It is utilized, for instance, in patio
waste) and breakdown
nurseries, landscaping, cultivation, urban horticulture and natural cultivating. Fertilizer is
wealthy in supplements. The manure itself is useful for the land from numerous pointpoints of
view, including as a dirt conditioner, a compost, expansi on of imperative humus or humic
expansion

1
 acids, and as a characteristic pesticide for soil. In environment, fertilizer is helpful for
disintegration control, land and stream recovery, wetland development
development, and as landfill
cover. Waste management systems for household use could dispense or essentially
decrease the phase of waste accumulation and transportation. At the simplest level, the
way toward composting requires making a load of wet natural substance (likewise called
green waste, for example, leaves, grass, and food scraps, and trusting that the materials
will separate into humus following a time of months. In any case, composting
multi step, intently observed procedure with
additionally can happen as a multi-step, w estimated
contributions of water, air, and carbon-and
carbon rich materials. The decay procedure
nitrogen-rich
is supported by destroying the plant matter, including water and guaranteeing appropriate
air circulation by consistently turning the blend when open heaps hea or "windrows" are
utilized. Fertilizing the soil is an oxygen consuming strategy of decaying natural strong
wastes. It can hence be utilized to recycle natural material. The procedure includes
deterioration of natural material into a humuslike material, known as manure, which is
good compost for plants. Composting requires the accompanying three segments: human
administration, oxygen consuming conditions, advancement of internal organic warmth.

Composting requires four equally significant ingredients to work adequately:

 Carbon – brown materials like dry leaves, manure, saw dust, nut shells, wood chips etc.,
 Nitrogen – green leaves, grass, vegetables, fruits etc.,
 Oxygen - for oxidizing the carbon.
 better aerobic fertilization.
Water To add moisture to the compost matter for better

Fig.1.2-Hierarchy of Waste Management

2
 Fig.1.3 Typical composition of residential waste

1.1 Factors Affecting Composting

1.1.1 Aeration and Oxygen:

Composting is a vigorous procedure; that is, it requires oxygen. The ideal decomposers
need oxygen to do something amazing. The oxygen devoured while composting must be
persistently supplanted by air circulation. Great air circulation is energized by setti
setting
massive fertilizing matter in the heap to make pathways for air development, and by
"turning" the materials to loosen and blend them. In the event that oxygen turns out to be
rare, anaerobic decay happens. Anaerobic deterioration is bothersome in a manure
manu heap
since it is slower, makes disagreeable odors.

1.1.2 Nutrients:
The decomposer organisms acquire numerous supplements from the composting matter,
yet carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) are especially significant. A well
well-adjusted extent of
carbon and nitrogen typically guarantees a decent supply all things considered and
ts fertilizing the soil quickly. An equalization of carbon and nitrogen can be
permits
carbon rich or "brown" materials with nitrogen-rich
accomplished by joining carbon-rich nitrogen or "green"
materials.

3
1.1.3 Degradability:
The speed at which fertilizing the soil happens is generally dictated by the degradability
of the materials, that is, the means by which effectively they deteriorate. Microorganisms
effectively digest materials containing a high extent of sugars, starches, and proteins, for
example, organic scraps, fertilizer, and green vegetation. Straw, plant stems, and,
particularly, woody materials take more time to break down and may even go through the
fertilizing the soil procedure with little change. You will see that numerous nitrogen-rich
materials (greens) will in general break down rapidly, while the carbon-rich materials
(browns) are less degradable. The degradability of a material is improved by cutting into
smaller pieces and by guaranteeing that sufficient measures of nitrogen and water are
accessible.

1.1.4 Moisture:
Microorganisms need dampness to complete their work. If the materials are dry, the
procedure slows down. Then again, an excessive amount of water makes the fertilizer
heap soaked and thick, which obstructs air circulation. Fertilizing the soil materials ought
to be sodden however not dribbling wet.

1.1.5 Surface area:

The decomposer organisms deal with the surface of particles. Since littler particles offer
increasingly surface zone, composting is commonly quicker when materials are cleaved
and cut into pieces. Be that as it may, a heap with just fine particles is thick and
consequently does not circulate air through well. Particles in the scope of 1/4 to 2 inches
generally compost well. As decay advances, particles shrivel and will in general reduce.
Swinging extricates the compacted particles and improves air circulation.

1.1.6 Temperature:
Heat created by the microorganisms amid composting raises the temperature of the
fertilizing the soil materials. The temperatures in a manure heap regularly ascend above
120°F and here and there surpass 160°F. High temperatures (above 140°F) have the
benefit of slaughtering pathogens (microorganisms that reason illness) and weed seeds.
Since backyard composting heaps are little, they may just maintain at raised temperatures
for a couple of days.

1.1.7 Time:
Depending upon the materials and conditions in a heap, it can take a little while to over a
year to deliver fertilizer. Fertilizer is commonly prepared for use in three to a half year,
given ordinary turning, satisfactory dampness, and a decent blend of materials. With day
by day turnings and exceedingly degradable material, the composting time can be

4
decreased to less than a month. Techniques that include practically no turning for the
most part require over a year to create fertilizer that is prepared to utilize.

Fig1.4-Comparison
Fig1.4 of Food Waste across world

Today solid waste management is one of the biggest problems in the world. Around 50%
of the waste in the world is organic waste. India is second largest populated country in
the world; it produces more than 100 tons of solid waste a day. It is the mixture of both
organic food waste and inorganic waste. Around 78% is food waste, which can be
recycled. Some of them is land filled but it is not segregated properly and it mixes
organic and inorganic waste, which produces bad odor, and it will spoil the soil. To
manage the solid waste, it should be properly segregated at the source (houses). The
organic and inorganic waste needs to be separated, the organic waste can be treated to
make compost, and inorganic waste can be segregated and given for garb garbage collection.
There are many companies who take in the waste and segregate and convert the organic
waste into compost but as the waste is very high; they are unable to achieve all the targets
[1 5]. Compost is organic matter
so it is better to compost at home [1-5]. m decomposed as
fertilizer. Compost is the key in organic farming. The process of composting requires wet
organic matter known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting to break down into
humus for a certain period. Modern methodical composting iis multi-step, closely
monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, carbon and nitrogen
nitrogen-rich materials.
The decomposition process is carried out by shredding the plant matter, adding right
urning the mixture.
amount of water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly tturning

5
Compost is rich in nutrients. It is used in small gardens, agriculture, rooftop farming etc.
The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, such as soil conditioner,
fertilizer, addition of vital nutrients to soil and as a natural pesticide/insecticide for soil.
In ecosystems, compost is useful for controlling soil erosion, land and stream
reclamation, wetland construction and as landfill cover. Compost is commonly known as
Black gold by gardeners. Anaerobic compost results in black color of the soil due to
presence of methane. Aerobic composting results in dark brown color/ chocolate color of
the soil after composting.

1.2: History of Composting

Composting is not only a modern age matter, this practice took place long time ago. The
earliest records state evidence that before the introduction of modern sewage systems, the
major fertilizers were animal manure and composts of garden and kitchen wastes.
Composting existed 10 000 years ago through the Akkadian empire which was located in
modern day Iraq. When the citizens noticed that their plants grew better in area where
there was manure they started putting manure in their soil. The history of composting
also states that early farmers in Scotland, during the Stone Age, used to put manure and
vegetable compost in their soil. Moving to Ancient Asia, there is evidence that the tools
found in Neolithic sites in northern china contained similar features as those used by the
Scottish farmers. Ancient writings and early Hindu texts show that the ancient Chinese
farmers used to put cooked bones, silkworm debris and manure in their soil. The Greeks,
Romans and Egyptians used composting too. They used to take straw from animal stalls
and put it in the soil. Ashes, straw, stubble, chaff and grass were used to enrich the soil
and animals’ blood was used as a fertilizer.

In Egypt, after observing the worms’ composting abilities, Cleopatra enacted a law that
states that anyone who removes earthworms from Egyptwas punished by death. During
the 12th century, the handbook Kitab Al Falah written by Ibn AL Awam gave detailed
information about composting and the use of manure. In America, Native Americans
were known by composting, and practiced it through three methods. The first method was
sheet composting where, compostable materials were layered by soil. The second method
was composting while planting, where the nutrients were the fish parts or other animal
parts. The third method was seed balls. In this method the seeds were balled in clay and
compostable materials, which kept them moist, then they were thrown to plant the seeds.
Composting was since then known as a money saver. In 1943, George Washington
Carver said “Make your own fertilizer, compost can be done with little labor and
practically no cash outlay”. Yet, composting was soon replaced in the early 20th century.
Justus Von Liebig, a German scientist, proved in 1840 that the plants can get nourishment
from the chemicals. Therefore, the vegetables’ and animals’ waste mixture was replaced

6
quickly by artificial fertilizers, and that was the beginning of the scientific method of
farming. But like all the artificial solutions, fertilizers had their opponents.

1.3: The Advantages of Composting

Nowadays, composting is known for its numerous advantages which involve:

• Reducing yard and food waste make up 30% of the waste stream and therefore diverting
that waste away from the landfills.
• The plants from a well-done compost will look better, will produce better and will have
a much greater ability to fight diseases.
• Adding organic matter to the soil improves moisture retention.
• Adding decomposed organic material to the soil feeds the soil’s organisms.
• Compost provides a balanced source of nutrients that helps the soil hold nutrients long
enough so that the plants can use them.
• Composting saves money.
• Composting improves our diet, the plants will have fair amount of nutrients.

1.4: The Biology of composting:

Composting is a natural process. It involves all the spontaneous decomposition activities
in nature, like the breakdown of leafs or the ageing of animal manure. However, this
process takes a long time, that is where comes the importance of composting. Moreover,
fresh organic material need to be composed before adding them to the soil, otherwise it
may result in a change in the ecosystem. A well made compost is dark brown and smells
like the forest. It is composed from carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and water. This four
ingredients are mandatory for the composting organism to work effectively.

Carbon compounds are the source or high metabolic activity, which increases the
temperature during composting. Whereas the nitrogen balance decreases during the
process along with a loss of CO 2 and H2O, which means a decrease in the carbon
nitrogen (C/N) ratio. Bacteria that fix nitrogen to replace this loss. This activity occurs
highly by the end of the decomposition and is influenced by the presence of ammonia and
high temperatures. The availability of oxygen is crucial too since our process is a
biological oxidation.

Therefore, the compost should be turned daily to supply O2 and to allow the aerobic
respiration. It is important to keep the percentage of oxygen in the compost from falling
below 18%. Another important composting factor is the temperature. Unlike the
common belief that states that high temperatures are essential for good compost,
excessively high temperature slow down the decomposition activity of the organic
matters. Indeed, only few bacteria can perform above 70°C. The best-case scenario will

7
 be a varied temperature from 45 to 50°C. An adequate level of moisture is very
important to maintain too. It lowers the structural strength of the organiclatters and
consequently speeds the decomposition process. In a higher level of accuracy, the C/N
ratio must be between 25 and 35.

If the ratio is below 20, nitrogen is lost and ammonia is released, which leads to a bad
smell in the compost. However, if the C/N ratio is above 40, the decomposition process
slows down. The size of the materials is an important factor too. For a fast and efficient
decomposition, the

size of the compostable materials should be between1.3 and 5cm. If the materials are too
big, it is important to reduce their size. The size should not be very small neither,
otherwise this will cause a lake of aeration. iii The following chemical reaction
summarizes the composting process:

Organic waste + O2 → Compost + CO2 + H2O + Heat

1.5: Composting Steps:

It is mandatory to be aware of the factors listed above and follow the next step in order to
make a healthy compost:
 Build a compost bin: its size will depend on how much compostable material we want to
generate.
 Choose the composter location: the area should be flat and sunny.
 Alternate the layers: the first layer should contain twigs to allow air to get in. The second
layer is a cover of leaves, then we alternate layers of carbon and nitrogen until the bin is
full.
 Maintain the compost bin
We should make sure that the materials are adequately wet and the compost should be
mixed once a week to help the breakdown process.
This process can be easily performed without a mandatory agricultural experience. Indoor
composting can be either a backyard composting, for this type we need a yard, fallen
leaves or straw and grass clippings and food scraps. Or a worm composting (Vermi
composting): A tiny yard or even an apartment will work, with enough food scraps

8
 Fig.1.5: Process of compost

The composting process involves four main components:

1.Organic matter
2.Moisture
3.Oxygen
4.Bacteria

Organic matter includes plant materials and some animal manures. Organic materials
used for compost should include a mixture of brown organic material (dead leaves, twigs,
manure) and green organic material (lawn clippings, fruit rinds, etc.). Brown materials
nitrogen. The best ratio is 1 part green to 1
supply carbon, while green materials supply nitrogen.
part brown material. Shredding, chopping or mowing these materials into smaller pieces
will help speed the composting process by increasing the surface area

9
 compostable items
Fig.1.6: Compostable and Non-compostable

10
Here is a list materials that are and those that are not compostable:

Table 1.1: compostable items

1.1 Compostable and Non-compostable

As listed above, the first step of composting is making a compost bin. This step requires a
full knowledge of the required size of compost and the material needed for the bin.
Here are some existing types of composting machines:
The first composter is as simple as compost heap. This is a traditional open
open-air heap. This
type of composting used to exist in the past and can still be found in some gardens. It is
usually a wide foot high heap that contains six layers of green garden waste and kitchen
waste, placed over the brush core. Two layers of cow or chicken manure cover the layers.
The heap type unlike the modern composting must be turned every 6 weeks.

11
The second type of composters and the most common one is the wooden compost
machine.
This machine is easy to make. It can be made using four pallets and an additional one as a
floor, stuck together using a metal pole. The pallets should contain gaps to allow aeration,
and then covered by a piece of plastic that will play the role of an isolator and will protect
the compost from heavy rain too. This bin is suitable for a house garden, as it usually
does not take a lot of space.
A type similar to the wooden machine but for higher quantities of compost is the multi-
bin. In this bin, the compost should be turned every week first, and then left to mature for
a month. This composter needs to be watered regularly too and its compost can be ready
in few weeks. However, this kind of bin requires a lot of indoor space and a fair amount
of effort.
This type of composters is called a tumbler. It is easy to use because it can be turned
easily. The materials inside it can then be mixed thoroughly, which allows the compost to
be ready quickly. The tumbler generates high-quality compost, but is not as easy to make
as the previous composters.
The food digestion cone is a sophisticated type of composters. This type has a chamber
buried under the ground where kitchen waste is gathered and decomposed. The digesters
use the sun’s heat to fasten the process, therefore they should be put in a sunny area.

1.6: Home Comosting

Composting is a natural process that turns organic material into a dark rich substance.
This substance, called compost or humus, is a wonderful conditioner for your soil.

1.6.1: Why should I compost

 Healthier Plants Organic matter is known as the “soul of a healthy soil.” Adding
compost to your yard or garden will help your plants grow bigger and better. The
organic matter in compost helps soil hold on to nutrients and water, benefiting your
plants while reducing the risk of pollution.
 Composting Saves You Money Using compost as a soil conditioner or mulch reduces
your need to purchase these lawn and garden products. Composting in your backyard
may reduce your trash removal costs. Many sanitation companies charge customers
by the bag. Your compost bin could decrease the number of bags your household
generates.
 Composting is practical and convenient No need to bother bagging leaves and other
garden/yard wastes. Simply add them to your backyard pile or bin and watch these
items turn into rich dark humus.
 Composting is a good alternative to landfilling or incinerating convenient Our yard
and garden wastes account for almost 20% of the total amount of trash thrown away

12
 each year. Your choice to compost reduces the need to burn or bury organic material
and increases the qua
quality of our precious topsoil.

Fig.1.7: Waste material pie chart

1.6.2: What should I compost

While anything that was once alive can be composted, certain items are best left to
professionals and kept out of the home composting system. ‘
When selecting materials
aterials for your compost pile, AVOID:
 Wastes that attract pests
 Diseased/Insect ridden plants
Fatty food items, such as meat or cheese, should be avoided since they can attract
rodents, raccoons, dogs, cats, flies and other pests. Cat and dog wastes shoulds not be
added because they can spread certain diseases. You may also want to leave out plants
that are heavily diseased or pest infested unless you are confident they will be composted
pest-infested
13
hot enough and long enough to thoroughly break them down. This iis also true for the
reproductive parts of troublesome weeds (e.g., seed heads, rhizomes).

Table: 1.2: What goes in your pile

1.6.3: How much

ch time and energy will it take

What types and quantity of organic materials will I be able to compost? The method you
choose will be influenced by how much organic material you have for composting, your
need for finished compost and the time you have available for your project. If you only
have grass clippings allow them to stay on the lawn. The clippings will decompose
naturally and nourish your lawn. Three methods of composting are outlined below:

1. Standard,

2. Slow

3. Fast.

Each method requires varying amounts of time and materials. One of these is sure to
meet your needs.

method The Standard Method is recommended if you have a variety

1.6.3.1: Standard method:
of organic materials such as leaves, grass clippings, kitchen scraps and yard/garden
14
waste. You will spend time building and mixing the pile each week. A small area will be
needed for the compost pile and the temporary storage of organic materials. This method
produces compost in six to eight weeks in spring and summer; longer if done in fall and
winter. In the Standard Method, the pile can be made by combining stored materials, or
by placing items in the pile as they become available. When gathering and storing
organic materials, keep browns and greens in separate piles. Remember that most greens
cannot be stored very long without starting to cause foul odors or attract pests. It is best
to incorporate greens as soon as possible into a compost pile.

Follow these steps:

1. Start the compost pile with a layer of browns. If you have a lot of coarse organic
materials, you may want to chop or shred them into smaller pieces. Smaller pieces decay
faster.
2. Add a layer of green materials. Try to maintain a ratio of 1 part greens to 3 parts
browns.
3. Add a shovelful or two of soil or finished compost. This will add extra bacteria and
fungi to get your pile off to a fast start.
4. Mix the materials together with a pitchfork or shovel.
5. Check for proper moisture. Use the squeeze test to be sure that your pile has the right
amount of water for the composting process. Add water or additional dry material when
necessary.
6. Continue to build layers until the bin is full.
7. Mix the pile after one week. Check for proper moisture and aerate the pile. Move
coarse or less decayed material from the outside to the center. Adjust the moisture by
sprinkling with water or adding dry material. Steam may be seen when you mix the pile.

8. Continue mixing the pile every week or two. Check for proper moisture. During this
time the compost will begin to look uniform and dark brown in color. The pile will
shrink as the composting process takes place. If the pile does not heat up after turning, is
neither too wet nor too dry, and most of the original materials are no longer recognizable,
it is now ready for curing.

9. Allow the pile to cure for at least a few weeks, until it looks mostly dark and crumbly
and has a pleasant earthy order. It is now ready to use as a soil amendment.

1.6.3.2: Slow Method: The slow method is recommended if you do not have a steady
supply of organic materials. This method takes very little of your time, but it requires
from six months to two years to complete. Storage space is not needed since organic
materials are added to the pile as they become available. With the Slow Method, time is
not spent checking for the proper mix or moisture. Since composting is a natural process,
it will occur with little or no attention.

15
Because the proper mix and moisture are not checked, little heat is produced, and the
process takes longer to complete.

If recycling and waste source reduction are your main goals, the Slow Method will
recycle your organic waste and take very little of your time.

The Slow Method is similar to the Standard Method with the following modifications:

1. No need to check for the proper mix or moisture! You build the pile with green or
brown materials as they become available.

2. If you add kitchen waste, it must be buried deep in the pile. Dig a hole in the top or
side of the pile and cover the scraps with several inches of brown material or active
compost. Foods left on the surface may attract pests or cause odors.

3. After six months or more, finished compost will be found at the bottom or oldest
sections of the pile. It may be collected and used as it is produced.

1.6.3.3: Fast method: If you want a lot of compost to add to your soil, or if you generate
an enormous amount of organic matter, you may wish to use the Fast Method to compost
your yard, garden and kitchen materials. The Fast Method requires MUCH MORE of
your time and energy, but you will get a finished product very quickly. In this method,
the composting process is closely watched to guarantee ideal conditions at all times.

The Fast Method is different from the Standard Method in the following ways:

1. Extra space for gathering and storing organic materials will be needed.

2. All organic materials are chopped or shredded before they are added to the pile. Both
electric and gasoline powered chippers and shredders are available. Lawn mowers,
prunes or hatchets can also be used to chop items.

3. Check the temperature often with a compost or soil thermometer. In summer months,
it may be necessary to check the pile daily. With the Fast Method, very high temperatures
(>140oF) can be reached quickly. These temperatures arehigh enough to kill most weed
seeds and disease causing organisms. However, some composting microbes may also be
killed. If the temperature goes above 150oF, cool the pile by turning or adding coarse,
brown materials. (Refer to Troubleshooting Guide).

4. Mix the pile every three days and check for proper moisture.You should have little
problem with pests. Pests are attracted by high fat and protein foods such as meat, oils,
cheese, fish, and chicken, but should not be a problem if you only include vegetable
scraps, fruit peels, and garden clippings. Occasionally mix the pile’s contents to maintain
proper levels of heat and oxygen. Be aware of the moisture in the pile. The wetness
should be similar to that of a damp sponge - not too wet, not too dry. If you live in an
16
area that receives an inordinate amount of rainfall, try covering your pile so as not to
over-saturate it.

1.6.4: Will the bad pile smell

There should be no odor if the pile is properly maintained. The same rules about
attracting pests should also be followed to avoid odors. In addition, you can improve
your compost pile’s performance by turning the pile with a shovel or other turning
device. Microorganisms that thrive in environments with no oxygen (anaerobic) tend to
generate bad odors, while those that exist in oxygen rich environments (aerobic) do not
smell bad. Composters who turn their piles regularly maintain high levels of oxygen
throughout the pile. Regular turning will also accelerate decomposition and transform
your kitchen and garden scraps into humus-rich compost that much sooner.

1.6.5: Can I compost during the winter in cold climates

Yes.Because microorganisms generate heat and must have oxygen to survive, old
climates should not affect the pile too dramatically if the pile is properly maintained.
Decomposition may slow down, but the process will continue. Carbon rich materials
such as leaves, twigs, and sawdust, must be mixed in the pile with nitrogen rich materials
such as grass clippings, fruit and vegetable peels. Along with regular turning and good
air circulation, the microorganisms responsible for decomposition will generate heat
while they break down the materials into compost. With the proper carbon/nitrogen ratio
and regular turning, heat will be generated

and decomposition will occur regardless of climate. During the winter months, cover
finished compost with a piece of plastic to keep it dry.

1.6.6: How does composting work

How do I control it? Bacteria, fungi and other microbes are the workhorses of
composting. These are assisted by many other larger organisms. During composting,
these microbes produce carbon dioxide, heat and water while they break down the
materials in your pile. The final result is - Compost—rich, dark, crumbly and odor free.
The perfect addition to your garden! Efficient composting requires:

• the proper mix of materials (balancing greens and browns)

• adequate aeration

• proper moisture

The proper mix Composting microbes use nitrogen for growth and carbon for energy.
Most individual organic materials do not have the right mix of carbon and nitrogen for
ideal composting. Using a variety of fresh green and dried brown items ensures an
17
adequate supply of carbon and nitrogen. Proper blending of brown and green materials
allows the microbes to work well. Generally, fresh "green" materials are high in nitrogen
and dried "brown" materials are high in carbon. Both carbon and nitrogen are necessary
for the composting process. Proper blending of green and brown materials allows the
microbes to work well and will keep your pile odor free. A general rule of thumb to
follow is: 1 part green material to 3 parts brown. (A “part” is what ever you are using to
measure your materials. It could be one shovel full, one bucket or one wheelbarrow—
whatever makes sense for your situation.) Brown materials such as leaves, straw or wood
chips are high in carbon, contain very little nitrogen, and are slow to decompose. Green
materials such as grass clippings, fresh weeds, kitchen scraps and manure are high in
nitrogen, relatively low in carbon, and will quickly decompose. Green materials are
called "hot" because they supply the compost pile with the nitrogen necessary for the pile
to produce heat. High temperatures mean that the composting process is working most
effectively. Keeping the proper mix throughout the year is part of the art of composting.

In autumn, brown leaves are abundant and green materials may be hard to find. If brown
leaves are not mixed with green materials they may take a year or more to decompose.
On the other hand, in the spring and summer fresh grass clippings and other greens may
be plentiful without sufficient browns to mix with them. Since leaves break down so
slowly by themselves they can be stockpiled and mixed with greens as needed. Greens,
however, can NOT be stockpiled by themselves, because they have a strong tendency to
give off foul odors and/or attract flies and other pests. Grass clippings, food scraps, wet
manures, and other high moisture materials must be mixed with browns as soon as
possible. With experience, you will develop your own procedures that result in the proper
mixture for the items you are composting.

Aeration Decomposition can occur with oxygen (aerobic) or without oxygen (anaerobic).
Microbes that use oxygen are preferred in home composting because they decompose
materials quickly and effectively. Aerobic composting occurs when the pile has enough
oxygen. During composting, the microbes will use the oxygen in the pile and aeration
will be needed. The best way to do this is to include coarse materials in the pile. These
materials, such as twigs, sticks, wood chips, and straw, give the pile a porous structure so
air can flow through the pile. Compaction or excessive moisture can limit air flow
through the pile. Compaction can occur when only small particles or finely shredded
materials are used in the pile, when bins are over filled, or if piles become too big. If the
pores in the pile become filled with water (in other words, if the pile is too wet) then air
cannot flow through the pile and anaerobic decomposition takes over. Anaerobic
microbes decompose by fermentation. This type of decomposition produces foul odors.
It also produces acids and alcohols that are harmful to plants. Regular mixing or stirring
the pile loosens the material and maintains proper aeration.

18
Moisture in the compost pile is important. Microbes can only use moist materials for
food. If the materials are too dry, the microbes may become dormant and the composting
process will slow down. If the materials are too wet, nutrients are lost, aeration is
reduced, odors are produced, and the process is slowed.

The material in the pile should feel damp. The “squeeze test” is an easy way to judge the
moisture content of compost. Tightly squeeze a handful of materials - a drop or two of
liquid should be produced. If squeezing the handful is like wringing out a sponge, it is too
wet. Stirring or mixing the pile loosens the materials and allows air to circulate. Adding
drier items, such as leaves, straw or sawdust, can also help dry a wet pile. If the handful
falls apart or feels dusty, it is too dry. Water with a hose or sprinkling can to increase the
moisture. Check after 24 hours to see if additional water is needed.

Proper Mix

Proper Aeration

+ Proper Moisture

= An Active Compost Pile

When the proper mix, moisture and aeration have been achieved you will observe the
following process: As the microbes begin to work, they will produce heat. Sometimes
steam may be seen escaping from the top of the pile. Actively working microbes can
raise the pile’s temperature as high as 140°.

Temperatures higher than 150° may be harmful since very high temperatures reduce the
activity of many microbes. You may try checking your pile’s temperature with a candy
thermometer or heat probe. You can also purchase a special long-stemmed compost
thermometer. Mixing the pile can cool it. During the process, you will notice several
changes. • The pile will shrink as the microbes decompose the organic materials. • You
will see evidence of different organisms. These may include a white coating on particles
in the pile, mushrooms growing out of the pile, and sowbugs, centipedes and earthworms.
These are all natural and important parts of the “decomposer food web”. • As the process
completes, the temperature will drop. • Most of the original materials will no longer be
recognizable. • After aging for a month or more after the temperature drops, the compost
is ready to use. Your finished compost will be dark and crumbly and have apleasant
earthy odor.

19
 Trouble Shooting Guide Problem Possible Cause Solution
Table 1.3: Trouble

Turning or mixing Turning an active compost pile from one bin to another, or mixing it
in place, is an important step in the composting process. Mixing accomplishes several
things: • Breaks up clumps of materials, such as leaves, grass of food scraps • Exposes
fresh surfaces for the bacteria and fungi to work on • Large pieces can be broken up •
Evens out the composting proprocess.
cess. Usually material at the edges (top, sides and bottom)
composts slower than the middle. One of the main reasons to mix the pile is to get
material from the edges to the middle and vice versa. • Maintain airflow. If compaction
will loosen up the pile • Presents an opportunity for corrective
has occurred, mixing will
action. If the pile is too dry, material can be wet down while turning. If it is too wet,
drier material can be added. If decomposition is too slow, greens can be added while
turning the pile.

foul odor excess moisture turn pile or add dry material such as straw compaction turn the
pile or decrease its size ammonia odor too much nitrogen add high-carbon
high (brown) items
low temp pile too small enlarge pile too little moisture add water and turn poor aeration
turn pile cold weather increase pile size or insulate pile with a layer of material such as

20
straw high temp pile too large reduce pile size or turn more frequently too much nitrogen
add high-carbon (brown) items pests such as rats, raccoons and insects presence of meat
scraps or fatty food wastes remove meat and fatty foods from pile and cover with a layer
of soil or saw dust; or switch to an animal proof compost bin

1.6.7: How Do I Use Compost

Compost can be used for:

• soil conditioning

• lawn dressing

• a potting soil component

• mulching

For general soil enrichment, the ideal time for applying compost is 2-4 weeks before
planting. To improve structure and fertility of poor soil, give it a thorough compost
treatment in fall. Spade 6”-12” deep and mix in compost. Leave the surface rough and
cloddy for the winter. When the composting process has been completed, screen and
allow compost to age for an additional two weeks if you plan to use in and around
established plants.

Flower Gardens In spring, loosen the top few inches of soil in your annual and perennial
beds and work in an equal amount of compost into the bed. If you apply a layer of
compost to your flowerbeds in the fall, it will provide winter protection for perennials
and will build better soil for annuals in the spring. Use finely screened compost in your
flowerbed.

Lawns Use compost when planting new lawns and maintaining existing lawns. Your
goal is to produce a thick sod with roots that go down six inches. In building a new lawn,
work in generous amounts of compost 4"-6" deep. If your soil is made of clay, you will
need at least a two-inch depth of compost, mixed in thoroughly to build it up. To renovate
an old, patchy lawn, dig up the bare spots about two inches deep, work in plenty of
finished compost and rake well. Sow your seed after soaking the patches well.

Trees and Shrubs When planting trees and shrubs, make the planting hole twice the size
of the root ball. Blend enough compost into the removed soil so that the mix is about
25% compost. Rough up the sides of the hole and backfill with the compost amended
soil. Water the ground well, then spread an inch or two of compost on top. Established
shrubs should be fed yearly by working compost into the soil, then mulching. The “ring”
method works best for feeding trees. Start about two feet from the trunk and cultivate the

21
soil shallowly to a foot beyond the drip line of the branches. Rake an inch or two of
compost into the top two inches of soil.

Vegetable Gardens Dig compost in during the fall or spring, up to a week before planting.
When the plants begin to grow rapidly, use compost as a top dressing. In addition,
nutritious compost “tea” can be made. Place 2-3” 2 3” of cured, finished co
compost at the
gallon pail, cover with a foot of water, stir well and allow to soak for
bottom of a five-gallon
three days. Strain through burlap or cheesecloth and sprinkle on and around plants.

House Plants Add compost to potting mixture to provide an enriched ssoil for your plants.
To rejuvenate soil in indoor plant boxes, add an inch of compost into the surface twice a
year.

Table1.4: How much compost to apply

Plant/Soil Application Compost Application Rate General Soil Enrichment 1/2" to 3" into
il New Lawns 1" - 2" mixed into top 4" - 6"of soil Topdressing for existing
top 4" of soil
lawns 1/8" - 1/4" screened compost spread uniformly Topdressing for vegetables,
flowers, & shrubs 1" - 2" spread uniformly Ground cover for annual beds 3" mixed into
top 6" of soil Garden soil 1" - 3" mixed into top 6" of soil Incorporation around shrubs 3"
mixed into top 6" of soil Potting mix 25% to 30% by volume Mulch for deciduous trees,
& rose beds 3"- 4" spread uniformly Mulch for vegetables, annual perennial planting
beds 2" to 3" spread uniformly

22
 CHAPTER: 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1: The Art and Science of Composting

Are source for farmers and compost producers. Leslie Cooper band University of Madison. This
is nice book, which describes the Composting Process, Explains how to decide various
compost mixes. General guidelines for pile management, managing foul odours. Various
technological options and management techniques. Guidelines for choosing a composting
method from available materials. Various parameters are given to determine qualities of the
finished compost and compost quality standards. To begin composting operation, following
points must be considered:
 Choose equipment and management methods based on your location and the intended use of
the finished product.
 Determine the right mix of ingredients to optimize C:N ratio, moisture content and porosity.
 Monitor the composting process: temperature, oxygen, moisture and odours.
 Test the finished compost to ensure it has the qualities you need for the intended use

2.2 Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries

Daniel Hoornweg, Laura Thomas, Lambert Otten Published for the Urban Development
Division the World Bank, Washington DC Composting is simply the enhancement of the
natural biological degradation of organic matter. Micro organisms convert the organic
matter into a humus-like material; the product being more commonly known as compost. The
following general formula illustrate the inputs and outputs for the conversion of organic matter
in the presence of oxygen
Organic + O2+ nutrients--> new cells +organic + CO2+ H2O + NH3+ SO4+...+ heat matter

2.3 Additives aided composting of green waste

Effects on organic matter, degradation, compost maturity, and quality of the finished compost
Jagdish Gabhane, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute. In this paper/research,
study effects of additives are well explained. The reactions and overall effect of additives on
composting enhancement is useful and will lead to innovative idea for future research
works. The effect of various additives such as fly ash, phosphor-gypsum, jaggery, lime,
and polyethylene glycol on green waste composting was investigated through assessing their
influence on microbial growth, enzymatic activities, organic matter degradation, bulk
density, quality of finished compost including gradation test, heavy metal analysis, etc. A
perusal of results showed that addition of jaggery and polyethylene glycol were helpful to
facilitate composting process as they significantly influenced the growth of microbes and
cellulose activity. The quality of finished compost prepared from jaggery and polyethylene
23
glycol added treatments were superior to other composts, wherein reduction in C/N ratio was
more than 8% in jaggery treatment. All other parameters of compost quality including
gradation test also favored jaggery and polyethylene glycol as the best additives for green
waste composting.
After reading this paper one thing is found and that is use of sugar as an additive in
composting process has not been explored so far. Sugar as a carbon source can promote the
growth of degrading microbes and will accelerate composting process.

2.4 Rapid composting technology

Virginia C. Cuevas, Institute of Biological Sciences (IBS), College of Arts and Sciences,
University of the Philippines .This is innovative paper focuses on Rapid composting technology
developed within osculating the plant substrates used for composting with cultures of
Trichodermaharziamum, a cellulose decomposer fungus. The fungus, grown in a medium of
sawdust mixed with the leaves of ipil, is called compost fungus activator (CFA). There must be
favorable conditions for the decay process, such as adequate moisture, an appropriate
initial C:Nratio of substrates, and aeration. The composting period is shortened to just four
weeks. The transfer of this technology to Filipino farmers through a National Program is
described. Constraints in technology transfer, economic benefits from the use of compost
processed through this technology, and other benefits attributed to the technology are
explained

2.5 Comparative Evaluation of Compost Quality

Bera, R, Inhana Organic Research Foundation, Kolkata, India .In this paper Comparative
evaluation of four different types of compost viz. Vermi compost, Biodynamic compost,
Indigenous compost or Farm Yard Manure (FYM) and Novcom compost is made. Study
indicates that they were of more or less similar quality in terms of physic chemical
properties However, a major difference was noted in case of nutrient content(N+P+K), where
Novcom compost recorded about 19 to 29 percent and 13 to 37 percent higher value in
terms of total N and total nutrients (N+P+K) respectively; when compared with the rest other
types of studied compost. The higher nutrient/ N content in Novcom compost along with
about 104 to 106 times higher microbial population status (total bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes), reflected its comparatively higher potential towards mineralization of plant
nutrients as well as restoration and enhancement of the native soil microflora, post soil
application. Biodynamic and Indigenous (FYM) compost represented similar microbial
potential but when compared in terms of nutrient content, the former definitely scored higher.

2.6 Rapid production of organic

C. R. Sudharmaidev In this paper and research article, Chemical decomposition was studied as
a potential method for the rapid conversion of waste to organic fertilizer. Experiments
were done. Chemicals were screened, and process parameters were optimized. The
physicochemical properties, phytotoxicity, and manorial efficiency of the product were assessed.
A prototype machine was fabricated for the operation. Chemical treatment of ground fresh waste
24
with HCl (0.25 N, 50 ml kg-1) for 30min followed by KOH (0.5 N,100 ml kg-1) for 30min at
100 _C, and ambient pressure yielded product that could be used in place of conventional
organic manure. Only 8–14 h was required to complete the entire process. No by-product or
leach ate was produced. The quality of the product was comparable to that of conventional
composts, except for the absence of microorganisms. The fortified organic fertilizer enhanced the
yield of vegetables in pot trials. The process and the prototype machine were found beneficial by
a public evaluation.

2.7 Characterization and Recycling of Organic Waste after Co-Composting

Z. Anwar, M. Irshad, Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan Certain

physical and chemical characteristics of animals manure are not adequate for composting
and may limit the efficiency of composting process. Several modifications in the process of
composting has-been suggested such as the addition of biodegradable waste, bulking agents
etc to reach the optimal C:N ratio, degradation rate and compost quality. One of the most
negative effects of composting animal manures is the loss of N through NH3volatilization, which
reduces the fertilizer value of the manure and constitutes an important economic loss. The key
to the development of compost technology is to control the changes and N losses. Addition of
lime during composting process, natural zeolite and bamboo charcoal amendments tend to
immobilize metals and reduced heavy metals availability and leachibility.

2.8 Rapid Composting Methods-IISC

2.8.1Phospho-Sulpho-Nitro-Compost (PSNC)

In this method, use of suitable minerals, fertilizers and microbial cultures to fortify the
compost so that the end product contains more nutrients per unit volume or weight. It also
makes use of compost accelerating culture and bio fertilisers for further nutrient enrichment. This
reduced the bulk which has to be transported and applied per unit of nutrients delivered. In this
respect, this method employs both the fortification and the acceleration strategy. Like
conventional compost, PSNC can be prepared by the heap or pit method for which a
bright sunny site is selected.
To accelerate the decomposition process, fungal culture is added at the rate of
500gmycelial mat/tonne of material 8 where as bacterial culture having 10 viable cells/ml
is added (50 ml/kg of material). To further accelerate the process, the multi-bio-inoculums
containing cellulose decomposers( Paecilomyces fusisporus and Aspergillusawamori), P-
solubilizers (Bacillus polymyxa and Pseudomonas striata) and N-fixer
(Azotobacterchroococcum) etc. were added at 5 and 30 days of decomposition @ 500 g mycelial
mat/1000 kg material on dry weight basis. After 3-4 weeks of decomposition, the first turning is
done which is followed by a second turning two weeks later. Moisture is to be maintained at
60-70% of materials on dry weight basis. Finally, the upper side and all boundaries of the heap
are covered with cow dung slurry to maintain optimum moisture content inside the heap. To
avoid rain, wind, and to maintain the moisture and temperature the heap should be covered
with a polythene sheet.

25
2.8.2 Institute of Biological Sciences (IBS) Rapid Composting Technology

This technology involves inoculating the plant substrates with cultures of a cellulose
decomposing fungus (Trichoderma harzianum),for composting. Sawdust mixed with the
leavesof subabul (Leucaena leucocephala), aleguminous tree, is used as the medium
ofgrowth for compost fungus activator. Thecomposting time, using this procedure,
rangesfrom 21 to 45 days, depending on the plant substrates used. The procedure consists of
twoparts: the production of the compost fungusactivator and the composting process.
Decomposition will continue until the substrate isfinely fragmented, so that the finished
producthas a powdery texture. Once decomposition iscomplete, the compost should be sun
driedagain until its moisture content is 10 - 20%. Ifmature compost is needed at once, it should
besun dried for one day, or as soon as itstemperature drops to 30°C. Drying
removesexcess moisture, and makes the compost mucheasier to handle.

2.9: Biowaste and its worldwide production

Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are
required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law (Basel Convention, 1989). The term
can be described as subjective and inaccurate because waste to one person is not waste to
another. Wastes are generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products and other
human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded from what
is regarded as waste (Glossary of Environment Statistics, 1997). There are many waste types
defined by Modern systems of waste management and International Waste Activities, 2003. 1.
Municipal Waste (Household waste, Commercial waste and Demolition waste) 2. Hazardous
Waste (Industrial waste) 3. Bio-medical Waste (Clinical waste) 4. Special Hazardous waste
(Radioactive waste, explosives waste and Electronic waste known as e-waste) Solid wastes
include all solid materials that the processor no longer considers of any sufficient value to retain
(Wilson, 1977; Tchobanoglous et al., 1993) and consists of both biodegradable and non
biodegradable waste. Biodegradable solid waste is the waste which can be broken down, in a
reasonable amount of time, into its base compounds by micro-organisms and other living things,
regardless of what those compounds may be. The quantity and composition of municipal solid
wastes (MSW) vary greatly for different municipalities and time of the year. Numerous factors
influence the characteristics of municipal solid wastes, the important among them being degree
of urbanization and industrialization, social customs, per capita income and other factors like
geology, geography and climate. The world wide waste production ranged from 3.4 – 4.0 billion
tonne in 2009 (Philippe and Catherine, 2009). The richer a country, the more waste it produces.
It is reported that high revenue countries produce 500 kg and more municipal waste per
inhabitant per year. The highest quantity (730 kg/inhabitant) of waste is generated in USA. In
China, quantity of waste generation is between 200 and 300 kg/inhabitant/year.

26
2.10: Risks and problems associated with solid waste
There are many negative impacts associated with improper solid waste management (Slater and
Frederickson, 2001; IPCC, 2006; Ilgen et al., 2008; Lou and Nair, 2009; Gomez-Brandon et al.,
2011). The relative importance of each depends on the nature of the waste and local conditions.
Unmanaged waste creates several problems such as degradation of urban environment causing
aesthetic nuisance, blockage of drain resulting flood, breeding of effective vectors spreading
diseases and pollution of water etc. Open fires of biowaste, deliberate or accidental, on disposal
sites cause major air pollution. CH4 and CO2 are the chemicals responsible for green house
effect for global warming. Aerosols and dusts can spread fungi and pathogens from uncollected
and decomposed wastes. Liquids and fumes, escaping from deposits of chemical wastes can have
fatal or other serious effects. Waste items that are recycled without being cleaned effectively or
sterilized can transmit infection to later users. Biomass is the mass of living biological organisms
in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. Aquatic biomass includes macro-algae, microalgae
and emergent plants. Phumdi (Loktak aquatic biomass) is one of the major threats to the Loktak
lake. The domestic sewage from Imphal city carried by Nambul River is discharged into the lake
affecting its water quality, thus leading to eutrophication. The sediment load on the river from
the adjoining hills also contributes to nutrient load in Loktak lake resulting subsequent
intensification of eutrophication problem. Remote sensing studies conducted jointly by the
Manipur Remote Sensing Application Centre and the Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad
(1999) shows that the area under Phumdi has increased from 10,499 ha. in 1990 to 13,506 ha. in
1994. Consequently, the water mass has reduced from 15,441 ha. in 1990 to 7,875 ha. in 1995.
Reports of studies on floating vegetation in Loktak lake carried out nearby for water hyacinth
(Srivastava et al., 1984) suggest a biomass productivity of about At these levels of productivity,
the annual biomass production is estimated to be about 2 million tons per annum on wet basis.
Another agricultural waste is rice straw. It is one of the most abundant lignocellulosic crop
residues in the world. Its annual production is about 731 million tons which is distributed in
Africa, Asia, Europe and America. This amount of rice straw can potentially produce 205 billion
litres bioethanol per year (Balat et al., 2008). In Asia, it is a major field-based residue that is
produced in large amounts (667.59 million MT). However, an increasing proportion of this rice
straw undergoes field burning. This waste of energy seems inapt, given the high fuel prices and
the great demand for reducing greenhouse gas emissions as well as air pollution (Kim and Dale,
2004). In context to Manipur state, total rice cultivated area is 1, 95,000 ha. Calculating rice
straw produced (6-12% moisture) at the rate of 2.5 tons per hectare, the total straw produced out
of these rice fields could be estimated to the tune of 4.87 lakh tons, of which 3.87 lakh tons of
straw are either removed from the field or burnt in situ or incorporated in the soil (Fig. 3). The
huge amount of rice straw burned aggravates air pollution, which otherwise could be harnessed
to meet the need of either organic manure production through composting or energy production
through bioethanol production. Since about 40% N, 30% P and 80% K taken up by rice plant
were found to remain in vegetative part (Dobermann and Fairhurst, 2002), incorporation of the
remaining stubble and straw into the soil is very important to return most of the nutrients to soil

27
for long term nutrient conservation. Composting can be effective means in this direction.
Different applications of rice straw is as animal feed, making of sustainable buildings materials
like Adobe, Straw bale, Agrodome (Cairo and Robert, 2009), engineered composites like
biobased plastics and fibres (Cairo and Robert, 2009), fibre board (Hassan, 2002), Rice paper
(George and Derral, 2005), treated straw as better feed for livestock, sugar syrup and yeast
protein as food grade yeast (www.airea.net), electricity and heat production (Cairo and Robert,
2009; Foday et al., 2009). In relatively remote places without facility of making use of rice straw
in manner done elsewhere, rice straw can constitute an effective material for compost
production. This can result in its effective nutrient recycling for sustainable agriculture. Thus, by
tackling the issue of waste through reducing, reusing and recycling, best effort need to be put to
conserve natural resources, save energy, promote sustainable agriculture and reduce the impacts
of climate change.

2.10: Study based on different Research papers

J. C. Hargraves: The recycling of Municipal Solid Waste by using composting is very efficient.
The compost can be used for agriculture but it has to be nutrient rich and low metal content. For
good quality compost the garbage has to be separated at early stage. The metal content can be
increased if sewage sludge is added into the compost.

K. R. Atalia: The management of municipal solid waste can be increased by developing

technology or method to convert waste into useful product. The organic waste which is
biodegradable can be converted to environmental friendly organic compost. The organic compost
increases soil productivity, decreases environmental pollution and reduces cost. The excess use
of chemical fertilizers is hazardous to soil as well as to the environment as it causes water and air
pollution. The composting is beneficial as it reduces landfilling, decreases water pollution due to
contamination, minimizes the transportation cost etc. The composting is sustainable and wealth
generating method.

Tom. L. Richard: The ideal way to produce compost is by separating the waste, reducing the
size and proper mixing. The step by step process has to bedone to make good system of
composting. While designing the system following factors has to be considered: cost such as
operational, maintenance and capital, market for the compost, flexibility etc.

Sutripta Sarkar: In many cities the proper management of waste is major problem. The organic
composting is good way to handle the waste. The heating is self-generated by micro-organisms,
which produces manure, biogas etc. The degradation process can be accelerated by the
thermophilic phase. The moisture has to be about 60% and the temperature is in the range 65˚C-
67˚C.

28
Mohd Sahaid Kalil: The landfilling is considered to be used for waste management. But
because of it the green-house gases liberates to the atmosphere. The organic waste should be
composted to increase the quality of the soil.

AjinkyaHande: By using the shredder the organic waste can be chopped to small particles so
that proper aeration is done. Due to which the manure is formed in less time and the farmer will
get good quality manure at low cost.

El-Sayed. G. Khater: The chemical and physical properties of manure made from the organic
waste is studied. The properties such as porosity, water holding capacity, pH, Carbon: Nitrogen
ratio, etc. are studied. The manure quality is depends upon the proportion a physical existence.

2.11: Environmental Benefits of Composting

Although the environmental benefits of compo sting are many this section of the literature
review will focus on four of the most important benefits of compo sting. Landfill diversion and
pollution, reduction of synthetic fertilizer use, soil enrichment and soil erosion reduction.
Landfill diversion and pollution. Food waste diversion from landfills is necessary as food waste
is a large and important component of all municipal waste generated (EPA, 2009). In fact, in
2007 food scraps represented almost 12.7% of the total municipal solid waste generated in
American households and less than three percent was recovered (EPA, 2008). Data shows that
Americans throwaway more than 25% of the food we prepare, that amounts to about 96 billion
pounds of food waste each year (United States Department of Agriculture , 1997). Moreover,
food waste handling and delivery into landfills and incinerators is costly and the accumulation of
it in landfills can lead to environmental problems and create health hazards.
The decomposition of food waste in landfills mostly occurs under anaerobic conditions which
produces and releases methane (Walsh, 2008). Decomposing garbage in landfills release about
10 million metric tons of methane each year in the United States (P, 2004), a gas that according
to Wolfson (2007) "is 23 times stronger than C02 in its warming effects" (p.3) and now landfills
are the single largest human source of methane emissions in the United States and in the world.
Once food waste is dumped in landfills, it gets compacted and liquefies and it mixes with many
toxics (i.e. paints, oils, detergents) and continues to seep down through the ground polluting
underground waters (Crawford, 2003) and from there rivers, lakes and coastal areas. Compo
sting food waste and organic materials reduces the production of methane from landfills and
leachate and their corresponding impacts on global warming and water pollution.

2.12 Reduction of synthetic fertilizer use.

Another important benefit of composting is that its use eliminates the greenhouse gas emissions
related to synthetic fertilizer manufacturing and the terrible environmental damages that its use
can cause. Synthetic fertilizers are mostly used in agricultural lands and account for most of the

29
reactive nitrogen (N) produced by humans and for a significant percentage of the total
greenhouse gases emissions. When synthetic fertilizer is applied on fields soil bacteria
decompose nitrates and emit nitrous oxide (N20) a very powerful greenhouse gas. N20 is about
310 times more powerful than C02, in other words 1 kilogram of N20 causes as much global
warming as 310 kilograms of C02, the application of synthetic fertilizers account for 5% of the
total global warming
When used at a small to moderate scale synthetic fertilizers have nutrients that benefit lands and
increase yields, but their excessive use carries devastating consequences for the environment. For
example, synthetic fertilizer overuse (from residential and agricultural sources) is the largest
cause of the nitrogen flux down the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers to the dead zone in the
Gulf of Mexico Furthermore, to make synthetic fertilizers vast amounts of fossil fuels are burnt
to generate the electric power needed in the manufacturing process and for its raw materials
(ammonia and nitric acid), allowing the deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere, which in
turn can also contribute to the pollution of waters and acid rain.
Plants can only take so much of the nutrients provided by synthetic fertilizers and the rest of the
nutrients go to pollute rivers, lakes and coastal zones. The public does not realize the damage
that the excessive use of synthetic fertilizer has on our waters, to provide an idea of the impact
listed the consequences that excess nutrients from synthetic fertilizers have on coastal waters and
coastal communities as follows:
 Creation of dead zones.
 Loss of biodiversity.
 Change in ecosystems and detriment of habitat quality.
 Increased cloudiness of water and greater odors from water.
 Loss of sea-grasses and other ecologically valuable submerged aquatic vegetation.
 Decline of coral reefs.
 Decreased production of commercially important fish and shellfish.
 Increased frequency, duration, and extent of harmful algal blooms, with risk to human
health and great damage to marine mammals.
 Increased transmittance of some human diseases such as cholera.
Synthetic fertilizer use has severe environmental consequences ranging from global warming to
water pollution and soil acidification, but another consequence of synthetic fertilizer use that is
not always taken in to consideration is the economic cost that its environmental footprint has.
The economic costs of synthetic fertilizer use include the effects of green house gas emissions,
water pollution, fisheries' decline, aquatic life's loss of habitat, and soil acidification, thus the
importance of reducing its application.
On the other hand, compost releases its nutrients slowly, thereby minimizing nutrient losses. This
in tum allows plants and crops to intake the nutrient as they grow. Additionally, compost keeps
the nutrients in the soil not permitting rain runoff or leakage into ground waters.
In conclusion, using compost as soil amendment eliminates the following negative aspects of
synthetic fertilizer and in consequence provides a much more sustainable option:

30
  Global warming due to the production of fertilizer.
 Air pollution emitted during the production of fertilizer.
 Global warming and air pollution due to the application of fertilizer.
 Water pollution due to leaching of applied fertilizer and runoff, creation of dead zones.
 Economic damage due to environmental harm.

The through its Extension program website defines compost as an organic soil amendment that
improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils. The DOM also affirms that
Compost has the ability to increase soils capacity to hold and release essential nutrients and also
promotes the activity of earthworms and microorganisms beneficial to plant growth. Compost
radically improves the moisture holding capacity of sandy soils, which in turn reduces drought
damage to plants. In addition, when compost is added to heavy clay soils, it improves drainage
and aeration, thereby diminishing the damage that excessive moisture causes to plants. The EPA
explains in its website for the benefits of compost how its use helps regenerate poor soils. They
explain that compo sting process of organic waste encourages the production of beneficial micro-
organisms which in turn break down organic matter to create humus. The humus obtained
through compo sting increases the nutrient content in soils and helps soils retain moisture.
Furthermore, compost is not only good reducing the need of chemical fertilizers but also it's been
shown to suppress plant diseases and pests, which consequentially promotes higher yields of
agricultural crops stated that the appropriate use of compost and biological amendments
produces important and positive effects on soil quality, disease reduction, and yield (increased
tuber yields by 23%, and should play an important role in sustainable soil and disease
management programs.
Compost can also be used as soil amendment to remediate metal-contaminated sites because it
binds metals and reduces metal uptake by plants. The U.S. National Park Service (NPS) affirms
that the compo sting process has shown the ability to absorb odors and treat semi-volatile and
volatile organic compounds, including heating fuels, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and explosives.
Moreover, the NPS explains that the compost process degrades and, in some cases, completely
eliminates wood preservatives, pesticides, and both chlorinated and non-chlorinated
hydrocarbons in contaminated soils.
However, when using compost as an organic soil amendment the user needs to be careful of
several problems that employing compost can bring expressed that valuable nitrogen may be lost
by volatilization as ammonia (NH3) or nitrogen (N2), or by leaching into the ground during the
composting process. Additionally, stated that composts derived from urban wastes may be
contaminated by traces of metals and other non-biodegradable materials that can gradually build
up over time if composts from these sources are continually applied to the same site. In addition,
compost made from materials low in a particular nutrient will remain low in that nutrient,
creating the need to add nutrients to the compost. Thus the importance of testing the quality of
the compost, and to provide adequate measures in order to avoid environmental damages cause
by the use of low quality or contaminated compost.

31
2.12.1:Soil erosion reduction: Exposed another very important and positive effect of
composting, soil erosion reduction. By stimulating soil biological activity compost helps release
nutrients for plant use and improves soil structure, thereby reducing soil erosion. As explained
by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) soil erosion is the breakdown,
detachment, transport, and redistribution of soil particles by natural forces like water, wind, or
gravity. The impact of soil erosion on cropland is of particular interest due to its on-site
repercussions on soil quality and therefore on crop productivity, and its off-site impacts on water
quantity and quality, air quality, and biological activity.Soil erosion is a very serious problem.
Soil is a finite resource, a commodity that affects the life of all human beings and should be
protected and restore. Eswaran, Lal and Reich stated in (2001) that erosion and desertification
have made the productivity of some lands fall by 50 % and yield reduction in Africa due to past
soil erosion may range from 2 to 40 %, with a mean loss of 8.2% for the continent. The effects of
erosion are not only felt on agricultural lands but in urban spaces as well. The explains that
construction of new buildings and roads usually require the removal of top soil and all vegetation
leaving the sub-soil at the mercy of erosion forces. Moreover, the EPA affirms that on steep
embankments along roads and highways, compost can be more effective than traditionally used
materials such as hydromulch because compost forms a thicker, more permanent growth due to
its ability to improve the infrastructure of the soil. The Minnesota Department of Transportation
has used compost for many years as a standard specification item and has completely eliminated
bringing in topsoil and peat moss to job sites, also compost is used as a soil amendment and
conditioner at construction sites.
2.12.2:The Economics of Composting
For a compo sting network to be able to become a reality it has to make economic sense
especially in the current economic situation. Sadly, the environmental benefits alone will not
make the public support a food waste compo sting network, but the reasons for compo sting food
waste are more than environmental. Economic incentives, local jobs creation and the use of local
knowledge are an important part as well. Plus, the creation of a compo sting network adds a step
towards the development of an environmentally sustainable economy. Economic benefits for
communities and businesses. A food waste compo sting network will make the local economy
stronger because it uses local resources and provides compost to local users. As (Rahmani &
Kiker, 2004) found in their study, besides specific types of compost for nurseries and golf
courses 64% of the compost used was hauled less than 30 miles. Moreover, the accessibility of
compost within an economically feasible distance is important for the development of a market
for compost. The market for a compo sting network in Menomonie, Wisconsin should be
principally constituted by large users such as local farmers of agricultural and ornamental crops,
golf courses and landscaping business (Rahmani & Kiker, 2004) and lastly smaller users made of
citizens and businesses with a small need for compost. Stimulated by the economic benefits
many cities are now implementing composting networks in order to make money through the
sale of composted food and other organic wastes and by saving money through reducing
operational costs and enlarging the life of landfills. An excellent example of what cities can

32
achieve is shown by (Miller & Angiel, 2009) using the town of Amherst, New York where their
compo sting facility has produced cumulative net public benefits equivalent to $22, 8 million,
which is more than double the financial resources the community invested. Another form of
income for local governments is the taxes that can be collected from the development of
businesses and the local economy.
The state of California through its Integrated Waste Management Board listed on its web site the
economic benefits of using compost to reduce reliance on synthetic/chemical fertilizers and
herbicides. They state that money can be saved by:
• Conserving water
• Reducing the use of herbicides
• Reducing the use of chemical fertilizers
• Creating markets for local compost producers
• Avoiding landfill disposal costs for organic material.
Most businesses are diverting (or studying the feasibility of diverting) their food waste, not
onlyfor the environmental benefits of compo sting, but because they can create profitable
relationships with haulers and composters (Connolly, 2006). Grocery stores, institutions and
restaurants are increasingly looking at compo sting as a way to save money. Tipping fees at
compo sting sites are usually lower that of landfills, not including collection costs, turning cost
saving into a determining factor in making businesses divert their organic waste for compo sting.
Furthermore, most of the compostable garbage is wet and heavy especially from kitchens, and
usually waste handling companies charge by the ton. An example of what businesses can save is
represented by Gurney's Spa and Inn in East Hampton, New York which diverts 13 to 15 tons of
organic waste each month to compo sting, saving nearly $1,OOO/month.
The states that supermarkets with effective programs for recycling organics have saved between
$20,000 and $40,000 per store per year, on average, in avoided disposal costs. In addition, the
MDEP certifies super markets that are dedicated to reducing waste and being protective of the
environment and have recycling and reuse programs. The certification allows the stores to
benefit from the positive recognition and to collect the benefits of the resulting positive
public.The U.S. federal government and states' governments also aid the creation of food waste
compo sting networks through grants, tax exemption and financial aid. The state of Wisconsin
provides in its website an electronic list of grants given to waste reduction programs and compo
sting and promotes the demonstration of innovative waste reduction and recycling through its
Waste Reduction and Recycling Demonstration Grants. Moreover, Wisconsin also offers
property tax exemption for machinery and equipment and their parts, when used exclusively and
directly in waste reduction or recycling (EPA, 2009). Furthermore, the Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources administers the Recycling Market Development Board, which is attached to
the Department of commerce, and is responsible for encouraging the development of markets for
recovered materials and the marketing of these in the state of Minnesota recycling and compo
sting activities are exempt from solid waste management taxes that are applied to garbage,
therefore making composting financially attractive. A great example of how state aid can benefit

33
compo sting businesses is Black Oak Organics in Missouri who recently received a $22,595
grant from Missouri Solid Waste Management District to purchase its own collection truck, and
the company had $400,000 in gross revenues in 2007, and over $500,000 in 2008.
Another case of governmental assistance is the state of Massachusetts where the Department of
Environmental Protection aids composters with financial assistance through its Recycling
Industries Reimbursement Credit grant and Recycling Loan Fund program; they also assist with
hands on education and logistics to tie haulers, food waste producers and composters. In
addition, the department of environmental protection works with the Massachusetts Highway
Department and Operational Services Division to create state agency demand for finished
compost.
2.12.3: Economic benefits for educational institutions. Compo sting food waste also has
benefits for educational institutions where tipping fees and waste handling can be a major
expense for dining services due to the heavy weight of food waste. Compo sting at Washington
State University in Pullman saves $200,000 a year in avoided disposal cost and at Dartmouth
College in Hanover, New Hampshire, compo sting of produce residuals last year saved over
$10,000 (Kunzler & Farrell, 1996). Compo sting at Harvard University have save more than
$35,000 a year in hauling cost and another extra $10,000 in reduce soil amendment purchase
Universities and schools also benefit from the great publicity provided by having a green campus
because a constantly increasing number of students see sustainable practices like composting as
an incentive to pick those schools.

34
 CHAPTER 3 : PROJECT DESIGN

3.1:Design criteria
3.1.1:Frequency of use: The vegetable waste is input every day. Research shows due to the busy
urban lifestyle, the output compost would be taken out once a week.

3.1.2:Product handling: The output compost should be in a form to avoid any inconvenience to
the people handling it. It should be collected in a tray and can be used easily for home gardening.
Product location: The home composter to be placed in either balconies or kitchens of urban
houses without causing any issues in kitchen.

3.1.3:Product size: The dimensions of the Home Composter would be ergonomic in nature and
it will maintain the standard modular kitchen dimensions followed in Indian kitchens.

3.1.4:Visual permeability: The psychological desire to not encounter waste within one’s kitchen
or household helps define the visual permeability parameter of the Home Composter. The actual
process of composting would be visually invisible while the interface will provide all the
required information in an easy to comprehend manner to the user.

3.1.5:Odour free: The home composter would not give out any bad odour.

3.1.6:Low noise: The home composter’s noise limit shall be well within the limits of a kitchen
appliance.

3.1.7:Easy process: The home composter to be operable by everyone in the house.

3.1.8:Portable: The home composter to be easily movable inside the kitchen.

3.1.9:Aesthetics: As an integral part of an urban household, the design language of the Home
Composter would be at par with the other kitchen appliances.

3.2: Methodology

The machine is a convenient, exceedingly compact composter, which utilizes special

miniaturized scale organisms to breakdown and deteriorates a wide range of natural waste into
manure with a volume decrease of 85 to 90%. The whole procedure is normal and organic. The
microorganism flourishes in high temperature and is compelling even in high acidic and salty
conditions. At the point when natural waste is added to the machine, dampness is added and
heater is turned ON causing composting tank gets heated. Because of this the water content in
the natural waste is vanished through vent. As any natural waste contains 70 to 80% water
35
content, we accomplish 70 to 80% volume decrease at this stage itself.
There is no crushing or grinding involved. The blades are just for evenly mixing the waste.

 Making it work: Composting will happen almost by itself. Important things to consider
are where to place the compost heap and how to build, when to turn, how to prevent
odours, and diagnosing various issues. Managing moisture is particularly important.
 Location: The perfect area for manure heap or canister is daylight in the winter, shade in
the late spring, and however shelter from the wind. The area ought to likewise give
simple access to water.

Building and feeding the pile: Significant undertaking is mixing the materials, including water.
Brown and green materials ought to be all around dispenses inside the heap. Turning is important
to blend the brown and green layers together.

 Whys and when’s to turning: It accuses the heap of fresh air. It mixes together materials,
breaks separated particles, and expel heat, water vapour, and different gases contained in
the heap. Generally speaking, turning speeds the composting procedure and maintains
temperature, moisture and smells.
 To speed the process: mostly, the more often a heap is turned, the quicker it manures.
 To add moisture: Turn heaps while including water. Over and over wet and after that
turn the material.

The process of compost in PCM follows the Aeration method of Composting.

 The raw materials required are separated from the house waste.
 The soil and waste is collected.
 Waste such as large vegetable pieces are shredded or cut into pieces into small required
size.
 The soil and waste is added to the PCM by the door provided at the top.
 Required moisture is added in the form of water based on the quantity of soil and waste.
 Then the motor is switched ON to turn the materials.
 The heater is also switched ON to get rid of excess moisture and bacteria’s.
 After certain period of time, the materials will start to decompose and provide final level
of compost.
 The finished compost is collected from the exit door provided at the bottom of the
machine which can be utilized for various applications.

36
Figure(3.1) shows the block diagram of our designed composting machine. It shows how the
machine works, it also shows the main components of the machine and the parameters
controlling the machine.

Fig:3.1-System’s Block Diagram

The approach that we used to complete this project was to divide the project into four main
phases that contains multiple task with them.

Phase One: Composting Development.

Task: composting process and systems, researching composting development.

development

Phase Two: Machine design and requirements.

Task: Finding an optimum machine design, parts and workshop.

Phase Three: Machine construction

Task; Building the machine, configuring the control system.

Phase Four: Testing and analysis.

Task: Operating the machine, checking the performance, results.

37
3.3: Project Subsystems and components
We chose the specifications based on our calculations and availability of the components in the
market.

3.3.1: Agitation Motor: Mixes the microbe sawdust and the food with 36W rated power.

Fig: 3.2- Agitation motor

3.3.2: Exhaust fan: Expel gases that are trapped in the composting chamber (especially CO2 and
water vapor) from the unit with 9.5W rated power.

Fig: 3.3- Exhaust fan

38
3.3.3: Heater: Controls temperature inside the composting tank with 200W rated power.

Fig: 3.4- Heating Coil

3.3.4: Temperature sensor: Controls temperature of the heater.

Fig: 3.5- Temperature Sensor

39
3.3.5: Main PCB: Controls overall operations of the unit.

Fig: 3.6- PCU Board

40
3.4:Design Calculations
3.4.1: Composting tank

The composting tank is a small sized rectangle-shaped

rectangle hollow
ow solid structure body of 304.8mm
width, 304.8mm height and a length of 457.2mm.
mm. it is the major container of the waste materials,
and it houses the masher with its shaft.

The composting tank’s

’s total volume is given by:

V = l*b*h

Where, V= volume of the drum

b= total width of the drum

l= total length of the drum

h= total heigth of the drum

Total length l = 457.2mm

Total width b = 304.8mm

Total height h = 304.8mm

3
Volume = 487.2 x 304.8 x 304.8 = 45, 262, 361.08mm
361.08

Fig: 3.7- Composting tank

41
3.4.2: Shaft Diameter

The diameter of the shaft is given by the equation:

D3 = 16 /𝜋 (Ss √Mb x Kb) 2 x (Mt x Kt) 2

Where,

Mb = 22.84 Nm

Mt = maximum torsion moment, 324 Nm (calculated)

Kb = combine shock and fatigue applied to bending, 1.5

Kt = combine shock and fatigue applied to torsion, 1.0

Ss = allowable shear stress for shaft with keyways, 40MPa or 40 x 106

Using a factor of safety of 0.9 Thus, a shaft of 30mm dia. is selected.

Fig: 3.8- Shaft

42
3.4.3: Shaft Key Design

The shaft key is maximum allowable shear stress.

Width of key, w = d / 4

Thickness of key, t = 2𝑤/ 3

Where, d = inner diameter of the shaft to be selected, 30mm

t = 2*(30/4) / 3

t = 5mm

Fig: 3.9- Shaft Key Design

3.4.4: Maximum Volume of Food Waste

Maximum volume of food waste that can be composted at a time is given by

VA = VD - VM

Where,

VA= Actual volume of inner rectangular tank

VD = Volume of inner rectangular tank = 0.045m3

VM = Volume of mashers

43
3.4.5: Design for the Gear

The minimum number of teeth on the pinion, Tp, in order to avoid interference is given by:

𝑇𝑝 =(2𝐴𝑊/ 𝐺) (11/2+ 𝐺 ((1 /𝐺)+ 2) sin2ø− 1)

(Khurmi and Gupta, 2005)

Where,

Tp = minimum number of teeth on the pinion

Aw = fraction by which standard addendum

G = gear ratio or velocity ratio G = 𝑇𝑔/ 𝑇𝑝 = 𝐷𝑔 / 𝐷𝑝 …………………(2.2)

Ø = pressure angle

The tangential load can be used to obtain the power transmitted using the pitch velocity.

WT = (𝑃 𝑉 ) x Cs … … … (2.3)

Where,

P = Power transmitted in watts

Cs = Service factor, which is 1.25 for a steady load within 18 – 24 hours per day.

Hence, P = 𝑊𝑇𝑥𝑉 𝐶𝑠

= 4231.4 𝑥 0.509 1.25

Multiplying p by 1.34 gives the horsepower = 1723 x 1.34 = 2308.86

P = 2.3 hp

Thus, an electric motor of 2.5 hp is selected for the composting machine.

3.4.6: Heat Generated and Power Consumed By the Heater

An electric heating coil made of Ni-chrome (Nickel and Chromium) is used to heat the inner
cylindrical drum where composting takes place, which will require a temperature of 70oC. This
temperature is being monitored and regulated by a thermostat. The amount of heat generated Q,
is determined using,

Q = MC (ø2– ø1)

Where,

44
M = Mass of heating coil

C = Specific heat capacity of air = 1.0035J/KgK = 1003.5J/gK

ø2 = Final Temperature of heating coil = 70oC (343K)

ø1 = Initial temperature of heating coil = 25oC (Room Temp.)

Mass = Density x Volume of heating coil

Where, Density of Nickel heating coil = 1.225kg / m3

Diameter of heating coil = 0.2 m

Volume of heating coil = Area x Thickness

Area (𝐴) = 𝜋𝑟2= 3.142 x 0.12 = 0.03142m2

Thickness of the plate = 0.005m

Volume of heating coil = 0.03142 x 0.005 = 0.000157m3

Mass = 1.225kg/m3 x 0.0001571m3 = 0.00019245kg = 0.1925g

Heat Generated Q, from equation = 0.1925g x 1003.5J/gK x (343 – 298k) = 1688.3J = 1.69KJ

Power consumed P is the heat generated per hour, which is given by: P = 𝑄 𝑇

Where T = Time (in seconds) = 3600sec (For 1 Hour)

P = 1688.3/3600 = 468W

An electric heater with rating 0.5KW is selected for this work.

3.4.7: Design for Hopper

Slant Height

L1 = Top length of hopper = 240mm

B1 = Top breadth of hopper =240mm

L2 = Bottom Length of hopper = 120mm

B2 = Bottom breadth of hopper = 120mm

H = Height = 200mm

S = Slant height

45
Ø = Angle of inclination of hopper

Fig: 3.10- Hopper

3.4.8: Volume of Hopper

The volume of hopper is calculated using:

Volume of hopper, Vh = Vb – Vsm

Where Vb= volume of inlet

Vsm= volume of outlet

Vb = LxBxh Vb= 240mm x 240mm x 200mm

Vb = 0.24m x 0.24m x 0.2m = 0.0152m3

Vsm = l x b x h = 0.12m x 0.12m x 0.2m = 0.0288m3

VH = (0.0152m3 – 0.0288m3) = 0.0123m3

46
 CHAPTER FABRICATION
CHAPTER-4:

In the fabrication of waste food composting machine we used cutting processes, processes joining
processes, drilling operations, welding, machining, facing, turning and many more. Thanks to the
staffs of the work shop of our college for being helpful in the fabrication of this project:
project:-

The whole processes are summed into the following steps:

Making of the main body

Attaching top cover to the body

Making body waterproof

Attaching shaft and mixing blades

Joining shaft with motor

Placing hopper at the top

Attaching heater and temperature sensor

Making outlet for the compost

Attaching all with control unit

47
4.1: Making the main body with top and bottom slab

For making the main body and slab we used:

For main body-:

Material: Plywood

Height: 1feet

Length: 15feet

Width:1 feet

For slab-:

Material: plywood

Length: 1.5feet

Width: 1feet

4.2: Attaching mixing blades with shaft

For the purpose of rotation of the blades the shaft of 30mm is taken and the length is 1.5feet.

For the blades a total of 6 blades with both sides and are fixed by passing them through the shaft
in a serial order with a distance of 80mm.

4.3: Connection of motor with shaft

A high torque low rpm motor is placed for the mixing of compost and this motor is joined with
the shaft with the help of a key and gear which are used to fix both parts together.

4.4: Attaching all the other parts at their required place.

Other parts are:

Fan: To maintain the amount of air in the chamber and to remove all the odour smells.

Heater: To maintain the temperature inside the composting tank from 50-60oC.

4.5: Putting hopper and shredder at its position.

To shread food particles into smaller pieces a hopper is attached with shredder is used at the top
of the main body or composting tank.

48
4.6: Connecting all with power board.

To supply a continuous power to all these electrical devices a Power control board is placed at
the side.

49
 CHAPTER TESTING AND ANALYSIS
CHAPTER-5:

As we started experimenting the machine, we searched for what parameters to be focusing on

because this process has a lot of parameters to be considered, in order to measure the test for
some of the parameters special equipments and knowledge were needed which considered hard
to do because it will cost money and time, we decided to stick to certain parameters to test for
which were temperature and humidity as they are considered
considered essential for composting process.

Two experiments were conducted with the same sample weight of 6.5kg of food waste, the firstf
experiment sample was mixed food waste not following the 30-1 1 C:N Ratio and large pieces of
waste food, the second experiment sample was an equal mixing volume of green plant material
with naturally dry plant to balance the ratio of carbon to nitrogen and the sample was cut into
small pieces.

5.1.1.Experiment-1

Fig:5.1 Different readings for the experiment.

50
Table:5.1( Experiment-1 Data)

Time/Hour Temperature/ Humidity/ %

Celsius
0 23 76

2 26 65

4 29 62

24 50 57

32 52 54

40 51 51

48 52 49

52 51 46

60 51 43

65 52 41

72 53 38

85 52 35

96 51 32

120 50 25

144 52 21

168 53 18

192 51 16

Table 5.1 shows the variation of temperature and humidity with respect to time, the experiment
went for almost 192 hours i.e. 8 days without adding any additional waste the waste was about
6.5kg not following the 30-1 C:N Ratio which as could be observed affected the temperature
gain and slowing down the process. The food waste particles were of different sizes which could
also effect the process time.

51
 Experiment-2

This experiment was conducted under more cautious conditions, the C:N ratio of the food waste
was more balanced between green and brown food. The total food mass was also 6.5kg.

Table:5.2( Experiment-2 Data)

Time/Hour Temperature/ Humidity/ %

Celsius
0 23 80

2 26 78

4 29 73

24 50 69

32 52 62

40 51 59

48 52 51

52 51 49

60 51 47

65 52 43

72 53 39

85 52 35

96 51 29

120 50 21

144 52 15

Table 5.2 shows the variation of temperature and humidity with respect to time, the experiment
went for almost 144 hours i.e 6 days under more careful conditions for the organic waste it
shows a significant improvement in the process time for more than 2 days down.

52
5.2. Cost Analysis

( Table 5.3: Cost Analysis)

Name of Part Specification Quantity Price

Agiation Motor Single phase 220v 60Hz 1 1000

Temperature sensor 1.70 to 3.6 V 1 500

Exhaust fan Single phase 220v 60Hz 1 120

Heater Single phase 220v 60Hz 1 500

Shaft 30mm 1 100

Blades Stainless steel 6 150

Plywood 6mm 1 500

Aluminium sheet 3mm 1 500

Hopper 0.0123m3 1 200

Shredder 150kg/h 1 500

Control system and Input: 170-270 V 1 1200

wiring Output:230 V
Copper wire

Screw, nuts, bearings Stainless steel 10+ 200

Total amount = INR 5470

So the net cost of food composting machine is INR 5370, which is very less as compared to the
other food composting machines that are available in the market which perform the same
function but at a very huge capital investment.

53
 CHAPTER-6: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

10-12% demoisturization was achieved within a period of 4hours with same masses. Normal
composting for this same amount of waste using traditional means without a controlled
environment, as discussed earlier, will take about 3-4 weeks (about 504-672 hours) to complete
the process of composting.

The total input and output of the wet and dry food waste was obtained and the average value
calculated to be 6.5kg and 4.2kg respectively.

Hence the efficiency of the machine = 4.2 /6.5 * 100%

Efficiency = 73%

Upon testing the machine under different conditions such as the size of the sample its moisture
level different types of food- green and brown-and other conditions and the observation we came
to notice some factors that effect the decomposition process and its efficiency:-

 The organic waste will compost best if the pieces were small in the range of 5 cm size. Soft
tissue waste such as orange don’t need to be very small because it will decompose fast.
 To have the composting process as effective as possible the input waste should have an
approximate carbon to nitrogen ratio of 30:1. It’s not measured easily but experts says that
mixing equal volume of naturally dry plant material will equate to the same ratio of 30:1. If
the C:N ratio is more than 30:1, then the heat production drops and decomposition slows.
 The Process will work best if the level of input is about 50 percent. It is also not easily
measured. Too much moisture in the input will make a soggy pile and the decomposition
process will slow down and it will smell. If the input is too dry the decomposition process
will be very slow and might even not occur at all.
 The turning blades are playing a big role in the composting process because it prevents the
waste from overheating at some point inside the tank and it will be aerated also.
 After the process is completed, all weeds and weed seeds are killed, even Insects that is done
by the help of the rising temperature.

54
Table 6.1( C:N Ratio)

This table shows the carbo to nitrogen ratio in different items.

Material C:N Ratio

Corn stalks 50-100:1

Fruit waste 35:1
Grass clippings 12-25-1
Hay, Green 25:1
Leaves, ash, Black elder and elm 21-28:1
Leaves, pine 60-100:1
Leaves, other 30-80:1
Manure horse and cow 20-25:1
Paper 170-200:1
Sawdust 200-500:1
Seaweed 19:1
Straw 40-100:2
Vegetable waste 12-25:1
Weeds 25:1
Wood chips 500-700:1

55
 CHAPTER-7: CONCLUSION

At the start of this project we sat our objective and goals into finding a solution for food waste
disposal problem, those objectives were

• To enhance the process of composting.

• To improve the performance of composting machine.

• To find a solution for waste management which is more economical and less complex.

The solution should be eco -friendly and it should help decreasing the garbage volume and the
disposal cost, it also should be sustainable and socially responsible. Those objectives were all
met choosing composting to deal with the food waste disposal problem.

Based on the design, and fabrication of an effective composting machine for small-scale
agricultural processes is achievable using local content materials and indigenous technology. The
efficiency of the machine is at a value above average, further research can be carried out to
improve the existing design. Furthermore, the design aim and objectives were achieved. The
machine can thus be said to have appropriate technology for efficiency in output, and if further
research is carried out on the study, the quantity of output and time of operation can be improved
upon. With the machine, composting time and cost of purchasing manure will be saved on a long
term basis, while agricultural practices and machine fabrications using indigenous technology
will be encouraged.

The organic compost machine helps to improve composting and decreases the cost required for
degradation, segregation, and transportation etc. of the waste. The flexibility is increased and the
total volume of organic waste is minimized. Also the quality of the compost is depends upon
factors such as moisture content, pH, temperature, time etc.

56
 CHAPTER-8: FUTURE SCOPE

Based on few of the suggestions suggested by the users for future improvements of the compost
bins, below are some of the future scope of the compost bin.
They are:

 Wheels can be added at the base so that it is easily transportable..

 Composting area to be transparent.
 Proper handle for movement of compost bin.
 Mechanism for addition of compost starter and final output compost removal.
 Multiple sizes of blades can be incorporated, based on the quantity of the pile.
 Removable type of blades can be utilized.
 In order to withstand large amount of waste motors can be employed with the multiple
gear mechanism.
 Collection tanks can be attached to the machine in order to easily access the raw materials
and finished compost

There are several possible future directions of this work. Some of them are explored below.

Understanding acids in continuous composting

Accumulation of acids is a serious problem that can lead to process failure in continuous
composting of food waste. The factors that regulate production and consumption of acids are not
yet fully understood. In the study presented in Paper II, the effects of starting culture on the
process performance were investigated. It would be interesting to extend this work to study the
effects of other factors. The experimental set-up that was used in Paper II worked well and could
be used for investigating the effects of moisture, rotation interval, feeding interval and oxygen
supply. All of these are likely to influence the production and decomposition of acids, and the
experiments should be designed to answer questions such as: - Are acids better controlled if the
compost is drier? - Are rotating systems more susceptible to acid problems than static systems? -
Are frequent small feedings better or worse than larger, less frequent feed additions? - How
much does the oxygen supply affect the dynamics of acids? There are also other issues of
interest, especially temperature-related acid inhibition, but the available experimental set-up is
not suitable for that, since it does not have temperature control.

Modelling the kinetics of an acidic initial phase

With the available knowledge on acids in composting, and general knowledge about compost
modelling, it is worth considering the development of a model that includes acids and pH in
composting. Modelling could be useful in the understanding, prediction and prevention of
problems with acids, especially for design or process control. Kinetics is the study of process
rates and in composting the rate of interest is the aerobic degradation of matter. The degradation

57
rate depends on the activity of microorganisms, and thus on the combined effect of all factors
that determine the microbial activity: temperature, oxygen, moisture, pH and substrate
composition. The kinetics of composting have not been well described. Many attempts are based
on empirical relationships, which have limited relevance for substrates or process conditions
other than those used in compost development. Several models use a function for the degradation
rate (r) with multiplicative influence of several factors such as temperature (T), oxygen (O2) and
moisture (w)

r = f1(T).f2(O2).f3(w).rmax

where 0 < fi < 1 and rmax is the maximum degradation rate. Hamelers introduced a biofilm-type
model to account for oxygen transport within compost particles and to include the coexistence of
aerobic and anaerobic microenvironments in compost. This model is mechanistic, and it includes
spatial gradients on the particle level. A limitation is that it only considers processes with
constant temperature. A major risk with more complex models is that they become a jungle of
parameters that cannot be calibrated or verified. Methods to overcome this have been considered
by Hamelers (2001) and these include dimensional analysis and identifiability analysis. There are
several complexities involved in the start-up phase of composting, and several modelling
attempts have not been successful. The temperature changes quickly during start-up, so an
accurate description of the influence of temperature is important. Furthermore, the microbial
community structure changes rapidly, causing the dynamics of the system to vary. Finally, the
production and degradation of organic acids, and the microbial inhibition that they cause, add
extra complexity to the system. There does not seem to be any composting model that includes
organic acids. Relevant modelling approaches can, however, be found in related fields where
other microbial biodegradation processes have been modelled, such as microbiology, anaerobic
digestion and silage research. Rosso et al. (1994) presented a model for combined pH and
temperature dependence of microbial growth, based on minimum, optimum and maximum
growth temperature and pH. The temperature and pH dependencies were assumed to be
independent in pure cultures as well as in composts, an assumption that is questionable
Anaerobic digestion modelling is a relevant source for modelling strategies of acetic acid
metabolism, since acetate production from monomers in an important step in anaerobic
digestion. Kinetic modelling of the anaerobic digestion process involves growth rate of
acidogens, which is modelled by Monod kinetics including inhibition by acids and by low pH
(Kalyuzhnyi, 1997; Mösche & Jördening, 1999). Aerobic deterioration of silage is a process of
great economic importance, and it can in fact be described as composting of an acidic substrate.
A model including microbial growth dependent on substrate, temperature, acids and pH has been
presented and shown to be just as accurate as more complex models involving several substrates
and microbial groups (Ruxton & Gibson, 1993). Aerobic acetate production through overflow
metabolism in E. coli grown in a defined mineral medium has been described by a dynamic
model based on Monod kinetics (Xu, Jahic & Enfors, 1999). The model is complex with many
parameters, and includes biomass growth, degradation of glucose into carbon dioxide and

58
acetate, and degradation of acetate. A mechanistic model of the start-up phase, including acids,
would need to include microbial growth, production and degradation of acids, and pH. It could
preferably be integrated with a model including particle-level transport of oxygen and soluble
substrate.

Process control during start-up phase in large-scale

There are several reasons to improve the process control in composting plants: odour control,
fulfilment of standards for sanitation and product quality, and efficient turnover. To improve the
degradation rate and thus the turnover, the three most important objectives of process control are
(i) providing enough oxygen, (ii) keeping an optimal temperature and (iii) keeping a correct
moisture balance. Many of the factors that affect the composting process performance are
determined by process design and substrate preparation, but some can be influenced by external
control during the process. Parameters that affect the degradation rate in composting and may be
available for online feedback control are temperature, oxygen, moisture and pH. The only means
available for direct process control of static batch processes is the airflow rate. The airflow has a
direct influence on the oxygen levels, temperature and moisture of the compost, since it provides
oxygen, cools the mass and dries it. The relation between airflow and pH is more complex. Since
heat production and oxygen consumption are proportional in aerobic decomposition, oxygen and
temperature control are intertwined. In an active large compost, the aeration demand is
considerably larger for heat removal than for oxygen provision (Haug, 1993). This implies that if
the temperature is controlled at a constant level, the oxygen supply will be sufficient on the
macro-level. Since the oxygen is not depleted in the exhaust gas, it can be recirculated the air.
This has advantages for odour and emission control, since the exhaust gas volume is smaller.
Another implication of the connection between oxygen and temperature is that either temperature
or oxygen can be used as a control parameter and that theycannot be independently controlled,
unless the compost gas is cooled and recirculated as in the laboratory scale reactor presented by
Smårs et al. (2001). The most widespread process control strategy in composting is temperature
control. After the start-up phase, a constant temperature in the range 55-60 °C is generally
considered optimal for degradation (Miller, 1993). Controlling the process at a set-point
temperature can be achieved with standard equipment, and this is commonly done in large-scale
composting. However, when the optimal setpoint temperature is not known, and perhaps not
constant, other tools are needed. This is the case during an acidic initial phase, when the optimal
temperature is considerably lower than 55 °C (Smårs et al., 2002). The inhibition of the
composting process at high temperature and low pH is not only of scientific interest, since it is a
problem in several large-scale plants in Scandinavia. It would therefore be very interesting to test
different strategies for alleviating this problem in a large-scale process. One important strategy is
to keep the temperature down, to 35-40 °C. This requires a lot of aeration, which will keep the
oxygen levels high, and that also reduces the acid accumulation. Another interesting strategy is
to use compost recycle in order to boost the microbial activity and perhaps shorten the acidic
phase.

59
Environmental assessment of the composting process

The ORWARE (Organic Waste Research) model is a tool for evaluation of the environmental
impacts of different waste management practices that has been developed at Swedish universities
and research institutes since 1996. ORWARE is a substance and energy flow model based on
Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Environmental assessments of waste management with the
ORWARE model have favoured incineration and anaerobic digestion before composting.
However, the results from environmental assessment models are not more reliable than the sub
models of the different processes, and the composting part of the ORWARE model can be
queried on two issues: - the composting process - resource use and emissions - the end-use of the
compost In the ORWARE model, the compost is used in agriculture, and its nutritional value
(nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium) is the only benefit from the product. In Sweden today,
however, most compost produced from household waste is used as a soil conditioner. In that case
the compost is used instead of peat, which is classified as a fossil resource in Europe, so the
compost reduces the global warming potential. Recent process research can be used to improve
the composting submodel in ORWARE and thus provide more accurate composting data for
future waste management assessments.

60
 REFERENCES

1-Carson, J., Willix, J., and North, M., Measurements of heat transfer coefficients within
convection ovens, Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 293-301, 2006.

2- Morrissey, A., and Browne, J, Waste management models and their application to sustainable
waste management, Waste management, vol. 24, no 3, pp.297-308, 2004.

3- Manickam, S., Shah, R., Tomei, J., Bergman, T., & Chaudhuri, B, Investigating mixing in a
multi-dimensional rotatry mixer: Experiment and Simulations, Powder Technology,
Doi:10.1016/I.powtec.2010.03.014, 2010.

4-Nakasaki, K., Shoda, M., & Kubota, H. (1985). Effect of temperature on composting of
sewage sludge. Applied and environmental microbiology, 50(6), 1526-1530.

5- Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G., Trivedi, R.C., 2014. Municipal solid waste
management in Indian cities –a review. Waste Management 28, 459-467.

6- The Organic Compost Machine and Factors Effecting Performance of Composting: A Review,
Swapnesh H. Bhaisare, Dr.Pramod Walke, Dr. D. S. S. Ganguly, V.M. Wankar, Volume 7 Issue
No.12.

7- El-Sayed. G. Khater, Some physical and chemical properties of compost. Int J

WasteResources2015,5:1 http://dx.doi.org/10. 4172/2252-5211.100017.

8- Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G., Trivedi, R.C., 2014. Municipal solid waste
management in Indian cities –a review. Waste Management 28, 459-467.

9-VanderGheynst, J.S., Pettygrove, S., Dooley, T.M. and Arnold, K.A. Estimating electrical
conductivity of Compost extracts at different extraction ratios. Compost Science and
Utilization, 202-207.2004

10-Diener, R.G., Collins, A.R., Martin, J.H. and Bryan, W.B. Composting of source-separated
municipal solidwaste for agricultural utilization a conceptualapproach for closing the loop.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture , 427-436.1993

11-Amlinger, F. Götz, B. Dreher, P.Geszti, J. and Weissteiner, C. Nitrogen in biowaste and yard
waste compost: dynamics of mobilisation and availability a review. European Journal of Soil
Biology 39, 107-116.2003.

12-Stombaugh, D. P. & Nokes, S. 1996. Development of a biologically based aerobic

composting simulation model. Transactions of the ASAE 39, 239-250.

13-Weppen, P. 2001. Process calorimetry on composting of municipal organic wastes. Biomass

and Bioenergy 21, 289-299.

61
14-Bari, Q. H. & Koenig, A. 2001. Effect of air recirculation and reuse on composting of solid
waste. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 33, 93-111.

15-Beck-Friis, B., Smårs, S., Jönsson, H., Eklind, Y. & Kirchmann, H. 2003. Composting of
source-separated household organics at different oxygen levels: Gaining an understanding of the
emission dynamics. Compost Science & Utilization 11, 41-50

16-Bach, P. D., Nakasaki, K., Shoda, M. & Kubota, H. 1987. Thermal balance in composting
operations. Journal of Fermentation Technology 65, 199-209.

17-Hogan, J. A., Miller, F. C. & Finstein, M. S. 1989. Physical modeling of the composting
ecosystem. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55, 1082-1092

18-Kalyuzhnyi, S. V. 1997. Batch anaerobic digestion of glucose and its mathematical

modelling. II. Description, verification and application of model. Bioresource Technology 59,
249-258.

19-Mösche, M. & Jördening, H.-J. 1999. Comparison of different models of substrate and
product inhibition in anaerobic digestion. Water Research 33, 2545-2554.

20-Hargreaves J, Adl M, Warman P (2008) A review of the use of composted municipal solid
waste in agriculture. Agric Ecosyst Environ 123: 1-14.

21-Christiana OI (2014) Design, development and evaluation of a small scale kitchen

wastecomposting machine. IOSR J Eng 4: 29-33

22-Karnchanawong S, Suriyanon N (2011) Household organic waste composting using bins with
different types of passive aeration. Resour Conserv Recycl 55: 548-553.

23-Faverial J, Sierra J. Home composting of household biodegradable wastes under the tropical
conditions of Guadeloupe (French Antilles). J Clean Prod 2014;83:238-44.

24-S. Godura, A. K. Aggarwal and P. Bhatia, "Municipal solid waste management index in
urban areas: Delphi validated tool," Int. J. of Environment and Waste Management, vol. 20, no.
3, pp. 215 - 232, 2017.

25-B. Abila and J. Kantola, "Proposed solutions in municipal solid-waste management," Int. J. of
Environment and Waste Management, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 297 - 317, 2017.

26-B. Abila and J. Kantola, "Proposed solutions in municipal solid-waste management," Int. J. of
Environment and Waste Management, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 297 - 317, 2017.

27-Talia. K. R.,”A review on composting of municipal solid waste”, Journal of Environmental

Science IOSR, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT), 2015

62
28-Hande Ajinkya, PadoleVivek, “Design and fabrication portable organic waste chopping
machine to obtain compost”. IJIRST –International Journal for Innovative Research in Science &
Technology| Volume 2 | Issue 03 | August 2015 ISSN (online): 2349-6010

29-Narayana, T., 2015. Municipal solid waste management in India: from waste disposal to
recovery of resources. Waste Management 29, 1163-1166

30-Sarkar, S., Banerjee, R., Chanda, S., Das, P., Ganguly, S., Pal, S., 2015. “Effectiveness of
Inoculation with isolated Geobacillus strains in the thermophilic stage of vegetable waste
composting”. Bio-res. Technol. 101, 2892-2895

31-Christensen, T. H. (Ed.). (2015). Solid waste technology & management (Vol. 2). Chichester,
West Sussex, UK: Wiley.

32-Sundberg, C., &Jönsson, H. (2016). Higher pH and faster decomposition in bio-waste

composting by increased aeration. Waste Management, 28(3), 518-526.

63
 PLAGIARISM SCAN REPORT

Words 221 Date August 01,2020

Characters 1408 Exclude Url

0% 100% 0 15
Plagiarism Unique Plagiarized Unique Sentences
Sentences
Content Checked For Plagiarism

Each day Urban cities generate more and more waste and this is overloading our municipal systems, systematic management
of waste is a big problem. Composting is a known and easy process of organic waste management. It is a biological conversion
self-heating, which generates desired end products such as substrates for the cultivation of mushrooms, biogas, and
fertilizers. The proper maintenance of temperature and humidity in pulverized organic waste will increase the process of bio-
degradation. The study is done to evaluate the performance of the compost machine. The proper management of
temperature and humidity is important. The aim is to decrease unscientific landfilling, segregation of waste, and to increase
the quality of compost or manure. The massive cost involved in the packing and transportation of domestic waste in countries
accounts for not less than 65% of the total budget for waste management. The design of a budget-friendly composting
machine for small-scale production of manure (compost) from waste is achieved. The actual efficiency of 64.09% was recorded
as compared to the theoretical efficiency of 80%.In INDIA, approximately 50% Biodegradable Waste is generated in total MSW
composition and now the numbers are increasing. So we have come up with an idea SMART Composting Machine. The design
of the machine is such that every day we can process 15 to 25 kg of organic waste.

Sources Similarity