BASIC CHEMISTRY AND

PHYSICS
Basic Chemistry ................................................................ 2
Matter ...................................................................... 2
Atoms And Molecules .............................................. 3
Chemical Bonding .................................................... 6
Synthetic fibres and Plastics..................................... 7
Metallurgy ................................................................ 8
Metals and Non-Metals ........................................... 8
Compounds, Mixture and Solutions ......................10
Chemical Reactions ................................................13
Periodic table .........................................................14
Organic Chemistry ..................................................16
Heat ........................................................................18
Acids and Bases ......................................................20
Behaviour of Gases ................................................22
SI Units ...................................................................22
Fuels .......................................................................23
Some Important Facts ............................................25
Basic Physics...................................................................26
Motion....................................................................26
Newton’s Laws of Motion ......................................27
Friction ...................................................................27
Force and Pressure.................................................29
Gravitation .............................................................32
Work, Energy And Power .......................................33
Wave theory ...........................................................34
Sound Wave ...........................................................35
Electricity................................................................38
Magnetism .............................................................46
Pascal Law .......................................................... 48
Bernoulli’s Principle ........................................... 49
LIght.................................................................... 49
Applications of Optic ..............................................54
Nuclear Physics ......................................................57

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 The three states of matter are interchangeable.
BASIC CHEMISTRY There are two ways in which a matter can change its
state:
Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how ▪ Particles of matter can be brought together by
and why substances combine or separate to form applying pressure on them.
other substances, and how substances interact with - Applying pressure and reducing the
energy. temperature of a gas can liquify the gas.
▪ It deals with the composition of matter and also - Similarly, a gas can be directly converted into
the physical and chemical characteristics solid by reducing the pressure by deposition.
associated with the different material objects.
▪ A French chemist, Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – Original State Change to Name
1793) is regarded as the father of modern Solid Liquid Melting
chemistry. Liquid Solid Freezing
Liquid Gas Boiling
MATTER Gas Liquid Condensation
“Matter is any substance that has mass and takes up Solid Directly to Gas Sublimation
space by having volume.” Gas Directly to solid Deposition
Or
“Anything that occupies space, possesses mass and
can be felt by any one or more of our senses is called
matter.”
▪ Matter has both mass and volume. It can be in
any form such as solid, liquid or gas.
▪ For a long time, Scientists were unable to decide
as to what really matter was made up of.
▪ The particle of matter are very small in size.
▪ Particles of matter possess kinetic energy and
this energy aids their movement. When the
temperature increases, they travel faster.
▪ Movement of particles causes their intermixing.

STATES OF MATTER
1. Solid State: Solids have definite shapes, fixed
volumes and distinctive boundaries.
- They are not easily compressible; they have
a tendency to maintain their shape.
- Solids are generally hard and rigid.
2. Liquid State: They take the shape of the
container in which they are poured.
- Liquids have no definite shape or distinctive
boundaries but have fixed volume.
- Liquids are not easily compressible.
3. Gaseous State: Gases take the shape and volume
of the container they occupy.
- They have no distinctive shape, nor do they
have any fixed volume.
- Gases are highly compressible as compared
to liquids and solids.
CHANGE OF STATE
NOTE
The fourth state of matter is plasma state, and fifth state is
Bose – Einstein Condensate.
▪ Plasma state consist of super energetic and super
excited particles. These particles are in the form of
ionised gases.
- Plasma can occur when matter is heated to a very
high temperature.
▪ Satyendra Nath Bose in 1920, gave the concept of fifth
state of matter.
- Bose Einstein Condensate is formed by
supercooling a gas of extremely low density, about
one hundred thousandth of the density of normal
air, to super low temperature.
▪ Melting Point: The constant temperature at
which a solid becomes liquid upon absorbing
heat under normal pressure is called melting
point of that solid.
▪ Boiling Point: The constant temperature at
which a liquid changes to vapour state under
normal atmospheric pressure is called boiling
point.

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 - The boiling point decreases with decrease in
atmospheric pressure.
- Soluble impurities increases the boiling point
of liquid.
▪ Freezing Point: The constant temperature at
which liquid changes into a solid by giving out
heat energy is called freezing point.
EVAPORATION
The phenomenon of change of water into vapours
at any temperature below the boiling point is
known as evaporation.
▪ This happens because particles of liquid at the
surface tend to possess higher kinetic energy
and less bound by interparticle force of
attraction.
▪ As a result, these particles are able to break the
interparticle force of attraction and change into
vapour.
▪ Particles of water need heat to increase their
kinetic energy in order to evaporate.
- Thus, the particles at surface absorb heat
from their surroundings.
- This absorption of heat energy from the
surrounding reduces the temperature. Thus,
evaporation leads to cooler surroundings.
- It is advised to wear cotton clothes in
summers because cotton is a good
absorbent of water. It helps absorb the
sweat from our body. The sweat then
evaporates leaving a cooling sensation.
- During summer, water kept in an earthen
pot becomes cool because of the
phenomena of Evaporation.
- Evaporation is affected by following factors:
1. Nature of liquid
2. Temperature
3. Surface Area
VAPOUR PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by the vapours of liquid in
equilibrium with liquid at a given temperature is
called vapour pressure.
▪ Vapour pressure of a liquid depends upon its
nature and temperature.
▪ Higher the vapour pressure of a particular liquid
lesser will be the magnitude of intermolecular
forces present in molecules.
▪ Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with
increase in temperature.
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
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In 1803, Dalton propounded that every matter
around us is made up from small particles called
atoms.
▪ Dalton also speculated that the atom is the basic
constituent of all matters and cannot be divided
by any physical or chemical method.
▪ An atom is the smallest particle of the element
that can exist independently and retain all its
chemical properties and does not occur free in
nature.
FEATURES OF ATOM
1. All matter is made up of very tiny particles called
atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
3. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass
and chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements have different
masses and chemical properties.
▪ Later atom was also divided into electron,
proton and neutron and these are called
fundamental or elementary particles.
▪ The nucleus of an atom is the central region of
an atom where the majority of the mass is
concentrated.
▪ Rutherford performed alpha-particle scattering
experiment, which led to the discovery of the
atomic nucleus.
▪ It consists of a packed arrangement of positively
charged protons and neutrons. 99.9% of the
mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
▪ An atom can be further subdivided by
extraordinary means such as collision of two or
more atoms at very high speed.
▪ Molecule: It is smallest particle of an element or
compound that can have a stable and
independent existence.
ELECTRON
Firstly invented fundamental particle is electron. In
1897 the electron was invented by J.J. Thomson.
▪ An electron was obtained from the cathode rays
experiments.
▪ The name of electron is given by Stoney.
▪ The electron is a negatively charged particle
which is moving around the central massive
core called nucleus of the atom.
▪ It is distributed in various energy level and sub-
level.
▪ The relative charge of an electron is -1 unit and
has its absolute negative charge of 1.6 × 10(-19)
coulomb.
▪ The electronic mass (mass of the electron) is 9.1
× 10(- 31) kg.
▪ Electron are arranged in various shells outside
the nucleus.
PROTON
The proton is another fundamental particle which
was invented by E. Goldstein.
▪ A proton was obtained from anode rays
experiment.
▪ The proton is confined in the nucleus of the
atom.
▪ It is basically a positively charged particle with
relative charge as +1 unit and has relative
positive charge of 1.6 × 10(-19) coulomb.
▪ The mass of the proton is l.6 × 10(-27) kg.
▪ The number of protons present in the nucleus of
an atom is called the atomic number of an
element. It is denoted by ‘Z’.
▪ The number of protons in an atom determines
the chemical behaviour of an element.
NEUTRON
This was invented in 1932 by James Chadwick.
▪ It is a neutral fundamental particle (no charge)
confined to the nucleus.
▪ The mass of the neutron is approximately equal
(slightly more) to that of mass of the proton.
▪ Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms,
except hydrogen.
▪ A neutron was obtained from radioactivity
phenomenon.
An atom is always neutral in charge; thus the
number of protons and electrons is equal in an
atom.
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element is
a number which states that how many times the
mass of one atom of an element is heavier than
1/12th mass of one atom of carbon – 12.
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2. Atomic Number: The number of proton in an
atom of the element is called atomic number. It
is denoted by Z.
3. Mass Number is the total number of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
- Protons and Neutrons together are also
called Nucleons.
- The mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.
- For example: Nitrogen has a mass number of
14 as it has 7 protons and 7 neutrons in its
atom. But its atomic number is 7.
4. Isotopes: They are atoms having same atomic
number but different mass number. They have
different number of neutrons.
- For example: An isotope with 6 protons and
6 neutrons is carbon-12 or C-12. An isotope
with 6 protons and 7 neutrons is C-13.
5. Mole: It was introduced around 1896 by
Wilhelm Ostwald who derived the term from the
Latin word moles meaning a ‘heap’ or ‘pile’.
- A substance may be considered as a heap of
atoms or molecules.
- The mole is the amount of substance that
contains the same number of particles
(atoms/ ions/ molecules/ formula units etc.)
as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-
12.
- The number of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) present in 1 mole of any substance is
fixed, with a value of 6.022×10(23). This
number is called the Avogadro Constant.
6. Molar Mass: Mass of 1 mole of a substance is
called its molar mass.
7. Isobars: Atoms of different elements with
different atomic numbers, which have the same
mass number, are known as isobars.
- An example of a series of isobars would
be40S, 40Cl, 40Ar, 40K, and 40Ca.
 representing the sun and revolving electrons
8. Isotones: Isotones are atoms that have the same as protons.
neutron number but different proton number.

9. Nuclear forces: The nucleus is held together by

the ‘strong force’, which is one of the four basic
forces in nature.
- The force between the protons and neutrons
overcome the repulsive electrical force,
arising on account of the same charge among
protons that would otherwise have pushed
the protons apart.

10. Isoelectronic: These are atoms/molecules/ions

containing the same number of electrons.
11. Quantum Number: The set of four integers
requires to define an electron completely in an
atom are called quantum number.
12. Thomson model of an atom: According to
Thomson, an atom is treated as sphere of radius
10^-8 cm in which positively charged particles
are uniformly distributed and negatively charged
electrons are embedded through them.
- This is called Plum Pudding model of an atom
or Watermelon model of an atom.
FOUR BASIC FORCES
1. The Strong Force: This force is responsible for binding
protons and neutrons within nuclei.
- This force is so strong that it binds the protons of
similar charges, along with neutrons, within a
nucleus.
- However, this force acts in a very short range of 1
femtometre (10-15 m).
- The particles responsible for this force are gluons.
Gluons bind them together.
2. The Electromagnetic force: This is the force which exists
between all particles which have an electric charge.
- The range of this force extends upto infinite
distance, though the magnitude of the force will
decrease with distance.
3. The Weak force: It is responsible for radioactive decay.
It leads to changes within the nucleus of an atom.
4. The Gravitational force: It is the force of attraction
among any two masses. It is cumulative in nature.
- However, the force is extremely small on the level
of Individual particle.

13. Rutherford’s model of an atom: On the basis of

Scattering experiment, he proposed a model of
the atom which is known as Nuclear Atomic
Model. As per this model:
- An atom consists of a heavy positively
charged nucleus where all protons and
neutrons are present. Model Related to
- Protons and neutrons collectively called
Bohr’s Model Concept of Quantization
Nucleons.
of energy
- Radius of a nucleus: 10^-13 cm.
Planck’s Quantum Photon and Quanta
- Radius of an atom: 10^-8 cm.
theory
- Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
Sommerfeld’s Model Orbital: Elliptical and
closed orbits with high speed. This model is
Spherical
similar to the solar system, the nucleus

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 De-Broglie’s Dual nature of electron
Equation
Heisenberg’s Exact position & bond.
Uncertainty principle momentum cannot be
determined together
Schrodinger’s Wave Wave nature of electron
Equation
CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms tend to arrange themselves in the most
stable patterns possible, which means that they
have a tendency to complete or fill their outermost
electron orbits.
▪ Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a
chemical bond between two or more atoms,
molecules, or ions to give rise to a chemical
compound.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
When substances participate in chemical bonding
and yield compounds, the stability of the resulting
compound can be gauged by the type of chemical
bonds it contains.
IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which
involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or
molecule to another.
▪ Here, an atom loses an electron which is in turn
gained by another atom.
▪ One of the resulting ions carries a negative
charge (anion), and the other ion carries a
positive charge (cation).
▪ Because opposite charges attract, the atoms
bond together to form a molecule.
▪ The ionic bond gains strength from the
difference in charge between the two atoms.
▪ Condition for formation of ionic bond is
ionization energy of metal should be low and
electrons affinity of non – metals should be high.
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▪ The greater the charge disparity between the
cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic
▪ Ionic bond is also called electrovalent bond
because it arises on account of electrostatic force
of attraction.
▪ Ionic compound have high melting point and
boiling point. They are soluble in water.
▪ They are good conductor of electricity in molten
state or in water, but bad conductor in solid
state.
COVALENT BONDING
A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons
between atoms.
▪ A covalent bond may involve sharing of single
pair, double pair or triple pair of electrons.
▪ The pair of electrons which are shared by the
two atoms now extend around the nuclei of
atoms, leading to the creation of a molecule.
▪ Compounds that contain carbon commonly
exhibit this type of chemical bonding.
▪ Covalent bonds can be either be polar or non-
polar in nature.
▪ Covalent compounds have high melting point
and boiling point.
▪ They are generally bad conductor of electricity
(exception graphite).
▪ Covalent bonds are directional.
COORDINATE BOND (DATIVE BOND)
It is a special type of covalent bond in which one
atom donates electrons to other atom. The bonding
between donor to acceptor atom is called
coordinate bond.
POLAR COVALENT BONDS
In such bonds, electrons are shared unequally since
the more electronegative atom pulls the electron
pair closer to itself and away from the less
electronegative atom.
▪ It is an intermediate case between ionic and
covalent bonding, with one end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged and the other end
slightly positively charged.
▪ Water is an example of such a polar molecule.
Polarity explains why some substances dissolve
readily in water and others do not.
WATER: A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
Water is called the universal solvent because most
substances dissolve in water than in any other solvent.
▪ This is due to polarity of each water molecule. The
hydrogen side of each water molecule carries a slight
positive charge, whereas the oxygen side carries a slight
negative charge.
▪ This property of polarity helps water dissociate ionic
compounds into their positive and negative ions.
- The positive part of the ionic compound is attracted
to the oxygen side of water, whereas the negative
portion of compound is attracted to hydrogen side
of water.
▪ However, if ionic bond is very strong or the attraction is
high between opposite charged ions, then the solubility
in water is low.
HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of chemical
bonding.
▪ It is a type of polar covalent bonding between
oxygen and hydrogen wherein the hydrogen
develops a partial positive charge.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS
Fibers is a natural or man-made substance that is
significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often
used in the manufacture of other materials.
▪ Fibres are also used for making a large variety of
household articles.
▪ Fabrics are made from fibres obtained from
natural or artificial sources.
NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBRES
▪ The naturally occurring fibres that humans
derive from plants or animals are known as
natural fibres.
- Cotton, wool, jute and silk falls in the
category of natural fibres.
- Silk fibre is obtained from the cocoon of a
silkworm. It takes 10 kg of the cocoon
material to create 1kg of silk.
▪ The synthetic fibres are made by human beings.
A synthetic fibre is a chain of small units joined
together.
- Each small unit is actually a chemical
substance. Many such small units combine to
form a large single unit called a polymer.
- While natural fibres are obtained from plants
and animals, synthetic fibres are obtained by
chemical processing of petrochemicals.
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RAYON
Rayon is made from purified cellulose, which is
chemically converted into a soluble compound.
▪ It is also known as Artificial Silk. It is obtained by
chemical treatment of wood pulp.
NYLON
It was prepared from coal, water and air. It was the
first fully synthetic fibre.
▪ Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and light. It was
lustrous and easy to wash. So, it became very
popular for making clothes.
▪ Nylon finds application in the manufacturing of
socks, ropes, tents, car seat belts, sleeping bags,
curtains etc.
▪ Nylon is also used for making parachutes.
POLYESTER AND ACRYLIC
Polyester is made of repeating units of a chemical
called an ester.
▪ Esters are the chemicals which give fruits their
smell. Fabrics are sold by names like polycot,
polywool, terrycot, etc.
▪ Fabric made from this fibre does not get
wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is easy to
wash.
▪ Terylene is a popular polyester.
▪ PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is another
very familiar form of polyester. It is used for
making bottles, utensils, films, wires and many
other useful products.
Acrylic is a synthetic fibre that resembles wool.
▪ The wool obtained from natural sources is quite
expensive, whereas clothes made from acrylic
are relatively cheap.
PLASTIC
Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre.
▪ All plastics do not have the same type of
arrangement of units. In some, it is linear
whereas in others it is cross-linked.
▪ Plastic can be recycled, reused, coloured,
melted, rolled into sheets or made into wires.
That is why it finds such a variety of uses.
▪ Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example of a
plastic. It is used for making commonly used
polythene bags.
▪ Plastic is non-reactive, light, strong and durable
and is a poor conductor of heat.
THERMOPLASTICS
Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and
can be bent easily are known as thermoplastics like
polythene and PVC (Polyvinyl chloride).
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS ▪ The best conductors of heat are silver and
Plastics which when moulded once, cannot be copper metals.
softened by heating like Bakelite and melamine. ▪ The property of metals by which they can be
▪ Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and beaten into thin sheets is called malleability.
electricity. It is used for making electrical ▪ The property of metal by which it can be drawn
switches, handles of various utensils, etc. into wires is called ductility.
▪ Melamine is a versatile material. It resists fire ▪ A list of common metals arranged in order of
and can tolerate heat better than other plastics. their decreasing reactivity is known as an
It is used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and activity series. A more reactive metal displaces a
fabrics which resist fire. less reactive metal from its salt solution.
ISSUES WITH PLASTICS NON-METALS
The waste created by plastics is not environment Hydrogen, chlorine, carbon, nitrogen, arsenic,
friendly. phosphorus, selenium are examples of non-metal.
▪ On burning, plastics release poisonous gases.
▪ On dumping in the ground they may take years Property Metals Non-Metals
to degenerate. This is because of their non- Lustre Have shining surface Except iodine,
biodegradable nature. they are not
shining
METALLURGY Hardness Generally hard Generally soft
Except sodium, lithium Except Diamond
and potassium which
The process of extracting metal in pure form from
are soft.
its ore is known as metallurgy. State Exists as Solid, except Exists as gaseous
▪ Minerals: The compound of a metal found in mercury or solids, except
nature is called a mineral. A mineral may be a bromine
single compound or a complex mixture. Ductility Metals are ductile Non ductile
▪ Ores: Those minerals from which metal can be Malleability Metals are malleable Non malleable
Conductor Good conductor of Poor conductors
economically and easily extracted are called
heat and electricity of heat and
ores. electricity
All ores are mineral, but all minerals are not ores. Density High density and high Low density and
melting point low melting point
METALS AND NON-METALS Sonorous Metals produce a They are not
sound when strikes sonorous
Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals with hard surface.
on the basis of their properties. Oxides Metallic oxides are Non-metallic
basic in nature oxides are acidic
▪ An element that is malleable, ductile, and
or neutral in
conducts electricity is called a metal. nature
▪ Non-metals are those which lack all the metallic Reaction Metals react with acids Generally, non-
attributes. They are good insulators of heat and with acids and produce metal metals do not
electricity. They are mostly gases and sometimes salts and hydrogen gas react with acids
liquid. METALLOIDS (SEMI-METAL)
METALS Metalloids possess intermediate properties
Metals occur in nature as free elements or in the between those of metals and non-metals.
form of their compounds. - For example, Silicon appears lustrous, but is
▪ The extraction of metals from their ores and not malleable or ductile.
then refining them for use is known as ▪ Metalloids are useful in the semi-conductor
metallurgy. industries.
▪ Metals are solids at room temperature, except ALLOYS
mercury which is a liquid. Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metal with
▪ Generally, the metals have high melting points, other metals or non-metals.
but gallium and caesium have very low melting ▪ Alloy formation enhances the desirable
points properties of the material, such as hardness,
tensile strength and resistance to corrosion.
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▪ Some examples of Alloys: ▪ Reactivity of the metal, presence of impurities,
1. Brass: copper and zinc air and moisture, strains in metal and presence
2. Bronze: copper and tin of electrolytes etc. are factor which affect the
3. Solder: lead and tin corrosion.
4. Amalgam: mercury and other metal ▪ The formula for rust is Fe2O3.xH2O.
▪ When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium, ▪ Some examples of corrosion includes:
we get stainless steel, which is hard and does not 1. Silver becomes black when exposed to air as
rust. it reacts with air to form a coating of silver
▪ Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It sulphide.
is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery. 2. Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in
- It is alloyed with either silver or copper to the air and gains a green coat of copper
make it hard. carbonate.
- Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for 3. Iron when exposed to moist air acquires a
making ornaments. coating of a brown flaky substance called
- It means that 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed rust.
with 2 parts of either copper or silver.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION
▪ Rusting of Iron can be prevented by painting,
Important alloys and their uses
oiling, greasing, galvanizing, chrome plating,
Alloys Compositions Uses
Brass Cu (70%) + Zn (30%) In making utensils
anodizing or making alloys.
Bronze Cu (90%) + Sn (10%) In making coins, ▪ In Galvanization, Steel and Iron is protected from
bell and utensils rusting through a coating of thick layer of zinc
German silver Cu (60%) + Zn (20%) In making utensils over them.
+ Ni (20%) ▪ Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide
Rolled Gold Cu (90%) + Al (10%) In making cheap
layer of aluminium.
ornaments
Gun metal Cu (10%) + Sn (1%) + In making gun, - Aluminium develops a thin oxide layer when
Zn (1%) + Pb (88%) barrels, gears exposed to air. This aluminium oxide coat
Delta Metal Cu (60%) + Zn (38%) In making blade of makes it resistant to further corrosion.
+ Fe (2%) aeroplanes
Munz Metal Cu (60%) + Zn (40%) In making Coins IMPORTANT POINTS
Dutch Metal Cu (80%) + Zn (20%) In making artificial ▪ Rhodium is the rarest metal.
ornaments ▪ Osmium is the densest metal.
Monel Metal Cu (70%) + Ni (30%) For base containing ▪ Caesium is used in atomic clocks.
container
▪ Helium has the lowest boiling point than any
Rose Metal Bi (50%) + Pb (28%) For making
+Sn (22%) automatic fuse other element.
Solder Pb (50%) + Sn (50%) For soldering ▪ Fluorine is often added to toothpaste in the
Magnalium Al (95%) + Mg (5%) For frames of form of fluoride ions.
aeroplane ▪ Both fluorine and chlorine are added to water
Duralumin Al (94%) + Cu (3%) + For making utensils supplies; for their germicidal properties.
Mg (2%) + Mn (1%)
▪ Pure silicon is a semiconductor and is used in
Type Metal Sn (5%) + Pb (80%) + In printing industry
Sb (15%) electronic devices as the base for minute
Bell Metal Cu (80%) + Sn (20%) For casting bells, integrated circuits (ICs).
statues ▪ Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
Stainless Steel Fe (75%) + Cr (15%) For making utensils ▪ Chlorine has the maximum electron affinity.
+ Ni (10%) and surgical cutlery ▪ Helium has the maximum ionization -potential.
Nickel Steel Fe (95%) + Ni (5%) For making
electrical wire,
▪ Caesium or Francium has the lowest ionization
parts of automobile potential.
▪ Helium and Francium are smallest and largest
atoms respectively.
CORROSION ▪ Boron has the lowest atomic volume.
The surface of some metals get corroded when they ▪ Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
are exposed to moist air for long period of time. This ▪ Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the
is called corrosion. universe.

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▪ Oxygen is the most abundant element on the
earth.
▪ Aluminium is the most abundant metal.
COMPOUNDS, MIXTURE AND
SOLUTIONS
A compound is a substance composed of two or
more different types of elements, chemically
combined in a fixed proportion.
▪ A mixture contains more than one substance
(element and/or compound) mixed in any
proportion.
▪ Properties of a compound are different from its
constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows
the properties of its constituting elements or
compounds.
▪ Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a
homogeneous mixture of a number of gases. Its
two main constituents are: oxygen (21%) and
nitrogen (78%). The other gases are present in
very small quantities.
SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
pure non reacting substances.
▪ The major component of a solution is called the
solvent, and the minor, the solute.
▪ The better solvent is one which has high
dielectric constant. Water is universal solvent
because it has high dielectric constant.
▪ The concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute present per unit volume or per unit mass
of the solution/solvent.
▪ The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm
(10-9metre) in diameter. So, they cannot be
seen by naked eyes.
▪ Because of very small particle size, the particles
do not scatter a beam of light passing through
the solution. So, the path of light is not visible in
a solution.
SATURATED SOLUTION
A saturated solution is one in which no more of the
additional substance can be dissolved at a given
temperature.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION
A solution in which one or more solute can be
dissolved at a given temperature.
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
A supersaturated solution at a particular
temperature is one that is more concentrated
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(contains more solute) than its saturated solution at
that temperature.
TRUE SOLUTION
It is a homogenous solution in which size of solute
particles is less than 10^-9 cm. In true solution, the
solute particles and solvent molecules cannot be
distinguished even under a microscope.
▪ In a solution there is homogeneity at the particle
level.
- For example, lemonade tastes the same
throughout. This shows that particles of
sugar or salt are evenly distributed in the
solution.
▪ The solute particles cannot be separated from
the mixture by the process of filtration.
SOLUBILITY
The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in
a known quantity of solvent at a certain temperature
is its solubility.
▪ Solubility is the new bond formation between
the solute molecules and solvent molecules.
▪ Certain factors can influence the solubility of a
substance.
- By changing the temperature we can
increase the soluble property of a solute.
- The chances of solubility between two
unlike substances are more challengeable
than the like substances.
- When the partial pressure of gas increases,
the chance of its solubility is also increased.
▪ Based on the concentration of solute dissolves in
a solvent, solutes are categorized into highly
soluble, sparingly soluble or insoluble.
▪ If a concentration of 0.1 g or more of a solute can
be dissolved in a 100ml solvent, it is said to be
soluble.
▪ While a concentration below 0.1 g is dissolved
in the solvent it is said to be sparingly soluble.
▪ There are many gases that readily dissolve in
water, while there are gases that do not dissolve
in water under normal conditions.
▪ Solubilities of Gases in Water at 293 K
Gas Solubility (gm of gas/100gm of
water)
Ammonia 52.9
Bromine 14.9
Sulphur dioxide 11.28
Chlorine 0.729
Carbon dioxide 0.169
 Nitrogen 0.0019 The Tyndall effect is light scattering by particles in a
Hydrogen 0.00016 colloid or in a very fine suspension.
SUSPENSION
▪ Non-homogeneous systems in which solids are
dispersed in liquids, are called suspensions.
- A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in
which the solute particles do not dissolve
but remain suspended throughout the bulk
of the medium.
- Particles of a suspension are visible to the
naked eye.
- The particles of a suspension scatter a beam
of light passing through it and make its path
visible.
COLLOIDS
Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the
particle size is too small to be seen with the naked
eye but is big enough to scatter light.
▪ They cannot be separated from the mixture by
the process of filtration.
▪ But, a special technique of separation known as
centrifugation, can be used to separate the
colloidal particles.
COLLOIDAL SOLUTION ▪ It can be observed when sunlight passes through
It is a heterogenous solution in which size of particles the canopy of a dense forest.
of dispersed phase lies between 10^-9 m to 10^-6 m. - In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of
▪ The colloidal particles can pass through ordinary water, which act as particles of colloid
filter paper but can pass through animal dispersed in air.
membrane. ▪ It can also be observed when a fine beam of light
SOLS
enters a room through a small hole.
The colloidal systems with solid as dispersed phase - This happens due to the scattering of light by
and liquid as dispersion medium are known as sols. the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
- Rubber gloves are manufactured from SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
rubber sols by the process of electroplating. Most of the natural substances are not chemically
AEROSOLS pure. Different methods of separation are used to
The colloidal systems with solid or liquid as get individual components from a mixture.
dispersed phase and gas as dispersion medium are ▪ Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into
known as aerosols. their respective constituents by simple physical
- In smoke, the dispersed phase is solid and methods like handpicking, sieving, filtration that
dispersion medium is gas. we use in our day-to-day life.
- In fog, dispersed phase is liquid and - Difference in the size of particles in a mixture
dispersion medium is gas. is utilised to separate them by the process of
When dispersion medium is water, alcohol or sieving and filtration.
benzene, then called aquasol, alcosol or benzosol ▪ When the heavier component in a mixture
respectively. settles after water is added to it, the process is
called sedimentation.
FOAM
▪ When the water (along with the dust) is
Foam is a colloidal solution in which dispersed phase removed, the process is called decantation.
is gas and dispersion medium is liquid. - In a mixture of sand and water, the heavier
TYNDALL EFFECT sand particles settle down at the bottom
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 and the water can be separated by
sedimentation or decantation.
▪ Process of filtration is used to separate a
mixture of a solid and liquid.
▪ Evaporation is the process in which a liquid gets
converted into its vapour. Evaporation can be
used to separate a solid dissolved in a liquid.
- Salt is obtained from sea water through this
process.
▪ The crystallisation method is used to purify
solids. It separates a pure solid in the form of its
crystals from a solution.
- For example, the salt we get from sea water
can have many impurities in it. To remove
these impurities, the process of
crystallisation is used.
▪ Centrifugation uses principle in which the
denser particles are forced to the bottom and
the lighter particles stay at the top when spun
rapidly.
▪ Chromatography is the technique used for
separation of those solutes that dissolve in the
same solvent.
▪ Distillation is used for the separation of
components of a mixture containing two
miscible liquids that boil without decomposition
and have sufficient difference in their boiling
points.
- If the difference in boiling points is greater
than 25 °C, a simple distillation is used.
▪ Fractional distillation is the separation of a
mixture into its component parts, or fractions.
- It separates chemical compounds by their
boiling point by heating them to a
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temperature at which several fractions of
the compound will evaporate.
- Fractional distillation is used in the
purification of petroleum.
COMMON CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
BLEACHING POWDER
It is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked
lime [Ca (OH) 2].
▪ It is represented as CaOCl2, though the actual
composition is quite complex.
▪ Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the
strong smell of chlorine.
▪ The bleaching powder to on exposure to air is
deteriorates and gives off chlorine.
USES
1. For bleaching cotton and linen in the textile
industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
factories and for bleaching washed clothes in
laundry.
2. It is used as an oxidising agent in many chemical
industries.
3. It is used for disinfecting drinking water to make
it free of germs.
BAKING SODA
The chemical name of the compound is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). It is produced using
sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
USES
1. It is commonly used in the kitchen for making
tasty crispy pakoras.
2. It is also used for making baking powder, which
is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid
such as tartaric acid.
3. It is also used as an ingredient in antacids. Being
alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach
and provides relief.
4. It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
5. It is used in toothpastes to make teeth white and
plaque free.
6. It is also used in cleansing of ornaments of silver.
WASHING SODA
It is also obtained from sodium chloride and its
chemical formula is Na2CO3.10H2O.
▪ Baking soda is synthesized through Solvay’s
process. Solvay’s process involves the reaction of
sodium chloride, ammonia and carbon dioxide
in water.
USES
1. It is used in the manufacture of sodium
compounds such as borax and caustic soda.
2. It is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
3. It can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic
purposes.
4. It is used for removing permanent hardness of
water.
PLASTER OF PARIS
Plaster of Paris is a chemical compound consisting of
fine white powder, which hardens when exposed to
moisture and allowed to dry.
▪ The chemical formula of Plaster of Paris is
CaSO4.1/2H2O and is better known as Calcium
sulphate hemihydrate.
▪ Plaster of Paris is synthesized from gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O).
CaSO4.2H2O → CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3/2H2O
USES
1. Plaster of Paris is used by doctors for supporting
fractured bones in the right position.
2. It is used for making toys and decorative
materials.
3. It is also used for increasing smoothness of
surfaces.
COMMON SALT
Common salt is sodium chloride (NaCl).
▪ It is an essential ingredient in our daily meal.
▪ It can be convened into useful chemicals like
caustic soda, washing soda and baking soda.
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▪ It also yields hydrochloric acid, an important
chemical used in chemical industry, and chlorine
which is used as bleaching agent.
LIME
Calcium oxide is commonly known as quicklime or
just lime. It is prepared by heating limestone
(CaCO3) in a kiln.
▪ A solution of slaked lime is known as the lime
water which is used for testing carbon dioxide.
▪ Calcium oxide is used for making cement and
glass.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A complete chemical equation represents the
reactants, products and their physical states
symbolically.
▪ Any of the following observations helps us to
determine whether a chemical reaction has
taken place:
a. Change in state of reactants
b. Change in colour
c. Change in temperature
d. Evolution of a gas
▪ A chemical equation is balanced so that the
numbers of atoms of each type involved in a
chemical reaction are the same on the reactant
and product sides of the equation.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
COMBINATION REACTIONS
In a combination reaction two or more substances
combine to form a new single substance.
CaO + H2O → Ca (OH) 2
DECOMPOSITION REACTION
Decomposition reactions are opposite to
combination reactions.
▪ In a decomposition reaction, a single substance
decomposes to give two or more substances.
2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
▪ Reactions in which heat is given out along with
the products are called exothermic reactions.
- Nuclear fission is one such example.
▪ Whereas reactions in which energy is absorbed
are known as endothermic reactions.
- Photosynthesis in plants in one such
example.
DISPLACEMENT REACTION
When an element displaces another element from
its compound, a displacement reaction occurs.
 Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION
Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are
exchanged in double displacement reactions.
NEUTRALISATION REACTION
When an acid reacts with a base, salt and water is
formed. This reaction is called neutralisation
reaction.
REVERSIBLE REACTION
A reaction in which reactants combine to form
products and again products recombine to reactants
is called reversible reaction.
PRECIPITATION REACTION
Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be
called a precipitation reaction.
▪ Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
White precipitate of BaSO4 is formed.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Oxidation is defined as the interaction between
oxygen molecules and all the different substances
they may contact, from metal to living tissue.
▪ Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of
hydrogen or addition of electronegative
element or group and removal of
electropositive element or group.
▪ Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of
hydrogen or addition of electropositive element
or group and removal of electronegative
element or group.
▪ In simple words:
“If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is
said to be oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen
during a reaction, it is said to be reduced”.
▪ As per modern concept, loss of electrons is called
oxidation whereas gain of electrons is called
reduction.
- A substance which undergoes reduction is
called Oxidising agent. Whereas a substance
which undergoes oxidation is called Reducing
agent.
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▪ A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction
takes place simultaneously is called redox
reaction.
▪ The charge present on atom in a molecule or ion
is called oxidation number. It may be zero,
positive or negative.
- Sum of oxidation number if atoms in a
molecule is equal to zero.
EXAMPLES IN DAILY LIFE
▪ Corrosion (rusting of Iron) is an example of
oxidation.
▪ Rancidity: When fats and oils are oxidised, they
become rancid and their smell and taste change.
▪ Sometimes oxidation is not such a bad thing, as
in the formation of super durable anodized
aluminium.
▪ During respiration food is oxidised o produce
energy.
PERIODIC TABLE
Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in
their properties.
▪ In 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, a
German chemist, tried to arrange the elements
with similar properties into groups.
▪ In 1866, John Newlands, an English scientist,
arranged the then known elements in the order
of increasing atomic masses.
- He started with the element having the
lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended
at thorium which was the 56th element.
- He found that every eighth element had
properties similar to that of the first.
- Therefore, he called it the ‘Law of Octaves’. It
is known as ‘Newlands’ Law of Octaves’.
▪ Lother’s – Mayer’s Atomic Volume Curve: in
1869 Lother mayer plotted a graph between
atomic volume of the elements and their atomic
mass and he pointed out that the elements with
similar properties occupy similar position in the
curve.
MENDELEEV TABLE
Mendeleev arranged the elements in increasing
order of their atomic masses and according to their
chemical properties.
▪ Mendeleev even predicted the existence of
some yet to be discovered elements on the basis
of gaps in his Periodic Table.
▪ One of the main limitation of his table was no
fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the
Periodic Table.
▪ Also Isotopes of all elements posed a challenge
to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic
number of an element is a more fundamental
property than its atomic mass.
▪ Accordingly, Mendeleev’s Periodic Law was
modified, and atomic number was adopted as
the basis of Modern Periodic Table.
▪ Elements in the Modern Periodic Table are
arranged in 18 vertical columns called groups
and 7 horizontal rows called periods.
▪ Elements thus arranged show periodicity of
properties including atomic size, Valency or
combining capacity and metallic and non-
metallic character.
CLASSIFICATION
Modern periodic table can be classified as:
▪ S – block, elements are known as Alkali &
Alkaline earth metals.
▪ P – block, elements are known as Chalcogen,
Picogens, Halogens and Inert gases.
▪ D – Block, elements are known as Transition
elements.
▪ F – block elements are known as Inner Transition
elements.
GROUPS
Groups are the vertical columns in the modern or
long form of the periodic table.
▪ The elements in each group have the same
number of valence electrons.
▪ Thus, the groups in the periodic table signify an
identical outer shell electronic configuration.
Periods are the horizontal rows in the modern or
long form of the periodic table.
▪ Each of the elements in the period has the same
number of shells. Thus, elements with single
shell of electrons are placed in the first period.
▪ The 1st period consists of only two elements -
Hydrogen and Helium.
▪ While the 2nd and 3rd period consists of 8
elements each.
▪ The 4th and 5th period consists of 18 elements
each.
▪ On the other hand, the 6th period consists of 32
elements.
▪ The 7th period of the periodic table now has four
new elements.
- They are 113 - Nihonium, 115 - Moscovium,
117- Tennessine, and 118 - Oganesson.
- This addition has completed the 7th period
with 32 elements.
▪ Also, the long form of the periodic table consists
of a separate panel at the bottom.
- It consists of 14 elements of the 6th period
called the lanthanides. And 14 elements in
the 7th period called the actinides.
PERIODIC PROPERTIES
1. Atomic Radii: The distance from the centre of
the nucleus to the outermost shell containing
electrons called atomic radius.
2. Ionic Radii: The effective distance from the
centre of nucleus of the ion upto which it exerts
its influence on the electron cloud is called ionic
radii.
3. Ionization potential: The amount of energy
required to remove an electron from isolated
gaseous atom is called Ionization potential or
Ionization energy.
4. Electron affinity: The energy released during
addition of an extra electron in isolated gaseous
atom is called electron affinity.
- Electron affinity increases from left to right
in a period and decreases from top to bottom
in a group.

ANOMALY IN THE POSITION OF HYDROGEN

PERIODS
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Hydrogen can be placed either in the 1st or in the 17th group.
As we know that the valence electrons in the shell of an atom
determine the position in the periodic table.
▪ There is a single electron in the outermost shell of the
hydrogen atom. Thus, hydrogen can be placed in first
group.
▪ Hydrogen atom requires one electron to complete its
outermost shell. Thus, hydrogen can be placed in the
17th group.
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 ▪ Metals are on the left side of the periodic table,
and non-metals are on the right side of periodic
ATOMIC SIZE
table.
Atomic size refers to the radius of the atom. The atomic
radius is given in picometer. The smallest atom is hydrogen. ▪ A zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals.
▪ As we move from left to right in the periodic table, This zig-zag line has elements which are
there is increase in the size of the nucleus and positive intermediate in properties and are called
charge of the nucleus on account of increase in the metalloids or semi-metals.
number of neutrons and protons. This increase in
- Metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium,
charge tends to pull electrons closer to the nucleus,
reducing the size of the atom. arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium.
▪ As we move down the group, there is addition in
number of shells. This increases the distance between
the outermost electrons and the nucleus. Thus, the VALENCY
force of attraction between the nucleus and the The Valency of an element is determined by the number of
outermost electrons decreases down the group. The valence electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.
atomic size increases in spite of increase in nuclear
charge. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
IMPORTANT POINTS
Organic chemistry deals with the scientific study of
There are 118 confirmed elements in the periodic
the structure, properties, composition, reactions,
table.
and preparation of carbon-based compounds,
▪ Among those, 92 elements can be found in
hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
nature, others are strictly man-made.
▪ Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different
▪ Technetium was the first man-made element.
forms. Each form is called an allotrope.
▪ Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon
- Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the
are known as the Noble Gases as they were
hardest natural substance known and has a
believed to be unreactive.
very high melting and boiling point.
▪ International Union of Pure and Applied
- Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a
Chemistry (IUPAC), established in 1919, is the
conductor of electricity.
world authority on chemical nomenclature and
▪ Initially it was believed that the organic
terminology, including the naming of new
compounds are natural in character, but
elements in the periodic table.
Friedrich Wohler disproved this in 1828 by
▪ Most of the elements on the periodic table are
preparing Urea (NH4CONH2) from Ammonium
metals (almost 75 percent).
Cyanate.
▪ Carbon compounds, except for oxides of carbon,
RARE EARTH METALS carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts
Rare earths are a series of chemical elements found in the continue to be studied under organic chemistry.
earth’s crust that are vital to many modern technologies, ▪ Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of
including consumer electronics etc. electricity.
▪ Because of their unique magnetic, luminescent and
electrochemical properties, these elements help make
many technologies perform with reduced weight,
IMPORTANT POINTS
reduced emissions and energy consumption with
The primary difference between organic and inorganic
greater efficiency.
compounds is that the former always contain carbon.
▪ There are 17 elements that are considered to be rare
However, there are certain classes of Carbon compounds
earth elements – 15 elements in the lanthanide series
which are not considered organic.
and two additional elements that share similar
chemical properties. 1. Oxides of Carbon
▪ China is the world leader in rare earth metal production 2. Carbides
and controls about 36% of the world’s reserves. 3. Carbonates
▪ Rare earth elements are Cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), 4. Cyanides
erbium (Er), europium (Eu) etc.

DESCRIPTION OF ELEMENTS IN A PERIODIC TABLE IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT CARBON

There are multiple ways of grouping the elements, ▪ Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds
but they are commonly divided into metals, non- with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to large
metals and metalloids (semi-metal). molecules. This property is called catenation.

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▪ Carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or nature of the carbon chain and are called
triple bonds. functional groups.
- Compounds of carbon, which are linked by
only single bonds between the carbon atoms Heteroatom Functional group Prefix/Suffix
are called saturated compounds. Chlorine and Halo Chloro
- Compounds of carbon having double or Bromine Bromo
triple bonds between their carbon atoms are Oxygen Alcohol -ol
called unsaturated compounds. Oxygen
Aldehyde -al
▪ The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and Ketone -one
hence stable. This gives the large number of Carboxylic Acid -oic acid
compounds with many carbon atoms linked to
each other.
▪ One reason for the formation of strong bonds by
carbon is its small size. This enables the nucleus
to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons
strongly.
▪ Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable
of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or
atoms of some other mono-valent element.
HYDROCARBONS
All the carbon compounds which contain just carbon
and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
▪ The saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
For example, Methane CH4. NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
- Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Naming a carbon compound can be done by the
▪ The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain following method:
one or more double bonds are called alkenes. ▪ Identify the number of carbon atoms in the
For example, Ethylene C2H4. compound.
- Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due ▪ In case a functional group is present, it is
to the presence of the double bond. indicated in the name of the compound with
- They are written in the empirical formula of either a prefix or a suffix.
CnH2n. ▪ If the name of the functional group is to be given
▪ Those containing one or more triple bonds are as a suffix, the name of the carbon chain is
called alkynes. For example, Ethyne. modified by deleting the final ‘e’ and adding the
- They are written in the empirical formula of appropriate suffix.
CnH2n−2. - A three-carbon chain with a ketone group
would be named in the following manner –
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.
It is a series of compounds with the same general
▪ If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final
formula, usually varying by a single parameter
‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is
namely the length of hydrocarbon chain.
substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’.
▪ Compounds in a single homologous series share
similar chemical properties. ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Different forms of an element, which have different
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
physical appearance and properties but may/may
Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such
not differ in chemical properties, are called
as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
allotropes.
▪ In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens
▪ Some of the allotropes of Carbon are as follows:
can be replaced by these elements.
1. Diamond: It is a three-dimensional structure
▪ In such compounds, the element replacing
consisting of carbon-carbon covalent bonds.
hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom.
- Each carbon atom is bonded to four other
▪ These heteroatoms confer specific properties to
carbon atoms in a rigid tetrahedral structure
the compound, regardless of the length and
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 where the central carbon atom is equidistant
from its neighbouring carbon atoms.
- It is the hardest substance known.
- It has very high melting point but is a bad
conductor of electricity.
2. Graphite: It is a hexagonal ring type network of
atoms of carbon. Each atom is bonded with three
other carbon atoms.
- This leaves one electron in each carbon atom
unpaired. These rings join together to form
layers.
- Graphite is soft and soapy in touch and can
act as a lubricant.
- It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
3. Fullerene: It is a closed hollow cage in the form
of sphere, tube and ellipsoid or of many other
forms.
- C-60 is the first one to be identified as the
smallest fullerene molecule that forms the
shape of the football. It was also called
Buckminster fullerene.
- It can act as a semiconductor, conductor and
superconductor under specific conditions.
- Fullerenes can display the photochromic
effect, which is a change in light transmission
based on Intensity of light falling on the
object.
4. Graphene: It is a thin layer of carbon. It is a single,
tightly packed layer if carbon atoms that are
bonded together in a hexagonal honeycomb
lattice.
- It is the thinnest compound known to man.
It is only one atom thick.
- It is also the lightest material known yet.
- It is the strongest compound discovered yet
(100-300 times stronger than steel).
- It is the best conductor of heat at room
temperature and also the best conductor of
electricity.
HEAT
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Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred
from one object to another or even created at the
expense of the loss of other forms of energy.
▪ The objects around us can be hot as well as cold.
TEMPERATURE
A reliable measure of the hotness of an object is its
temperature.
▪ Temperature is measured by a device called
thermometer.
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
The thermometer that measures our body
temperature is called a clinical thermometer.
▪ A clinical thermometer consists of a long,
narrow, uniform glass tube. It has a bulb at one
end. This bulb contains mercury.
▪ These days, digital thermometers are available
which do not use mercury.
▪ A clinical thermometer reads temperature from
35°C to 42°C in the Celsius scale.
▪ The other scale with the range 94–108 degrees
is the Fahrenheit scale (°F).
▪ The normal temperature of human body is 37°C.
IMPORTANT FACTS
▪ Theoretically there is no limit of maximum
temperature but there is a limit or restriction on
the lower temperature.
▪ The lowermost temperature is - 273.15°C and it
is called absolute temperature.
▪ Alcohol is used in those liquid thermometers
which measures the temperature below – 40°C.
- The freezing point of alcohol is – 115°C so
below to it alcohol thermometer does not
work.
LABORATORY THERMOMETER
▪ The range of a laboratory thermometer is
generally from –10°C to 110°C.

UNITS OF HEAT
1. CGS Unit: Calorie: It is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 gm of pure water through 1
degree Celsius.
2. International Calorie: It is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 gm of pure water from
14.5 to 15.5 degree Celsius.
3. FPS Unit: British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U) is the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of pure water through 1 degree Fahrenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 calorie
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule
1 pound calorie = 453.6 calorie
RANGE OF DIFFERENT THERMOMETER
• Mercury thermometer: from – 30 to 350 degree Celsius.
• Platinum resistance thermometer: -200 to 1200 degree
Celsius.
• Thermocouple thermometer: - 200 to 1600 degree
Celsius.
TRANSFER OF HEAT
The transfer of heat takes place due to a difference
in temperature between the system and its
surroundings.
The transfer of heat is possible through:
▪ Conduction: The process by which heat is
transferred from the hotter end to the colder
end of an object is known as conduction.
▪ This is a typical form of heat transfer and
takes place through physical contact.
▪ Convection: It is the movement of fluid
molecules from higher temperature regions to
lower temperature regions like Boiling of water.
▪ Radiation: Thermal radiation is generated by the
emission of electromagnetic waves.
▪ These waves carry away the energy from the
emitting body.
▪ Radiation takes place through a vacuum or
transparent medium which can be either
solid or liquid.
▪ Microwave radiation emitted in oven is an
example of radiation.
UNIT OF HEAT
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In International System of Units (SI), the unit of heat
is Joule.
▪ Joules (J) is defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of a given mass
by one degree.
▪ In the centimetre- gram - second (CGS) system
of units, the unit of heat is Calorie. 1 calorie is
equal to 4.184 J.
▪ The rate of heat transfer is measured in Watt
(joule/sec).
IMPORTANT POINTS
▪ In summer we prefer light-coloured clothes as
these clothes reflect most of the heat that falls
on them
▪ In winter we usually wear dark-coloured clothes
as they absorb more heat.
▪ In the winter, we also use woollen clothes.
▪ Wool is a poor conductor of heat and there
is air trapped in between the wool fibres.
▪ This air prevents the flow of heat from our
body to the cold surroundings.
THERMOCOUPLE
This is a special type of temperature measuring
device.
▪ In it two junctions are constructed by different
metals, one junction is hot, and another is cold.
▪ Due to thermoelectric effect temperature is
measured & this effect is called Seebek’s effect.
TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER
This is also a temperature measuring device by
which the temperature of the bodies like stars, sun
etc. (which have very high temperatures) are
measured which are far away from us.
VAPORISATION
Vaporisation of an element or compound is a phase
transition from the liquid or solid phase to gas
phase. There are three types of vaporization:
BOILING
Boiling is a phase transition from the liquid phase to
gas phase that occurs at or above the boiling
temperature.
▪ Boiling, as opposed to evaporation, occurs
below the surface.
▪ Boiling point of a liquid rises with increase in
pressure.
SUBLIMATION
Sublimation is a direct phase transition from the
solid phase to the gas phase, skipping the
intermediate liquid phase.
 ▪ Sublimation requires additional energy and Name of Acid Found in
is an endothermic change. Acetic Acid Vinegar
▪ The reverse process of sublimation is Formic Acid Ant’s sting
deposition. Citric Acid Citrus fruits such as oranges,
▪ Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimes lemons, etc.
readily at atmospheric pressure. Lactic Acid Curd
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION
Oxalic Acid Spinach
Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy Ascorbic Acid Amla, Citrus fruits
required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at (Vitamin C)
atmospheric pressure at its boiling point. Stearic Acid Fats
Butyric Acid Rancid Butter
HUMIDITY Carbonic Acid Soda water aerated drinks
The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is Tartaric Acid Tamarind, grapes, unripe
called humidity. mangoes, etc.
▪ The relative humidity is the ratio of amount of
water vapour in the air of a given volume at a Uses of Acid:
given temperature to the saturated air of the 1. As food:
same volume at the same temperature. Name of Acid Fruits
▪ Relative humidity is measured by a device called Citric Acid Lemons or oranges
Hygrometer. Tartaric Acid Grapes
▪ On increasing temperature relative humidity is
Maleic Acid Apple
increased.
Oxalic Acid Tomato
ACIDS AND BASES
2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used in digestion.
ACIDS 3. Nitric Acid (HNO3) is used in the purification of
The word acid comes from the Latin word acere gold and silver.
which means sour. 4. Concentrated H2SO4 and HNO3 is used to wash
▪ Acids are a substance with particular chemical iron for its galvanization.
properties including turning litmus red, 5. Oxalic acid is used to remove rust spot.
neutralizing alkalis, and dissolving some metals. 6. Boric acid is a constituent of eye wash.
▪ Curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar 7. Uric acid is present in urine of mammals.
taste sour. These substances taste sour because 8. Citric acid and Acetic acid is used as flavouring
they contain acids. agent and food preservative.
▪ An acid can donate an H+ ion and can remain 9. Tartaric Acid is used as souring agent for pickles.
energetically favourable after a loss of H+.
BASES
▪ Acids have pH value of less than 7.
▪ Common examples of acids include acetic acid ▪ Bases, on the other hand, are characterized by a
(in vinegar), sulphuric acid (used in car bitter taste and a slippery texture.
batteries), and tartaric acid (used in baking). ▪ A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a
hydrogen ion from an acid.
▪ A base is also thought of as any chemical
PH SCALE compound that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) in
PH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ ion solution.
concentration. Hence the meaning of the name pH is ▪ Bases turn red litmus blue.
justified as the power of hydrogen.
▪ The pH of a solution varies from 0 to 14. ▪ Their pH value is always greater than 7.
▪ Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the ▪ Example of simple bases are sodium hydroxide
pH value. and Ammonia.
▪ As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an ▪ Household ammonia is a familiar cleaning agent.
increase in OH–ion concentration in the solution
▪ Magnesium hydroxide in water (also called milk
▪ Solutions having a value of pH ranging 0 to 7 on pH scale
are termed as acidic and for the value of pH ranging 7 of magnesia) is used as an antacid or laxative.
to 14 on pH scale are known as basic solutions. ▪ Water-soluble bases are called alkali e.g. NaOH.

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▪ All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies
TYPES OF INDICATORS
because all bases are not soluble in water.
1. Natural Indicators: They are obtained from natural
sources. Litmus, turmeric etc. are natural indicators.
Name of Base Found in - Litmus is obtained from lichens. The solution of
Calcium Hydroxide Lime water litmus is purple in colour. When it is put in an acidic
solution, it turns red, whereas when it is put in a
Ammonium hydroxide Window cleaner
basic solution, it turns blue.
Sodium hydroxide/potassium Soap - Turmeric is yellow in colour. It turns reddish brown
hydroxide when put into a basic solution and does not change
colour when put into an acidic solution.
BASE AND ALKALI 2. Synthetic Indicators: These are the indicators which are
All alkali are bases, but all bases are not alkali. made in laboratories, for example, methyl orange and
▪ All bases are not soluble in water. phenolphthalein.
▪ Bases that are soluble in water and dissociate to 3. Olfactory Indicators: These are those substances which
change their smell when mixed with an acid or base,
produce OH- ions are called alkalis. for example, onion, vanilla and clove.
INDICATORS 4. Universal Indicator: This indicator does not only
indicates the nature of the solution but also indicates
Special type of substances are used to test whether the strength of the acidity/basicity of the solution.
a substance is acidic or basic. These substances are - Red cabbage is a simple universal indicator.
known as indicators.
▪ The indicators change their colour when added
to a solution containing an acidic or a basic
substance.
▪ Turmeric, litmus, China rose petals (Gudhal),
etc., are some of the naturally occurring
indicators.
▪ The most commonly used natural indicator is
litmus. It is extracted from lichens.
BUFFER SOLUTION
A solution whose pH is not altered to great extent
by the addition of small quantities of either an acid
(H+) or a base (OH-) is called a buffer solution. It can
be obtained by:
- Mixing of weak acid and its salt with a strong
base.
- Mixing of weak base and its salt with strong
acid.
▪ The buffer action of blood is due to presence of
H2CO3 and HCO3-.

IMPORTANT POINTS
▪ Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow
range of pH change.
▪ When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called
acid rain.

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▪ It is interesting to note that our stomach At constant volume, the pressure of given mass of a
produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the gas is directly proportional to the temperature in
digestion of food without harming the stomach. kelvin.
▪ During indigestion the stomach produces too
much acid, and this causes pain and irritation. To
get rid of this pain, people use bases called
antacids.
- Antacids are basic in nature and they
neutralise the effects of acids in our stomach.
▪ Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is
lower than 5.5.
▪ Tooth enamel made up of Calcium
phosphate is the hardest substance in the
body. IDEAL GAS EQUATION
▪ It does not dissolve in water but is corroded
STP AND NTP
when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
STP stands for Standard Temperature and Pressure
▪ Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and
while NTP means Normal Temperature and
irritation. Use of a mild base like baking soda on
Pressure.
the stung area gives relief.
▪ Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is
a highly exothermic process.
▪ Nettle is an herbaceous plant which grows in the
wild. Singing hair of nettle leaves inject
methanolic acid causing burning pin.
- Its effect can be reduced by using baking
soda.

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
BOYLE’S LAW
At constant temperature, the volume of a definite
mass of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure.
▪ STP means pressure is 1 atm or 760 mm of Hg
and temperature is 273 K.
▪ NTP is set at 101.325 kPa but uses 20°C as the
temperature.

SI UNITS

SI unit is an international system of measurements

CHARLE’S LAW
At constant pressure, the volume of a definite mass
of a gas is directly proportional to absolute
temperature.
GAY – LUSSAC’S LAW
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that are used universally in technical and scientific
research to avoid the confusion with the units.
▪ Having a standard unit system is important
because it helps the entire world to understand
the measurements in one set of unit system.
▪ There are several SI units used in physics that are
used to express the different quantities.
- The quantities can be classified into two
groups i.e. base units and derived units.
SI BASE UNITS
These are the fundamental units and are considered
as the building blocks of the system.
▪ All the other units are derived from the SI Base
units.
▪ These units are mutually independent of each
other.
▪ There are seven basic SI units: ▪ MKS system: It is the system of units based on
1. Length: Meter is the SI unit of length and is measuring lengths in meters, mass in kilograms,
defined by taking the fixed value of the speed of and time in seconds as the base units.
light in vacuum. - The SI system of units is built upon MKS
2. Mass: Kilogram is the SI unit of mass and is system of units.
defined by taking the fixed value of the Planck - The MKS system does not include units of
constant. electricity or magnetism.
3. Time: Second is the SI unit of time and is defined
by taking the fixed value of Caesium frequency.
4. Electric Current: Ampere is the SI unit of electric
current and is defined by taking the fixed value
of the elementary charge.
5. Temperature: Kelvin is the SI unit of
thermodynamic temperature and is defined
using Boltzmann constant.
6. Amount of substance: Mole is the SI unit of
amount of substance and is defined by the fixed
value of Avogadro constant.
7. Luminous intensity: Candela is the SI unit of
luminous intensity and is defined by the fixed
value of the luminous efficacy.

FUELS

A substance that can supply energy either alone or

SI DERIVED UNITS
The derived units are called so as they are formed by
different operations on the base units.
- For derived units, the dimensions are
expressed in terms of the dimensions of the
base units.
- The derived units might also be expressed
with the combination of base and derived
units.
OTHER SYSTEM OF UNITS USED IN MEASUREMENTS
Following are the commonly used System of Units in
measurements:
▪ CGS system: The centimetre - gram - second
system of units is a variant of the metric system
based on the centimetre as the unit of length,
the gram as the unit of mass, and the second as
the unit of time as the base unit.
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by reacting with another substance is known as fuel.
▪ Heat produced by fuel is measured in calories.
▪ An ideal fuel should
- Have high calorific value
- Be cheap and easily available
- Be easily stored and transparent
- Be regulated and controlled
- Have low ignition temperature
▪ Calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of
heat liberated by complete combustion of a unit
mass of fuel in air or oxygen. It is expressed in
Kcal/m3.
▪ Fuel may be solid (wood, coal), liquid (kerosene
oil, diesel, petrol) or gas (water gas, gobar gas,
producer gas).
1. Water Gas: It is a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen. It is obtained by the action of
steam on a red-hot coke at 1000 degree Celsius.
 - The knocking lowers the efficiency of the
engine and results in the loss of energy.

2. Producer Gas: It is a mixture of CO and N2. It is
prepared by burning coke in limited supply of air.
- It is the cheapest gaseous fuel; however its
calorific value is not very high because it has
a large proportion of Nitrogen.
3. Coal Gas: It is a mixture of H2, CH4, CO and other
gases like N2, C2H4, O2 etc.
- It is obtained by destructive distillation of
coal at about 1000 degree Celsius.
4. Oil Gas: It is a mixture of H2, CH4, C2H4, CO and
other gases like CO2.
- It is obtained by thermal cracking of
kerosene oil. It is used in laboratories.
5. Gobar Gas: It contains CH4, CO and H2. It is
produced by fermentation of gobar in the
absence of air.
- It is used as a domestic fuel in villages.
6. Natural Gas: It is a mixture of gaseous
hydrocarbons viz. methane 85%, ethane,
propane and butane etc.
7. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): The petroleum
gas liquified under pressure is called LPG.
- It is a mixture of butane and isobutane with
small amount of propane and is easily
compressed under pressure as liquid and
stored in iron cylinders.
- It is used as domestic fuel.
▪ To indicate the quality of petrol (gasoline), a
method of gradation has been introduced which
is termed as Octane Rating or Octane Number.
▪ Two compounds heptane and iso-octane have
been taken as standard.
- Heptane which causes maximum knocking is
assigned the octane number 0.
- Isooctane which causes minimum knocking is
assigned the octane number 100.
▪ Antiknock Compounds: To reduce the knocking
property or to improve the octane number of a
fuel certain Antiknock chemicals are added to it.
- Tetra Ethyl lead (TEL) is the best antiknock
compound.
CETANE NUMBER
Cetane Number of a diesel oil is the percentage of
cetane (hexadecane) by volume in a mixture of
cetane and alpha – methyl naphthalene.
- Hexadecane has been assigned cetane
number 100 while alpha-methyl naphthalene
is assigned zero octane number.
- The diesel having cetane number 75 would
have same ignition property as a mixture of
75 % cetane and 25 % alpha – methyl
naphthalene.

8. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): The natural gas

compressed at very high pressure is called
compressed natural gas (CNG).
- It consists mainly of methane (95%) which is
a relatively unreactive hydrocarbons and Flash point
makes it nearly complete combustion
possible.
- The other 5% is made of various gases such
as ethane, propane and butane including
small amount of other gases N2, CO2, H2S,
water vapour etc.
- The CNG is now being used as a better fuel
than gasoline for running buses, cars and
three wheelers in metropolitan cities.
The lowest temperature at which an oil gives
KNOCKING AND OCTANE NUMBER sufficient vapours to form an explosive mixture
The metallic sound produced due to irregular with air is known as flash point of the oil.
burning of the fuel is known as knocking. - The flash point in India is fixed at 44 degree
Celsius.
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COAL
On the basis of carbon % and calorific value there are
four types of coal.

Nature Carbon % Calorific value

Peat: low grade 50 – 60% 2500 - 3500
coal produces less
heat & more
smoke & ash
Lignite: High 60 – 70% 3500 – 4500
moisture content
burns easily, low
CV
Bituminous: Black 75 – 80 % 7500 - 8000
hard, smoky,
flame and
domestic fuel
Anthracite: 90 – 95 % 6700 - 7500
Superior quality,
hardest form,
high CV

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS

▪ Diamond has maximum refractive index and due

to total internal reflection it has lustre.
▪ Chloroform in sunlight forms poisonous gas
called PHOSGENE.

▪ Nitrous oxide (N2O), also called dinitrogen

monoxide, laughing gas, or nitrous, one of
several oxides of nitrogen, a colourless gas with
pleasant, sweetish odour and taste, which when
inhaled produces insensibility to pain preceded
by mild hysteria, sometimes laughter.
▪ In order to decrease the basicity of agricultural
soils gypsum is used.
▪ Potassium chloride is most suitable chemical for
the removal of permanent hardness of water.
▪ In order to avoid the melting of ice gelatine is
used commonly.
▪ Red phosphorous is used in match industry.
▪ Urea was the first organic compound synthesised
in laboratory.
▪ For artificial respiration mixture of oxygen and
helium gas cylinder is used.
▪ Glass makes a soluble silicate in hydrofluoric acid
(HF). This is the reason why Hydrofluoric acid is
not stored in glass containers.
▪ Platinum is also called ‘White Gold’.

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BASIC PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the basic principles that
govern the physical world around us.
MOTION
Motion is a change of position.
▪ It can be described in terms of the distance
moved or the displacement.
▪ Automobiles are fitted with a device that shows
the distance travelled. Such a device is known as
an odometer.
▪ The motion of an object could be uniform or
non-uniform depending on whether its velocity
is constant or changing.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
When an object moves in a circular path with
uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular
motion.
DISPLACEMENT
The shortest distance measured from the initial to
the final position of an object is known as the
displacement.
▪ It is the length of an imaginary straight path,
typically distinct from the path actually travelled
by the object.
IMPORTANT TERMS
▪ Scalar Quantity: are quantities that are fully described
by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
▪ For example, I travelled a distance of 5 kilometre.
▪ Vector Quantity: are quantities that are fully described
by both a magnitude and a direction.
▪ For example, the displacement is 5 km in east
direction.
SPEED AND VELOCITY
The speed of an object is the distance travelled
divided by the time taken to cover that distance.
▪ Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s).
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▪ Speed of objects help us to decide which one is
moving faster than the other.
▪ It is a scalar quantity i.e. speed has only
magnitude.
▪ Vehicles have an instrument called a
speedometer. It records the speed directly in
km/h.
Velocity refers to the displacement per unit time.
▪ It is a vector quantity.
▪ Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a
definite direction.
▪ It can be changed by changing the object’s
speed, direction of motion or both.
ACCELERATION
The acceleration of an object is the change in
velocity per unit time.
▪ The SI unit of acceleration is m s–2.
▪ If the velocity of an object changes from an initial
value u to the final value v in time t, then
acceleration a is given by:
PERIODIC, OSCILLATORY AND SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
▪ A motion that repeats itself after an equal
interval of time is called Periodic Motion. For
example, uniform circular motion.
▪ There is no stable equilibrium position.
▪ To and fro motion of a particle about a mean
position is called an oscillatory motion.
▪ In this a particle moves on either side of
equilibrium (or) mean position.
▪ It is a kind of periodic motion bounded
between two extreme points.
▪ For example, Oscillation of Simple Pendulum,
Spring-Mass System.
▪ The mean position is a stable equilibrium
position.
▪ There will be a restoring force directed
towards equilibrium position.
▪ Simple Harmonic Motion is a special case of
oscillation along with straight line between the
two extreme points as in simple pendulum.
▪ All the Simple Harmonic Motions are
oscillatory and also periodic but not all
oscillatory motions are SHM.
▪ A simple pendulum is one which can be
considered to be a point mass suspended
from a string or rod of negligible mass.

▪ The time taken by the pendulum to complete
one oscillation is called its time period.
▪ For small amplitudes, the period of such a
pendulum can be approximated by:
IMPORTANT POINTS OF PENDULUM
▪ Periodic motion of a pendulum has been used to
make clocks and watches.
▪ They were also used in scientific instruments
such as accelerometers and seismometers.
▪ A common pendulum clock gets fast in winter
season because the length of pendulum
becomes shorter due to contraction.
▪ The time period of pendulum will be increased
on moon because the gravitational force of the
moon is lesser than earth.
▪ Pendulum clock gets fast at seashore because
the gravitational force is maximum at sea level.
▪ Pendulum clock gets slower at high altitude (at
mountains) because as we go up or as the
altitude increases, the gravitational force
becomes less.
▪ If a pendulum clock to be taken in mines, it will
be slow because as we go deeper into the earth,
the gravitational force becomes less.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
They are three physical laws that, together, laid the
foundation for classical mechanics.
▪ They describe the relationship between a body
and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in
response to those forces.
FIRST LAW
It states that an object continues to remain in a
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change that state by an applied
force.
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▪ In other words, all objects resist a change in their
state of motion.
INERTIA
The natural tendency of objects to resist a change in
their state of rest or of uniform motion is called
inertia.
SECOND LAW
It states that the rate of change of momentum of an
object is proportional to the applied force in the
direction of force.
▪ The momentum of an object is the product of its
mass and velocity and has the same direction as
that of the velocity.
▪ Its SI unit is kg m s–1.
THIRD LAW
To every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction and they act on two different bodies.
▪ If we fire a bullet it exerts backward push.
▪ Rocket propulsion is based on the third law of
Newton.
IMPULSE
When a large force acts on a body for very small
time, then forces is called impulsive force. It is
defined as the product of force and time.
- It is a vector quantity, and its direction is the
direction of force.
FRICTION
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of
solid surfaces, fluid layers, and/or material elements
sliding against each other.
▪ Friction opposes the relative motion between
two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the
surfaces.
▪ It is the resistance to the sliding, rolling, or
flowing motion of an object due to its contact
with another object.
▪ When surfaces in contact move relative to each
other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into heat.
▪ Friction is a component of the science of
tribology.
▪ For a given pair of surfaces friction depends
upon the state of smoothness of those surfaces.
Less smooth is the surface, more is the friction.
▪ Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.
▪ In many machines, friction is reduced by using
ball bearings.
TYPES OF FRICTION
1. Static friction is friction between two solid
objects that are not moving relative to each
other.
▪ For example, static friction can prevent an
object from sliding down a sloped surface.
▪ The maximum value of static friction, when
motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as
limiting friction, also known as traction.
▪ Static friction comes into play when we try to
move an object at rest. 3. Fluid friction is the friction between layers
2. Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two within a viscous fluid that are moving relative to
objects are moving relative to each other and each other.
are rubbing together. 4. Skin friction is a component of drag, the force
▪ Kinetic friction is of two types i.e. the Rolling resisting the motion of a solid body through a
Friction and the Sliding Friction. fluid.
ROLLING FRICTION
5. Internal friction is the force resisting motion
When one body rolls over the surface of another between the elements making up a solid
body, the resistance to its motion is called the rolling material while it undergoes deformation.
friction. NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FRICTION
▪ Rolling reduces friction. ▪ Excessive erosion or wear of mating surfaces
▪ It is always easier to roll than to slide a body occur when work due frictional forces rise to
over another. That is the reason it is convenient unacceptable levels.
to pull the luggage fitted with rollers. ▪ Friction manifests as heat energy generally and
▪ Sliding is replaced in most machines by rolling by sometimes as noise.
the use of ball bearings. ▪ Friction causes an increase in fuel consumption
SLIDING FRICTION
of vehicles.
Sliding friction is the friction that occurs when an ▪ Friction also causes overheating of engines.
object slides over a surface. ▪ Heat generated due to friction can cause
▪ Sliding friction is friction caused by moving two expansion of materials as well. This would lead
flat surfaces against each other. to mechanical instabilities which impact the
▪ It is also known as kinetic friction. functioning of machines.
▪ Sliding friction is smaller than static friction. POSITIVE EFFECTS OF FRICTION
Good part of friction is that it help us move about
without falling all the time.
▪ Friction can create heat and help us make
campfires, lighting up a match box are the good
part of friction.
▪ Brakes of vehicle will not work without friction.

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▪ The work of friction is used to mix and join
materials such as in the process of friction
welding.
▪ Friction is also used in the friction belt or belt
drive used in machines.
▪ The Grindstone works due the friction. This is a
very rough surface used to wear away metal
surfaces to sharpen chisels and knives.
▪ Cleaning with sandpaper will not be possible
without friction.

A Tribometer is an instrument that measures friction

on a surface and a Profilograph is a device used to
measure pavement surface roughness.

FORCE AND PRESSURE

A push or a pull on an object is called a force.

▪ Force is an external agent capable of changing Force can also be categorised as Centripetal and
the state of rest or motion of a particular body. Centrifugal force.
▪ It has a magnitude and a direction. ▪ Centripetal force is defined as, "the force that is
▪ Forces applied on an object in the same necessary to keep an object moving in a curved
direction add to one another. path and that is directed inward toward the
▪ If the two forces act in the opposite centre of rotation".
directions on an object, the net force acting ▪ Centrifugal force is defined as "the apparent
on it is the difference between the two force that is felt by an object moving in a curved
forces. path that acts outwardly away from the centre
▪ The SI unit of force is Newton (N). In the of rotation".
centimetre gram second system of unit (CGS ▪ Taking out butter from milk is possible because
unit) force is expressed in dyne. of centrifugal force which is known as
▪ The quantity of force is expressed by the vector centrifugation.
product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). ▪ Various satellites move around the earth
▪ Force can also be articulated as the rate of because of the balance of centripetal and
change of momentum. centrifugal force.
▪ There are two types of forces:
a) Forces which act on a body either directly or
through a medium are called Contact forces.
▪ It further includes muscular force, friction
force, mechanical force etc.
b) Forces which act through spaces without
making direct contact with the body are called
Non-contact forces.
▪ The force exerted by a magnet on other
magnets is called magnetic force.
▪ Magnetic force and electrostatic force act on
an object from a distance, that is the reason
they are non-contact forces.
▪ Gravity is the weakest force.
▪ The strongest force is the nuclear force.

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PRESSURE
The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called
pressure.
▪ The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa).
▪ Force acting on a smaller area applies more
pressure than the same force acting on a larger
area.
▪ A sharp knife cuts better as more pressure is
exerted over a smaller area.
▪ The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object
is known as up thrust or buoyant force.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The atmospheric air extends up to many kilometres
above the surface of the earth. The pressure exerted
by this air is known as Atmospheric pressure.
▪ It is expressed in ‘millibar’ or mb unit.
▪ Standard atmospheric pressure is defined as
1013.25 mbar, 101.325 kPa, 1.01325 bar, which
is about 14.7 pounds per square inch, which is
equivalent to 760 mm Hg.
▪ It is measured by the aneroid barometer or
mercury barometer.
▪ In lower atmosphere, pressure declines rapidly
with height.
▪ Isobars are lines connecting places having equal
pressure.
▪ The pressure in our body balances the
atmospheric pressure and that is why we do not
feel it.
DENSITY
The density of a material is defined as its mass per
unit volume.
▪ Density is essentially a measurement of how
tightly matter is packed together.
▪ The SI unit of density is kg/m³, for convenience
we use g/cm³ for solids, g/ml for liquids and g/L
for gases.
▪ Generally the density of water is taken as
standard value for calculating the density of
substances.
IMPORTANT
Water is famously exceptional over the temperature range
0-4° C, where raising the temperature causes the density to
increase, reaching its greatest value at about 4°C.
▪ Relative density (specific gravity) is the ratio of a
substance’s weight to the weight of same
volume of water.
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▪ All substances tend to expand as they are
heated, causing the same mass to occupy a
greater volume, and thus lowering the density.
APPLICATION
▪ A ship made up of iron does not sink in sea water
because the density of sea water is greater than
sea water.
▪ When floating ice in a glass melts the level of
water does not change.
▪ To extinguish the fire of petrol, one should not
use water because water is heavier than petrol
and petrol keeps on floating and burning over
water.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
It is that point through which the entire weight of
body acts. The centre of gravity of a body does not
change with the change in orientation of body in
space.
- The weight of a body acts through centre of
gravity in the downward direction.
BUOYANCY
All objects experience a force of buoyancy when
they are immersed in a fluid.
▪ Objects having density less than that of the
liquid in which they are immersed, float on the
surface of the liquid.
▪ Buoyancy is caused by the differences in
pressure acting on opposite sides of an object
immersed in a fluid.
▪ When a body is in water, it displaces some
amount of water owing to its weight.
▪ The amount of displaced water is computed by
the object’s density which relates to volume.
Floating is the consequence of the above concept.
▪ The object should be less dense than water, it
will float, or else, if its density is greater, it will
have a tendency to sink.
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ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body
immersed in a fluid, whether partially or fully submerged, is
equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and
acts in the upward direction at the centre of mass of the
displaced fluid.
▪ A simple equation for Archimedes principle is:
Buoyancy of a submerged body = weight of displaced
liquid – weight of the body
LAWS OF FLOATATION
A body floats in liquid if
- Density of material of body is less than or
equal to the density of liquid.
- If density of material of body is equal to
density of liquid, the body floats fully
submerged in liquid in neutral equilibrium.
- When body floats in neutral equilibrium, the
weight of body is equal to the weight of
displaced liquid.
- The centre of gravity of the body and centre
of gravity of the displaced liquid should be in
one vertical line.
▪ Centre of Buoyancy: The centre of gravity of the
liquid displaced by a body is known as centre of
buoyancy.
▪ Meta centre: When a floating body is slightly
tilted from equilibrium position, the centre of
buoyancy shifts. The point at which the vertical
line passing through the new position of centre
of buoyancy meets with the initial line is called
meta centre.
▪ What are the conditions for stable equilibrium
for floating body?
- The meta centre must always be higher than
the centre gravity of the body.
- The line joining the centre of gravity of the
body and centre of floatation should be
vertical.
▪ As we know density is mass per unit volume. Its
S.I unit is kg/m3 and relative density is density of
material per density of water at four degree
Celsius. Relative density is measured
by Hydrometer.
▪ The density of sea water is more than that of
normal water. That is why it is easier to swim in
sea water.
▪ When ice floats in water, its 1/10th the part
remain outside the water.
▪ If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level
of water in the vessel does not change.
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APPLICATION OF BUOYANCY
It is due to buoyancy that human swimmers, fish,
ships, and icebergs stay afloat.
▪ A submarine submerges by letting water into the
ballast tank so that its weight becomes greater
than the buoyant force.
▪ A hot air balloon rises and floats due to the
buoyant force. It descends when the balloon’s
weight is higher than the buoyant force.
▪ A ship floats on the surface of the sea because
the volume of water displaced by the ship is
enough to have a weight equal to the weight of
the ship.
▪ A certain group of fishes uses Archimedes’
principle to go up and down the water.
VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION
Viscosity and surface tension are dependent on
molecular interactions.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity results due to collaboration among
identical molecules located in the same material.
▪ It is also defined as the resistance of a fluid to
flow. It is a property of liquid that resists the
force tending to cause the flow.
▪ This resistance to fluid motion is like an internal
friction analogous to friction when a solid moves
on a surface. It is called viscosity.
▪ Water (less viscous) flow more readily than
honey (more viscous).
▪ Generally thin liquids like water, alcohol etc.
are less viscous than thick liquids like coal
tar, blood, glycerine etc.
▪ The SI unit of viscosity is Poiseiulle (Pl). Its other
units are N s m-2 or Pa s.
▪ The viscosity of liquids decreases with
temperature while it increases in the case of
gases.
▪ The reciprocal of the viscosity is called the
fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow.
▪ Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
STOKES LAW
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the layer
of the fluid in contact with it.
▪ It states that the viscous force is proportional to
the velocity of the object and is opposite to the
direction of motion.
▪ The other quantities on which the force depends
are viscosity of the fluid and radius of the
sphere.
SURFACE TENSION
The property of liquids due to which they tries to
minimize their free surface area is called Surface
tension.
▪ A liquid stays together because of attraction
between molecules.
▪ It is the normal force acting per unit length.
▪ Surface tension decreases with increase in
temperature.
EXAMPLES OF SURFACE TENSION
▪ The shape of raindrop is spherical due to surface
tension.
▪ The surface tension of hot soup is less than the
cold soup because of this hot soup spreads over
a larger area over the tongue and it feels tasty.
▪ The capillary action takes place due to surface
tension.
▪ Oil spreads over water because the surface
tension of oil is lower than that of water.
CAPILLARITY
Capillary tube is a tube having very narrow and
uniform bore.
▪ If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, liquid
ascends or descends in it. This phenomenon is
called capillarity.
▪ The height by which liquid ascends or descends
in the capillary tube depends upon the radius of
the tube.
▪ The capillarity depends on the nature of liquid
and solid both. The liquid which wets the wall of
tube rises and the liquid which does not wet the
wall of tube descends in the tube.
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ILLUSTRATIONS OF CAPILLARITY
1. A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the
pores of the blotting paper serve as capillary
tubes.
2. The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary
action in the threads in the wick.
3. The root hairs of plants draws water from the soil
through capillary action.
4. To prevent loss of water due to capillary action,
the soil is loosened and split into pieces by the
farmers.
5. If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial
satellite, water rises upto other end of tube
because of its zero apparent weight, how long
the tube may be.
6. Action of towel in soaking up water from the
body is due to capillary action of cotton in the
towel.
7. Melted wax, in a candle rises upto wick by
capillary action.
GRAVITATION
Gravitation is the force of attraction between any
two bodies.
▪ Gravitation is one of the four fundamental
interactions of nature, along with
electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force
and weak force.
▪ In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar
as the agent that gives weight to objects
with mass and causes them to fall to the
ground when dropped.
▪ Gravitation is responsible for keeping the
Earth and the other planets in their orbits
around the Sun.
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
According to Newton’s law of gravitation, every
particle in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force whose magnitude is,
a) Directly proportional to the product of their
masses, and
b) Inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centre.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF EARTH
The gravity of Earth, denoted g, refers to the
acceleration that the Earth imparts to objects on or
near its surface.
▪ The SI unit of acceleration is metres per second2.
▪ It has an approximate value of 9.81 m/s2, which
means that the speed of an object falling freely
near the Earth’s surface increases by about 9.81
metres per second every second.
▪ The escape velocity of an object for coming out
form the gravitational field of the earth is 11.2
km per second.
▪ The acceleration due to gravity becomes less as
we go up or go deep into the earth.
▪ The acceleration due to gravity is maximum at
the poles because radius of the earth is least at
the poles.
▪ The value of gravitational acceleration keeps on
increasing from equator to pole.
WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT
▪ If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed
(either downward or upward), the apparent
weight of a body, is equal to its true weight.
▪ If lift is going up with acceleration, the apparent
weight of a body is more than its true weight and
vice versa.
▪ If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls freely. In
this situation the weight of a body in the lift
becomes zero. This is the situation of
weightlessness.
▪ While going down, if the acceleration of lift is
more than acceleration due to gravity, a body in
the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of the lift.
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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Work done on an object is defined as the magnitude
of the force multiplied by the distance moved by
the object in the direction of the applied force.
▪ The unit of work is joule.
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity for doing work.
▪ It is not a material substance. Energy can be
stored and measured in many forms.
▪ The law of conservation of energy states that
energy may neither be created nor be
destroyed.
▪ Therefore the sum of all the energies in the
system is constant.
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object
that has motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal
motion - has kinetic energy.
▪ There are many forms of kinetic energy
a. Vibrational: the energy due to vibrational
motion.
b. Rotational: the energy due to rotational
motion.
c. Translational: the energy due to motion
from one location to another.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
The potential energy is the energy stored in a body
or in a system due to its position in a force field or
due to its configuration.
▪ It is the stored energy of position possessed by
an object.
▪ Gravitational potential energy is the energy
stored in an object as the result of its vertical
position or height.
▪ The energy is stored as the result of the
gravitational attraction of the Earth for the
object.
▪ Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in
elastic materials as the result of their stretching
or compressing.

COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ENERGY
For the commercial purpose, a bigger unit is used
called Kilowatt hour (kWh) because joule is a very
small unit to represent large quantities of energy.
▪ 1 kWh is the energy used in 1 hr at the rate of
1000 J s-1.
▪ 1 kWh = 3.6 * 10^6 J
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using
energy, which are numerically the same.
▪ The SI unit of power is Watt (W) which is joules
per second (J/s).
▪ Sometimes the power of motor vehicles and
other machines are given in terms of
Horsepower (hp), which is approximately equal
to 745.7 watts.
Some instruments used to transform Energy
Equipment Energy transformed
Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical energy
Candle Chemical energy into heat & Light energy
Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy
Loudspeaker Electrical energy into sound energy
Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical energy
Tube Light Electrical energy into light energy
Electric Bulb Electrical energy into light & heat energy
Battery Chemical energy into electrical energy
Electric Motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy
Sitar Mechanical energy into sound energy
WAVE THEORY
A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries
energy without a net movement of particles.
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▪ Wavelength is the distance between an identical
parts of the wave.
▪ Amplitude is maximum displacement from the
neutral position.
▪ The high point of a wave is a crest. The low part
is a trough.
▪ Frequency of a wave is the number of waves
passing a point in a certain time.
▪ The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz) which is
equal to one wave per second.
▪ The period of a wave is the time for a particle on
a medium to make one complete vibrational
cycle.
▪ Frequency has an inverse relationship to the
concept of wavelength.
▪ Pitch is one of the major auditory attributes of
musical tones along with duration, loudness,
timbre, and sound source location.
▪ Pitch may be quantified as a frequency in cycles
per second (hertz), however pitch is not a purely
objective physical property.
TRANSVERSE WAVE
A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium move in a direction perpendicular to the
direction that the wave moves.
▪ For example, P - earthquake waves and light
waves.
▪ Transverse waves do not need any medium to
transport their energy from one location to
another. Thus, these waves can travel in vaccum.
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of
the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction that the wave moves.
▪ For example, Sound wave and Compression
waves.
▪ Longitudinal waves are observed moving
through the bulk of liquids.
▪ These waves need medium for the propagation.
SURFACE WAVES
A surface wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium undergo a circular motion. Surface waves
are neither longitudinal nor transverse.
▪ Another way to categorize waves is on the basis
of their ability or inability to transmit energy
through vacuum.
1. Mechanical Waves: A wave which needs a
medium in order to propagate itself.
▪ Sound waves and water waves are all
examples of this.
2. Electromagnetic Waves: These waves are the
disturbance that does not need any object
medium for propagation and can easily travel
through the vacuum.
▪ They are produced due to various magnetic
and electric fields.
▪ It includes Radio signals, light rays, x-rays,
and cosmic rays.
▪ The wavelength of infrared electromagnetic
wave is the highest.
SOUND WAVE
Sound wave is a longitudinal mechanical wave
which is generated or produced by the transmission
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of the disturbances in the form of compressions or
rarefactions.
▪ Compressions are the regions of sound waves
when the particles of medium are densely
packed, and rarefactions are the regions of
sound waves where the particles of medium are
spread out.
▪ Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
▪ Amplitude and frequency are two important
properties of any sound.
▪ The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch
of a sound.
▪ Loudness of sound is proportional to the square
of the amplitude of the vibration producing the
sound.
▪ The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel
(dB).
▪ Physicists have identified the audio frequency
spectrum of the human ear to be between 20 Hz
and 20,000 Hz.
▪ A human cannot hear the sound of more than
120 decibel.
▪ The density of dry air is less than that of moist
air. Thus in moist air the speed of sound is more
than dry air.
▪ The speed of sound decreases when we go from
solid to gaseous state.
▪ The velocity of sound increases with the
increase of temperature but there is no effect of
pressure on it.
▪ The speed of sound is directly proportional
to the square root of its absolute
temperature.
▪ The velocity of sound is less on height
because of less temperature.
▪ Sound waves cannot travel through vacuum.

Medium Speed of sound
Water 1481 m/s
Air 343.2 m/s
Copper 4600 m/s
Hydrogen 1270 m/s
Glass 4540 m/s
INFRASONIC WAVES
The sound waves whose frequencies are less than
20 Hz (20 Hz down to 0.001 Hz) is called infrasonic
waves.
▪ Such waves are produced inside the earth
during occurrence of earthquake.
▪ The heart beats of the human body are also
infrasonic.
▪ This frequency range is utilized for monitoring
earthquakes, charting rock and petroleum
formations below the earth.
▪ Infrasound is characterized by an ability to cover
long distances and get around obstacles with
little dissipation.
▪ Whales, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceros,
giraffes, okapi, and alligators are known to use
infrasound to communicate over distances.
▪ Infrasound has been known to cause feelings of
awe or fear in humans.
ULTRASONIC WAVES
The sound waves whose frequencies are more than
20,000 Hz is called ultrasonic wave.
▪ As the frequencies of ultrasonic are too large so
these waves are very energetic and have shorter
wavelengths.
▪ Children under the age of five and some animals,
such as dogs can hear up to 25,000 Hz.
▪ Some animals like birds, bats, dogs, cats,
dolphins, etc. not only hear or listen ultrasonic
but also but also produce them for
communication, sighting and navigation.
▪ Ultrasounds are able to travel along well-defined
paths even in the presence of obstacles.
APPLICATION OF ULTRASOUNDS
▪ In medical science ultrasonic are used in
bloodless surgical operations, in tumour and
cavity detection of teeth etc.
▪ By ultrasonic radiation various neurological
disease and arthritis are being cured.
▪ It is also used in Milk purification.
▪ Ultrasonic coagulates the dust particles in
winter season thus the mists and fogs from the
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airports are removed and this facilitates the
aircrafts (aeroplane) in landing.
▪ Ultrasonic is also utilized in measuring the sea
depth, some commodities spread inside the sea.
▪ SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is a
technique by which inside located objects of
the sea are detected.
▪ It is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to
measure the distance, direction and speed
of underwater objects.
▪ Ultrasounds can be used to detect cracks and
flaws in metal blocks.
▪ Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from
various parts of the heart and form the image of
the heart. This technique is called
‘echocardiography’.
▪ A doctor may image the patient’s organs such as
the liver, gall bladder, uterus, kidney, etc. using
Ultrasonic waves.
DOPPLER EFFECT
The Doppler Effect is the change in frequency of a
wave in relation to an observer who is moving
relative to the wave source.
▪ A common example of Doppler shift is the
change of pitch heard when a vehicle sounding
a horn approaches and recedes from an
observer.
▪ Compared to the emitted frequency, the
received frequency is higher during the
approach, identical at the instant of passing by,
and lower during the recession.
MACH NUMBER
It is defined as the ratio of speed of source of sound to the
speed of sound in the same medium under the same
condition of temperature and pressure.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
Sound bounces off a solid or liquid surface. In order
for reflection of sound to occur, the surface should
be of considerably large size.
ECHO
Echo is a repeated reflection of sound that arrives
at the listener with a delay after the direct sound.
▪ The delay is directly proportional to the distance
of the reflecting surface from the source and the
listener.
▪ To hear a distinct echo, the time interval
between the original sound and the reflected
one must be at least 0.1 second.
▪ For hearing distinct echoes, the minimum
distance of the obstacle from the source of
sound must be 17.2 m.
▪ This distance will change with the temperature
of air. APPLICATION OF REVERBERATION PHENOMENON
1. Stethoscope: It is an instrument used for
listening sounds produced within the body such
as heart or lungs.
- In it, the sound of the heartbeat is heard
following multiple reflections of sound.

REVERBERATION
It refers to repeated reflections of sound resulting in
the persistence of sound. It is experienced in rooms,
halls and other closed places.
▪ It is quite different from an echo. A
reverberation is perceived when the reflected
sound wave reaches our ears in less than 0.1 s
after the original sound wave.
- Since the original sound wave is still present
in our memory, the perception of the
reflected sound wave and the original sound
wave overlaps.
- The two sound waves are combined into one
very prolonged sound wave.
▪ Reverberation can be reduced by adopting one
or more combination of the following
techniques:
1. By making walls of the room rough, as it has
less ability to reflect.
2. Curve in the walls and ceiling divert sound
waves into various parts of the room and
prevent their concentration at a single place.
3. Sound board may be placed behind the stage
so that the sound, after reflecting from the
sound board, spreads evenly in the hall.
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2. Loudspeakers: Megaphones, horns and musical
instruments, are all designed to send sound in a
particular direction without spreading.
- Here a tube followed by a conical opening
reflects sound successively to guide most of
the sound waves from the source in the
forward direction towards the audience.
IMPORTANT POINTS
▪ Sound waves cannot be polarised.
▪ A microphone converts sound energy into
electrical energy.
▪ Loudspeaker converts electrical energy into
sound energy.
▪ In water, sound is recorded by the help of a
hydrophone.
▪ The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s
by the increase of 1°C temperature.
▪ Sound waves exhibit interference.
▪ Interference is a phenomenon in which two
waves superimpose to form a resultant wave
of greater or lower amplitude.
▪ A sound of single frequency is called a tone
whereas a sound of multiple frequencies is called
a note.
ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety
of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow
of electric charge.
▪ It include many easily recognizable phenomena,
such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow
of electrical current in an electrical wire.
▪ In addition, electricity encompasses less familiar
concepts such as the electromagnetic field and
electromagnetic induction.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
The electric charge is a fundamental conserved
property of some subatomic particles, which
determines their electromagnetic interaction.
▪ Flow of electrons in a circuit constitutes the flow
of charge.
▪ Electric charge is a physical property of matter
which causes it to experience a force when it
comes near to other electrically charged matter.
▪ It is a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge
within an isolated system will always remain
constant.
▪ Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and
produces, electromagnetic fields.
▪ Electric charge comes in two types, called
positive and negative.
▪ The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).
▪ Electric charge comes in multiples of individual
small units called the elementary charge, e,
approximately equal to 1.602×10"19coulombs.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
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The movement of electric charge is known as an
Electric current.
▪ Electric current is the rate of flow of electric
charge in a conductor.
▪ The conventional direction of an electric current
is the direction in which a positive charge would
move.
IMPORTANT
The protons are tightly packed inside the nucleus of an
atom whereas electrons in the outer shells orbits around
the nucleus.
▪ Since electrons are loosely held by the nucleus, they are
able to travel freely within the limits of the body.
1. All metallic bodies, acids, human body etc. are good
conductor of electricity. Silver is the best conductor.
2. Wood, rubber, mica etc. are example of bad conductors
but asbestos, ebonite are examples of insulators.
3. Those bodies whose electrical conductivity or
resistivity lies between the conductor and insulator are
called semi-conductors. Germanium, silicon, selenium
etc. are example of semiconductors.
▪ The SI Unit of electric current is the Ampere.
Ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge
moving past a point in one second.
▪ The process by which electric current passes
through a material is termed electrical
conduction.
▪ Electric current is often described as being either
direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).
DIRECT CURRENT
The direct current can flow only in one direction. It
is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a
circuit to the negative.
▪ It mostly used in low voltage applications such
as charging batteries.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current is any current that reverses
direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the
form of a sinusoidal wave.
▪ Alternating current thus pulses back and forth
within a conductor without the charge moving
any net distance over time.
▪ The time-averaged value of an alternating
current is zero, as it delivers energy in first one
direction, and then the reverse.
▪ Alternating current is used to operate
appliances for both household and industrial
and commercial use.
ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is created by a charged body in the
space that surrounds it, and results in a force
exerted on any other charges placed within the
field.
▪ The electric field acts between two charges in a
similar manner to the way that the gravitational
field acts between two masses.
▪ However, electric field can result in either
attraction or repulsion.
▪ The study of electric fields created by stationary
charges is called electrostatics.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The electric potential at a point is defined as work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to that point.
▪ It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the
potential for which one joule of work must be
expended to bring a charge of one coulomb
from infinity.
▪ Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it
has only magnitude and not direction.
▪ The potential difference between two points is
defined as the difference in electric potentials at
the two given points.
OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE
As per the Ohm’s law:
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The current flowing through an ohmic conductor is
directly proportional to the applied potential
difference between the two ends of the conductor.
▪ Resistance (unit Ohm) is a measure of the
opposition offered to the current flow in an
electric circuit.
▪ Resistance is:
▪ Directly proportional to the length of the
conductor.
▪ Directly proportional to nature of the
conductor.
▪ Directly proportional to the temperature of
the conductor.
▪ Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area of the conductor.
WHAT CAUSES RESISTANCE?
Motion of electrons in an electric circuit constitutes an
electric current.
▪ However, the electrons are not completely free to
move within a conductor.
▪ This relative mobility of electrons within a material
determines its electric conductivity.
▪ Material with high electron mobility are called
conductors, whereas materials with low electron
mobility (few or no free electrons) are called insulators.
▪ The electrical resistance offered by a substance
of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is
called resistivity.
IMPORTANT POINTS
▪ If the temperature of good conductor is
increased then its electrical resistance
increases, consequently its electrical
conductance decreases.
▪ But in semi-conductor with rise in temperature
its resistance decreases and consequently its
conductivity increases.
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Due to resistance in the electric circuit, some of the
energy is lost in the form of heat. It is inevitable
consequence of electric current though many time
undesirable.
▪ This energy may be utilized for variety of
purposes:
- If the electric circuit is completely resistive,
the source energy gets transformed into
heat.
- This is known as the heating effect of electric
current.
 - This effect is utilised in devices such as
electric heater, electric oven, electric cattle
and electric iron.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The phenomenon of superconductivity was firstly
invented in 1911 by a Dutch physicist K. Onnes. He
observed that the:

“Electrical resistance of some metals, alloys and

compounds drops suddenly to zero when the
specimen is cooled below a certain temperature
called transition temperature.”
▪ This phenomenon is called superconductivity
and the specimen is called Superconductor.
▪ The transition temperature below which a
material undergoes a transition from a state of
normal conductivity to a superconductivity is
different for different materials.
▪ The normal good conductors like Cu, Ag, Au, Li,
Na, K etc. do not exhibit the phenomenon of
superconductivity even at more and lower
temperature.
▪ A bulk superconductor in a weak magnetic field
acts like a perfect diamagnet with zero
magnetic field into the interior.
IMPORTANT
Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an
applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in
them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force.
MEISSNER EFFECT
If a super conducting material is placed in a
magnetic field and then cooled below its transition
temperature, it expels all the originally present
magnetic flux from its interior and it is called
Meissner effect.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A closed-loop path which a current take is called an
electric circuit.
▪ Representation of an electric circuit through
symbols is called a circuit diagram.
SERIES CIRCUIT
A circuit is said to be connected in series when the
same current flows through all the components in
the circuit.
▪ In such circuits, the current has only one path.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A circuit is said to be parallel when the electric
current has multiple paths to flow through.
▪ The components that are a part of the parallel
circuits will have a constant voltage across all
ends.
In both cases, the equivalent resistance of two
resistors is given as:
▪ In series, Req=R1+R2
▪ In parallel, 1 / Req= 1 / R1+1 / R2
DOMESTIC POWER SUPPLY
The power is supplied for the domestic use of 220
volt which has the frequency of 50 Hz.
▪ This implies that its polarity in each second
changes 100 times.
▪ Thus in a complete cycle the alternating current
changes its direction two times.
▪ Domestically supplied power has two types of
current one is of 5 ampere and other is of 15
ampere.
▪ The current of 5 ampere is called domestic and
the current of 15 ampere is called power line.
- The current of 5 ampere is used in electrical
appliances like electric bulbs, T.V., tube light,
radio etc.

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 - But the current of 15 ampere is used in ▪ Through the live wire electric current is passed,
electrical appliances like electric heater, while through the neutral wire current goes
electric iron, refrigerator etc. back.
▪ Earthing wire is directly goes to earth and it is a
METERING
means or way of safety.
▪ In home the distribution of power is made
▪ The earth wire creates a safe route for the
through electric meter.
current to flow through if the live wire touches
- The electric meter measures the power in
the metallic body of an electric appliance.
kilo watt hour (kWh).
- One would get an electric shock if the live
▪ The power distribution through the meter is
wire inside an appliance touches the metal
done by two pairs of wires grouped in parallel
casing.
combination, so that each appliance get the
- However, the earth terminal is connected to
same voltage.
the metal casing so that the current goes
▪ In every pair of wires a fuse is attached. The
through the earth wire instead of causing an
fuses of all wires are attached at one place on the
electric shock.
switch board.
▪ In every circuit the electrical appliances are
▪ In home electrical appliances like fan, bulb,
attached between the live wire and neutral
heater etc. are attached with parallel
wire.
combination of wires.
▪ While switches of these appliances are attached LIGHTENING CONDUCTORS
in series combination of the wires. Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect
buildings from the effect of lightning.
ELECTRIC FUSE
▪ A lightning conductor is a metal rod or conductor
For the electric fuse those materials are used which
mounted on top of a building and electrically
have less melting point and easily melt on passing
connected to the ground through a wire.
high electric current in the circuit.
▪ If lightning strikes the building it will
▪ Always electric fuse is attached through the live
preferentially strike the rod and be conducted
or hot wire.
harmlessly to ground through the wire.

Shunt is a wire having very less resistance. A

galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a shunt parallel to it.
- A galvanometer can be converted into a
voltmeter by connecting a very high
resistance in series.

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device that transfers
▪ Whenever there are the occurrences of electrical energy from one circuit to another
overloading or short circuiting anywhere in the through inductively coupled conductors - the
circuit, the current of very large magnitude transformer’s coils.
starts to flow in the wire and the wire of the
electric fuse melts and concerned appliances are
prevented to damage.
DOMESTIC WIRING
In domestically supplied current three types of wires
are utilised which are live, neutral and connected to
the earth (earthing).
▪ Ordinarily live wire is of red colour, neutral wire
of black colour and earthing wire of green
colour.

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▪ A varying current in the first or primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer’s core and thus a varying magnetic
field through the secondary winding.
▪ This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or “voltage” in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
▪ The transformers are used to step up or to step
down the voltage.
- A transformer that increases the voltage
from primary to secondary (more secondary
winding turns than primary winding turns) is
called a step-up transformer.
- Conversely, a transformer designed to do just
the opposite is called a step-down
transformer.
▪ The transformers work only on alternating
current (AC).
RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
▪ Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors
of radio signals.
▪ A device which performs the opposite function
(converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter.
ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
At electric power plant, the power or electricity is
generated by the rotation of turbine in which blades
are attached.
▪ In hydroelectric power plant to rotate the
turbine water is continuously dropped on the
blades of the turbine through storing water by
constructing barrage.
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▪ In thermal power plant and in nuclear or atomic
power plant the turbines are rotated by the
vapour/steam generated.
- In thermal power plant vapour is prepared by
burning the coal or natural gas.
- But in atomic power plant the vapour is
prepared by the nuclear energy.
▪ At primary electric power plant the alternating
current is generated, and it has alternating
voltage of 22kv or of beyond.
▪ At the grid substation step-up transformers are
installed which can increase the alternating
voltage up to 132kv.
▪ Ultimately at various sub-station this alternating
voltage is decreased by step-down transformer
and normally 220 volt (AC) is supplied to the
domestic consumers.
ELECTRIC CELL
In electric cells the chemical energy which is
produced by various chemical reaction transforms
into electrical energy.
▪ Electric cell maintains a potential difference
between any two points of the conducting wire
so that the flow of electric current be continued
sustainably.
▪ There are two metallic rods in every electric cell
which are called electrodes and have opposite
nature.
▪ The metallic rod which is +vely charged is called
anode and collected ions are called anions.
▪ The metallic rod which is -vely charged is called
cathode, and collected ions are called cations.
▪ These metallic rods (electrodes) are kept inside
the solvent of the container called electrolyte.
▪ Usually electric cells are of two type;
PRIMARY CELL
In these cells the chemical energy is directly
converted into electrical energy.
▪ When all the chemical energy is exhausted, and
it is used up the cells become dead.
▪ The Voltaic cells, Leclanche’s cell, dry cell, denial
cell etc. are examples of primary cell.
SECONDARY CELL
In secondary cells firstly electrical energy is
converted into chemical energy then this chemical
energy is converted into electrical energy.
▪ The entire process is completed by charging and
during use it is discharged then again it is
charged.
▪ All secondary cells are rechargeable. The
process of recharging is done by the external
source of electrical energy.
▪ The battery or cell attached in motor vehicle,
motor bike, emergency light etc. are examples
of secondary cells.
VOLTAIC (GALVANIC) CELL
The voltaic cell was invented by Professor Alsendro
Volta in 1799.
▪ In this cell a zinc rod and copper rod kept inside
the glass container of sulphuric acid.
▪ The value of emf in this cell is 1.08 volt.
LECLANCHE CELL
Zinc-carbon battery, also called the Leclanche’s cell,
is a traditional general-purpose dry cell.
▪ In this cell in the glass container a saturated
solution of NH4Cl is taken.
▪ In this solution zinc rod acts as cathode and for
anode, the carbon rod is kept in the mixture of
manganese dioxide (MnO2) and carbon.
▪ The value of emf is 1.5 volt.
▪ This type of cells are utilised where electric
current is not regularly available.
SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is a semiconductor device (on junction)
which converts solar energy directly into electrical
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energy and it is based upon the phenomenon of
photo voltaic effect.
▪ Solar cells are the building blocks of
photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar
panels.
▪ Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers
of semiconductors with one layer containing
positive charge and the other negative charge
lined adjacent to each other.
▪ Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy
termed as photons, strikes the cell, where it is
either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.
▪ When the photons are absorbed by the negative
layer of the photovoltaic cell, the energy of the
photon gets transferred to an electron in an
atom of the cell.
▪ With the increase in energy, the electron
escapes the outer shell of the atom.
▪ The freed electron naturally migrates to the
positive layer creating a potential difference
between the positive and the negative layer.
▪ When the two layers are connected to an
external circuit, the electron flows through the
circuit creating a current.
VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS
GALVANOMETER
Galvanometers are electrical devices used for the
detection or measurement of the electric currents.
▪ The action of these Galvanometers is facilitated
by the torque experienced by a magnetic needle
due to the magnetic field of a current loop.
▪ It is always connected in series in the electrical
circuit in which the current to be measured.
AMMETER
Ammeter is a current measuring device and can
measure high current. Basically it is a low resistance
moving coil galvanometer.
▪ An ideal ammeter should have zero resistance.
▪ Infact ammeter of low resistance is more
accurate although it is less sensitive.
▪ The electric current flows in the circuit from the
positive terminal of the cell to the negative
terminal of the cell through the bulb and
ammeter.
VOLTMETER
Voltmeter is a potential difference (Pd) measuring
device and basically it is high resistance moving coil
galvanometer.
▪ It is always connected in parallel to the
resistance across which p.d. is to be measured.
▪ A voltmeter of high resistance is more accurate.
In fact an ideal voltmeter is one which has
infinite resistance, so it measures accurately,
and no current be passed through it.
POTENTIOMETER
It is an instrument for measuring an electromotive
force by balancing it against the potential
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difference produced by passing a known current
through a known variable resistance.
▪ It operates on the principle that an emf or p.d.
can be balanced against another emf or p.d. and
produce zero current.
Common symbols
THERMAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
As the electrons passes through a medium, such as a
wire, they experience friction, which produces heat.
▪ The fast the electrons are moving, the more
friction they experience, and the more heat is
generated.
▪ In Electrical heating appliances the current is
made to pass through highly resistant materials
to cause heat through friction.
▪ The thermal effect of the electric current are
vigorously utilised in electric heater, electric
press, electric bulb, tube lights etc.
JOULE’S LAW
According to this law:
“The heat produced per unit time, on passing
electric current through a conductor at a given
temperature, is directly proportional to the square
of the electric current”.
ELECTRIC HEATER
In an electric heater an aliment (thick coil) nichrome
(alloy of nickel and chromium) is kept inside the
frame like plate which are made of plaster of Paris.
▪ When an electric current is passed through the
thick coil of nichrome then due to large
electrical resistance the current remains
confined for a longer time within the aliment.
▪ Then due to Joule’s heat it becomes red heated
and supply a tremendous amount of thermal
energy.
▪ In the position of red heated condition the
temperature of the thick coil goes up to 800°C to
1000°C.
ELECTRIC IRON
In domestic electric iron the nichrome wire or coil is
wounded on the mica sheet.
▪ As the mica has good electrical resistance and
does not melt at high temperature and this
sheet or plate enclosing nichrome coil is kept on
the upper surface of steel slab.
▪ Whenever the electric current is passed through
the nichrome coil, the base of the steel slab is
heated, and cloths and garments are pressed.
ELECTRIC BULB
The electric bulb was firstly invented by Thomas Alva
Edison.
▪ The bulb is evacuated (vacuum created) and a
filament of tungsten metal (high melting point)
is attached to it.
▪ To avoid from the burning of filament or to avoid
the oxidation of the filament the bulb is made
evacuated.
▪ Sometimes along with evacuation a small
quantities of inert gases argon or krypton is kept
inside the bulb, so that tungsten could not be
burnt and vaporised.
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▪ The ordinary electric bulbs are incandescent in
nature.
▪ At high temperature tungsten vaporises and
sometimes blackens the inside walls of the bulb,
which is called blackening.
▪ In ordinary bulb 5% to 10% electrical energy only
converts into light energy while rest is destroyed
in the form of thermal energy.
TUBE LIGHT
It is a long tube of glass and inside wall of the tube is
coated by the thin layer of fluorescent material.
▪ The two ends of the tube has two terminals on
which a thin layer of barium oxide is coated.
▪ A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a gas
containing low pressure mercury vapour and
argon, xenon, neon, or krypton.
▪ The pressure inside the lamp is around 0.3% of
atmospheric pressure.
▪ Whenever these two terminals of the tube are
provoked to pass an electric current then
electrons are emitted which are directly
respondent to ionize the gas present inside the
tube.
▪ Consequently through ionization of the gas, ions
generate a flow of current inside the tube.
▪ The mercury confined inside the tube gets
sufficient thermal energy and it (mercury) starts
to vaporise and finally due to electron emission
ultraviolet UV-rays are emitted.
▪ When these UV-rays incident on the inside wall
of the tube on which fluorescent material is
coated then UV-rays are observed by the wall
and a visible rays or light of lower frequency
seems to be appeared.
▪ In tube light thermal energy is produced in lesser
amount so 60% to 70% electrical energy
transforms into light energy.
▪ That is why the power of tube light is sharper
than an ordinary bulb.
COMPACT FLORESCENT LAMP (CFL)
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also known as a
compact fluorescent light or energy saving light, is
a type of fluorescent lamp.
▪ Many CFLs are designed to replace an
incandescent lamp and can fit into most existing
light fixtures formerly used for incandescent.
▪ CFLs use less power and have a longer rated life.
▪ CFLs contain mercury, which complicates their
disposal.
▪ CFLs radiate a different light spectrum from that
of incandescent lamps.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light
source that emits light when current flows through
it.
▪ Light-emitting diodes are built using a weak
layer of heavily doped semiconductor material.
▪ Based on the semiconductor material used and
the amount of doping, an LED will emit a
coloured light at a particular spectral
wavelength when forward biased.
▪ LEDs are the size of a fleck of pepper, and a mix
of red, green, and blue LEDs is typically used to
make white light.
▪ LEDs emit very little heat in comparison, to
incandescent and CFL bulbs.
▪ The LEDs have very long life, almost 50 times
more than ordinary bulbs, and 8-10 times that
of CFLs, and therefore provide both energy and
cost savings.
ELECTROLYSIS
It is a process of decomposing ionic compounds into
their elements by passing a direct electric current
through the compound in a fluid form.
▪ The cations are reduced at cathode and anions
are oxidized at the anode.
- For example, acidified or salt-containing
water can be decomposed by passing electric
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current to their original elements hydrogen
and oxygen.
- Molten sodium chloride can be decomposed
to sodium and chlorine atoms.
▪ The passage of an electric current through a
conducting solution causes chemical reactions.
APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS
▪ The process of depositing a layer of any desired
metal on another material by means of
electricity is called electroplating.
- The metallic body which is to be coated acts
like anode and the metal whose layer be
coated acts like cathode.
▪ The metals like aluminium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium are extracted from their respective
salts by the process of electrolysis.
- The electrodes are made of these metals
and when electric current is passed through
the salts of these metals then pure metals
are deposited on the cathode.
▪ In Electrotyping
▪ Purification of metals.
MAGNETISM
Magnetism is the phenomena exhibited by a
magnetic field. It involves the study of magnets and
their effects.
▪ Magnetism is a property of materials that
respond at an atomic or subatomic level to an
applied magnetic field.
▪ The magnetism of earth is due to its metallic
core.
▪ The basic law of magnetism is that the unlike
poles attract and like poles repel.
▪ Almost all materials are influenced to a greater
or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic
field.
 - Some are attracted to a magnetic field
(paramagnetism);
- Others are repulsed by a magnetic field
(diamagnetism);
- Others have a much more complex
relationship with an applied magnetic field.
▪ Substances that are negligibly affected by
magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic
substances.
▪ The magnetic state of a material depends on
temperature and other variables such as
pressure and applied magnetic field.
- Thus a material may exhibit more than one
form of magnetism depending on its
temperature, etc.
PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
A magnet has two ends. The ends points approximately
towards north and south directions.
▪ In a magnet, like poles repel, whereas unlike poles of
magnet attract each other.
▪ Iron fillings near the bar magnet align themselves along
the field lines.
MAGNETIC FIELD
The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force
of the magnet can be detected, is called magnetic
field.
▪ The magnetic field depends on the strength of a
magnet. Thus, it will vary for different magnets.
▪ The lines along the bar magnet in which the iron
fillings align themselves represent the magnetic
field lines.
- The relative strength of the magnetic field is
shown by the degree of closeness of the field
lines.
▪ By convention, the direction of magnetic field is
taken to be the direction in which a north pole of
the compass needle moves.
- The field lines are presumed to emerge from
the north pole and merge at the south pole.
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RELATION BETWEEN DIRECTION OF CURRENT AND
MAGNETIC FIELD
Relation between the direction of current and
direction of magnetic field is given by the right-hand
thumb rule.
“Imagine that you are holding a current carrying
straight conductor in your right hand such that
thumb points towards the direction of the current.
Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in
the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field”.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
This rule explains the relationship among the
direction of current, magnetic field and the
direction of force.
▪ According to Fleming’s left hand rule, stretch the
thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left
hand such that they are mutually perpendicular.
▪ If the forefinger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and second finger in the direction
of current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of the motion or the force acting on
the conductor.
▪ It also suggests that the direction of force is
reversed when the direction of current through
the conductor is reversed.
UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Generally, the magnetic field can be defined in
several specific ways in relation to the effect it has
on the environment.
▪ Accordingly, we have the B-field and the H-field.
▪ B-field is a type of magnetic field which is defined
by the force it exerts on a moving charged
particles.
▪ H-field is similar to B-field expect when they are
inside a material. However, they are measured
differently.
▪ B is measured in tesla represented as T.
▪ Whereas the H-field is measured in amperes per
metre (A/m).
▪ Apart from the SI system, the B-field in CGS
system is measured with the unit gauss (G).
- If we look at the conversion it is 1 Tesla =
10000 G.
▪ Meanwhile, the H-field is measured with the help
of oersteds (Oe) in the CGS system.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
An electric current always produces a magnetic field. Even
very weak electric impulses that travel along the nerve cells
in our body produce magnetic field.
▪ The electric impulses travel in various parts of our body
constituting numerous electric fields. Out of these,
significant electric fields are produced in heart and
brain.
▪ This magnetic field forms the basis of obtaining the
images of different body parts. This technique is called
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
▪ Analysis of these images helps in medical diagnosis.
DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Diamagnetism is the property of an object which
causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to
an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a
repulsive effect.
▪ Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are
those that are usually considered “non-
magnetic”
▪ They include water, wood, most organic
compounds such as petroleum and some
plastics.
▪ It includes many metals including copper,
particularly the heavy ones with many core
electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth.
FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which
certain materials (such as iron) form permanent
magnets or are attracted to magnets.
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▪ All Permanent magnets (materials that can be
magnetized by an external magnetic field and
which remain magnetized after the external field
is removed) are either ferromagnetic.
▪ Cobalt, Iron and Nickel etc. are some of the
common ferromagnetic materials.
▪ Stainless steel is utilised to obtain good quality
of permanent magnet.
PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
The Paramagnetic substances are substances which,
when placed in a strong magnetic held, get weakly
magnetized.
▪ Platinum, Chromium, Manganese, Copper
Sulphate, liquid Oxygen and solutions of salts of
iron and Nickel are examples of Paramagnetic
substances.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
It is a phenomenon where a conductor placed in a
changing magnetic field (or a conductor moving
through a stationary magnetic field) causes the
production of an electrical current across the
conductor.
▪ It was discovered in 1831 by Michael faraday.
▪ The process of electromagnetic induction works
in reverse as well, that is, a moving electrical
charge generates a magnetic field.
PASCAL LAW
According to Pascal Law:
“The external static pressure applied on a confined
liquid is distributed or transmitted evenly
throughout the liquid in all directions.”
▪ The static pressure acts at right angles to any
surface in contact with the fluid.
- Pascal also found that the pressure at a point
for a static fluid would be the same across all
 planes passing through that point in that
fluid.
P = FA
- Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s
principle.
Applications of Pascal law:
▪ Hydraulic Lift: The above diagram is a simple line
diagram of a hydraulic lift.
- This is the principle of working of hydraulic
lift.
- It works based on the principle of equal
pressure transmission throughout a fluid
(Pascal’s Law).
▪ The construction is such that a narrow cylinder
(in this case A) is connected to a wider cylinder
(in this case B).
- They are fitted with airtight pistons on either
end.
- The inside of the cylinders is filled with the
fluid that cannot be compressed.
▪ Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted
equally to piston B without diminishing, on the
use of the fluid that cannot be compressed.
- Piston B effectively serves as a platform to lift
heavy objects like big machines or vehicles.
- Few more applications include a hydraulic
jack and hydraulic press and forced
amplification is used in the braking system of
most cars.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle formulated by Daniel Bernoulli
states that as the speed of a moving fluid increases
(liquid or gas), the pressure within the fluid
decreases.
▪ The principle states that the:
“The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid
comprising the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, the energy associated with the fluid
pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid motion,
remains constant.”
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The formula for the Bernoulli’s Principle
Where,
- p is the pressure exerted by the fluid
- v is the velocity of the fluid
- ρ is the density of the fluid
- h is the height of the container
Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the
balance between pressure, velocity, and elevation.
APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
1. Bernoulli’s principle is used for studying the
unsteady potential flow which is used in the
theory of ocean surface waves and acoustics.
- It is also used for approximation of
parameters like pressure and speed of the
fluid.
2. Venturi meter is a device that is based on
Bernoulli’s theorem and is used for measuring
the rate of flow of liquid through the pipes.
3. In the Aeroplane the shape of the wings is such
that the air passes at a higher speed over the
upper surface than the lower surface.
- The difference in airspeed is calculated using
Bernoulli’s principle to create a pressure
difference.
4. When we are standing on a railway station and a
train comes we tend to fall towards the train. As
the train goes past, the velocity of air between
the train and us increases.
- Hence, from the equation, we can say that
the pressure decreases so the pressure from
behind pushes us towards the train.
LIGHT
The word ‘light’ usually refers to visible light, which
is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the
sense of sight.
▪ In the presence of light, things become visible.
An object reflects light that falls on it. This
reflected light, when received by our eyes,
enable us to see things.
- When light hits an object, the object absorbs
some of the light and reflects the rest of it.
- Some wavelengths are reflected, whereas
other are absorbed depending upon the
properties of the object.
- The reflected wavelength enters our eyes
and create view.

SPEED OF LIGHT
The exact value of speed of sound is 299,792,458
m/s (approximately 3 * 10^8 m/s). Nothing can
travel faster than the speed of light.
▪ The distance between the sun and the earth is
149.6 million Km and it takes 8 minutes and 17
seconds for sunlight to reach the earth.
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light has a dual nature of ‘both a particle and a
wave’.
- Light consists of particles (photons), and it
can also be considered as flow of photons,
thus a wave.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When a ray of light bounces back from a surface
towards the source of light, it is called reflection of
light.
▪ A highly polished surface, such as mirror, reflects
most of the light falling on it. A rough surface
reflects less amount of light.
▪ Refection can occur on plane mirrors as well as
on curved mirrors.
LAW OF REFLECTION
The law of reflection states that the incident ray, the
reflected ray and the normal ray to the surface of the
mirror lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION BY PLANE MIRROR
When reflection takes place from a plane mirror,
then the image has the following characteristics:
1. Virtual image is formed by the plane mirror.
- It refers to the image which forms behind the
mirror on account of apparent convergence
of light rays.
2. Image is erect and not inverted. It is to be noted
that virtual image is erect. On the other hand,
real image is inverted.
- Image is laterally inverted, that is, right side
of the object appears as left side of the image
and vice versa.
IMPORTANT POINTS
A material can be classified as:
1. Transparent: The substances which allow most of the
incident light to pass through them. E.g. glass, water.
2. Translucent: The substance which allow a part of
incident light to pass through them. E.g. oiled paper.
3. Opaque: The substances which do not allow the
incident light to pass through them. E.g. wood.

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 ▪ Convex mirrors increases the area of view, and
found applications in:
- Rear view mirrors in vehicles.
- Used in blind turns (or hairpin bends on the
road).

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light refers to change in the direction
of light due to change in transmission medium.
▪ Light does not travel in the same direction in all
medium such as air, glass, water, diamond and so
on.
▪ When light travels from one medium to another,
the direction of propagation of light changes in
the second medium.
3. The size of the image is equal to the size of the
object.
4. Distance of the image from the mirror is equal to
the distance of the object from the mirror.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Spherical mirrors are called so because they are
curved in such a manner that they form part of a
sphere.
▪ The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may
be curved inwards or outwards.
CONCAVE MIRROR
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved ▪ When light travels from optically rarer to
inwards, that is, faces toward the centre of the optically denser medium, it bends towards the
sphere, is called a concave mirror. normal ray.
▪ Concave mirror is used at various places like: - On the other hand, when it travels from
- Torches, searchlights and vehicle headlights. optically denser to rarer medium, it bends
- Solar furnaces. away from the normal.
- Dentists also use concave mirrors to treat ▪ Daily observations of refraction:
their patients. - Bottom of a tank containing water appears
CONVEX MIRROR raised from the ground.
A spherical mirror whose - When a pencil is partly immersed in a glass
reflecting surface is filled with water, it appears to be displaced
bulged outwards is called at the interface of air and water.
a convex mirror. - When a thick glass slab is placed over written
matter, the letters appear raised.
- Oval shape of sun in the morning and
evening.
- Twinkling of stars
OPTICAL DENSITY
The ability of the medium to refract light can also be
expressed in terms of its optical density.
▪ It is not the same as mass density.
▪ When we compare two mediums, the one with
the larger refractive index is optically denser
medium than the other.

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▪ The speed of light is higher in an optically rarer
medium than in a denser medium.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
It refers to the extent of the change in the direction
of light when light enters from one medium into
another medium.
LENS
Lens is a section of transparent refractive material
of two surfaces of definite geometrical shape of
which one surface must be spherical.
▪ Lens is generally of two types:
- Convex lens
- Concave lens
▪ When a lens is thicker at the middle than at the
edges, it is called a convex lens or a converging
lens. When the lens is thicker at the edges than
in the middle, it is called as concave lens or
diverging lens.
POWER OF THE LENS
The degree of convergence or divergence of light
rays by a lens is expressed in terms of its power.
▪ It is expressed by the letter P.
▪ The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
1/f.
▪ The SI unit of power of lens is ‘dioptre’. It is
denoted by the letter D.
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▪ In various optical instruments, a number of
lenses are combined. The net power (P) of the
lenses placed together is given by
P = P1 + P2 + P3……
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
It refers to the refraction on account of optical
variability of the medium present in the atmosphere.
▪ Various applications of the atmospheric
refraction are:
1. Wavering of the object: We observe wavering of
objects when we see through air just above a
fire.
- The air just above the fire becomes warmer
than the air further upwards. The warmer air
is an optically rarer medium than the cooler
air which is above it.
- The refractive index of warmer air is slightly
less than that of the cooler air.
- The proportion of warm and cold air above
the fire keeps on changing resulting in
wavering.
2. Stars appears slightly above than its original
position due to refraction.
- Similarly, the star sometimes appears
brighter and at the other time fainter, leading
to twinkling effect.
3. The sun is visible 2 min before the actual sunrise
and 2 min after the actual sunset on account of
refraction.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
It refers to the splitting of light into various
components namely Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR).
▪ In refraction, as light travels from one medium,
the bending for various subcomponents,
VIBGYOR is not the same.
- The component of light with higher
wavelengths bend less as compared to the
components with lower wavelengths.
- The red light bends the least, whereas the
violet bends the most.
▪ Dispersion of light depends on the refracting
medium. Maximum dispersion occurs when light
passes through substances with higher
refractive Index.

THEORY OF COLOURS
Colour is the sensation perceived by the cones in the eye
due to light.
▪ Primary colours: The spectral colours blue, green and
red are called primary colours because all the colours
can be produced by mixing these in proper proportion.
Blue + Red + Green = White
▪ Secondary colours: The colour produced by mixing any
two primary colours is called secondary colour. There
are three secondary colours yellow, magenta and cyan
as
Green + Red = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
- When the three secondary colours are mixed,
white colour is produced.
▪ Complementary Colours: Any two colours when added
produce white light, are said to be complementary
colours. So it include secondary colour and primary
colour.
- Red ad cyan, blue and yellow and green and
magenta are complementary of each other.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT BY WATER DROPLET
Rainbow appears when sunlight passes through
water droplets. Water droplets act like small prisms.
▪ Due to total internal reflection, a rainbow is
always formed in a direction opposite to that of
the sun.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogenous mixture
comprising minute particles and gases.
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▪ When light interacts with these particles, it
scatters. The size of the scattering particles
determines the colour of the scattered light.
▪ Very fine particle scatter mainly blue light while
particles of larger size scatter light of longer
wavelengths such as red.
▪ If the size of particle is large enough, then the
scattered light may even appear white.
APPLICATION OF SCATTERING OF LIGHT
1. Danger signals are of red colour because it is
least scattered by fog, smoke or dust particles.
2. When we visit higher altitudes, then the colour
of sky is dark because the dust particles are
absent to scatter any light.
3. Tyndall effect: When a beam of light strikes fine
particles present in air, the path of the beam
becomes visible.
- The light reaches us after reflection by these
particles.
- The phenomenon gives rise to Tyndall effect.
RAINBOW
Rainbow is a coloured display in the form of an arc
of a circle hanging in the sky observed during or after
a little drizzle appearing on the opposite side of sun.
▪ It is formed due to dispersion and refraction of
sunlight by the suspended water droplets.
▪ Rainbow is of two types:
1. Primary rainbow is formed due to two
refractions and one total internal reflection
of light falling on the raindrops.
- In the primary rainbow, the red colour is on
the convex side and violet is on the concave
side.
2. Secondary rainbow is formed due to two
refractions and two internal reflections of
light falling on rain drops.
- The order of colour on the secondary
rainbow is in the reverse order.
- Secondary rainbow is less intense than
primary rainbow.
 ▪ Polarisation is the phenomenon of restricting
LASER
the vibrations of a light in a particular direction
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of
optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
electromagnetic radiation. propagation of wave.
▪ The term "laser" originated as an acronym for "Light ▪ The visible effect of light is only due to electric
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". field vector.
▪ A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits
light which is coherent.
▪ In a coherent beam of electromagnetic energy, all the
waves have the same frequency and phase.
▪ Lasers are used in optical disk drives, laser printers,
barcode scanners, DNA sequencing instruments, fibre-
optic, semiconducting chip manufacturing
(photolithography), and free-space optical
communication, laser surgery and skin treatments,
cutting and welding materials, military and law
enforcement devices for marking targets and
measuring range and speed, and in laser lighting
displays for entertainment.
▪ It is different from flashlight (white light only). DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
When light waves fall on a small sized obstacle or a
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
small aperture whose dimension is comparable to
When two light waves of exactly the same
the wavelength of light, then there is a departure
frequency and a constant phase difference travel in
from the rectilinear propagation and light energy
same direction and superimpose then the resultant
flavours out into the region of geometrical shadow.
intensity in the region of superposition is different
▪ The spreading of light energy beyond the limit
from the sum of intensity of individual waves.
prescribed by rectilinear propagation of light is
▪ The modification in the intensity of light in the
called diffraction of light.
region of superposition is called interference.
▪ Thus, it is the process by which a beam of light or
▪ Interference is of two types:
other systems of wave is spread out as a result
- Constructive Interference: At some points,
of passing through a narrow opening or across an
where two waves meet in same phase,
edge.
resultant intensity is maximum.
- Destructive Interference: At some points,
where the two waves meet in opposite
phase, resultant intensity is minimum.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTIC

Optics is the branch of physics that studies the

behaviour and properties of light, including its
POLARISATION OF LIGHT
It is the only phenomenon which proves that light is interactions with matter and the construction of
a transverse wave. instruments that use or detect it.
▪ Light is an electromagnetic wave in which
electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate Reflection: It is a phenomenon of change in the path
perpendicular to each other and also of light without any change in medium.
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
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Types of Mirrors
a. Concave Mirror: They are converging mirrors
having their reflecting surface towards the
centre of sphere while outer surface is polished.
▪ Their applications include:
▪ Effects of Refraction:
1. Reflecting telescopes
1. An object appears to be raised when placed
2. Used in ophthalmoscope, which reflects light
under water.
from retina of the eye of the patient.
2. Pool of water appears less deep than it actual
3. Used in torches, headlamps and spotlights
deepness.
4. Mirrors in saloon
3. It is due to refraction of light that stars
5. Mirror landing aid system of modern aircraft
appear to twinkle at night.
carriers also uses a concave mirror
4. If a lemon is kept in a glass of water it appears
to be bigger when viewed from the sides of
glass.
5. A straight stick immersed in water appears to
be bent at the surface of water.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
This is a special case of refraction.
▪ Here the light from denser medium travelling to
rarer medium is incident at an angle greater
than critical angle such that the angle of
refraction in rarer medium is 90 deg.
b. Convex Mirror: They are diverging mirrors
having their reflecting surface away from the
centre of sphere.
▪ Their applications include:
1. Driver’s mirror of a Vehicle
2. Used in the hallways of various buildings
3. Used in some automated teller machines as
a simple and handy security feature ▪ Effects of Total Internal Reflection:
Refraction 1. Sparkling of Diamond
It is the phenomenon of bending of light when it 2. In Optical fibres and endoscopy
moves from one medium to another. 3. Mirage effect like there appears to be a pool
of water on road several meters away in
sunny days.
4. Binoculars and periscopes

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 4. Astigmatism: This defect arises due to difference
in the radius of curvature of cornea in the
different planes.
- For its remedy cylindrical lens is used.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
This is simply a convex lens of small focal length. The
object to be enlarged is placed within the focus of
lens.
- Magnifying power of a simple microscope is
given as:

Question Where, D = 25 cm, f = focal length of

Q. Endoscopy, a technique used to explore the lens
stomach or other inner parts of the body is based
on the phenomenon of (UPSC 1999)
(a) total internal reflection
(b) Interference
(c) diffraction
(d) polarization COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
It consists of two convex lenses coaxially fitted in a
Answer: A hollow tube. The lens facing the object is called
objective and the lens towards the eye is called eye
HUMAN EYE piece.
The human eye is a paired sense organ that reacts to - The aperture of objective is smaller than that
light and allows vision. of eye piece.
- Rod and cone cells in the retina are - Both the lenses are of smaller focal lengths.
photoreceptive cells which are able to detect This increases the magnifying powers of
visible light and convey this information to Instrument.
the brain.
- Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.
Defects of human eye and the remedies:
1. Myopia or short sightedness: A person suffering
from myopia can see the near objects clearly
while far objects are not clear.
- Its remedy is use of diverging lens.
2. Hyperopia/hypermetropia or longsightedness:
A person suffering from hypermetropia can see
the distant objects clearly but not the near
objects.
- Its remedy is use of converging lens.
3. Presbyopia: The defect is generally found in
elderly person. Due to stiffening of ciliary
muscles, eye looses much of its accommodating
power.
- As a result distinct as well as nearby objects
cannot be seen.
- For its remedy two separate lens or a bifocal
lens is used. TELESCOPE
Telescope are used to view distant objects which are
not visible to naked eye.
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▪ Telescope can be divided as astronomical
telescope, terrestrial telescope and Galilean
telescope.
▪ Astronomical telescope consists of two convex
lenses placed coaxially in hollow tube. The lens ▪ It can also occur by man-made process of
facing the object is called objective and the lens bombarding nuclei with neutrons.
towards the eye is called eyepiece.
- An example of fission is when a Uranium isotope
- The objective has larger aperture so that the
is bombarded with a neutron breaks into two
rays from the object can be easily collected.
intermediate mass nuclear fragments.
- The focal length of objective is larger than
that of eye piece.

▪ The mass number and atomic number on both

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear energy is the energy released by changes
in the nucleus of atoms. Such changes include:
a. Fission (splitting) of nucleus
b. Fusion of Nuclei
▪ Nuclear technology is the technology involved in
the nuclear reactions of the atomic nuclei.
NUCLEAR FISSION
Nucleus fission refers to the process of splitting of
the nucleus of an atom into two or more smaller
parts (lighter nuclei).
▪ There is release of neutrons and energy in the
form of heat, kinetic energy and electromagnetic
radiation.
▪ Nuclear fission can occur naturally in substances
having heavy nuclei which become unstable and
then undergo spontaneous fission.
- Plutonium undergoes spontaneous fission to
produce palladium and cadmium.
sides of the equation must be equal.
NUCLEAR FUSION
In a fusion reaction two (or more) small nuclei are
joined together to make a larger particle.
▪ As they fuse together energy is released as heat.
▪ It involves light elements, such as hydrogen,
smashing together to form heavier elements,
such as helium.
▪ For fusion to occur, hydrogen atoms are placed
under high heat and pressure until they fuse
together. When this happens, a tremendous
amount of energy is released in the process.
▪ The process responsible for solar energy is the
fusion of light nuclei and here four hydrogen
nuclei fuse together directly to form a helium
nucleus.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NUCLEAR FUSION AND FISSION

Nuclear fusion Nuclear fission

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 Two light nuclei combine to Fission would be defined as ▪ It strongly ionises the gas through which it
form a heavy nucleus. the division of a single atom passes.
into multiple atoms of small
▪ They have large kinetic energy and momentum
size.
with them.
There is no chain reaction. It involves a chain reaction.
▪ They rapidly loses its energy as it moves through
Extremely high temperature The heavy nucleus is a medium and therefore its penetration power
and pressure is needed. bombarded with neutrons.
is quite small.
The release of energy during The amount of energy ▪ They are positively charged, so they are
fusion is way higher than released in fission is much
that of the fission reaction. lower than the energy deflected by the electric and magnetic fields.
released during fusion. ▪ They cause fluorescence on striking a
Raw material is Disposal of nuclear waste is fluorescent material.
comparatively cheap and a great environmental ▪ They can destroy the living cells and they cause
easily available. problem. biological damage.
There is no issue of disposal Raw material is not easily ▪ They get scattered while passing through the
of waste. available and is costly. thin mica (or gold) foils.
Very few radioactive The fission reaction
BETA PARTICLES
chemicals come out of this produces highly radioactive
reaction. substances. Beta particles are the fast-moving electrons emitted
from the nucleus of an atom.
▪ Beta particles are given out from the nucleus
whereas the cathode rays are given out from the
orbital electrons.
RADIOACTIVITY
The substances which disintegrate (or decay) by the ▪ Emission of 1 Beta - particle cause increase in
spontaneous emission of radiations are called the atomic number by 1, but mass no remains same
radioactive substances. of an element.
▪ The isotopes of nearly all the elements of atomic ▪ Speed up to 90 per cent of the speed of light.
number higher than 82 are radioactive. ▪ Beta particles ionise the gas through which they
▪ Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon and pass.
cannot be predicted. ▪ The penetrating power of beta particles is more
▪ Three of the most common types of decay are than that of alpha particles.
alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay, all ▪ Beta particles are negatively charged, so they
of which involve emitting one or more particles are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields.
or photons. ▪ Beta particles cause fluorescence on striking a
▪ The unit of radioactivity is Curie or Becquerel. fluorescent material.
- One Becquerel is defined as the activity of a ▪ Beta particles produce X-rays when they are
quantity of radioactive material in which one stopped by the metals of high atomic number
nucleus decays per second. and high melting point such as tungsten.
▪ There is no effect of temperature, pressure etc. ▪ Beta particles cause greater biological damage
on radioactivity. as they can easily pass through the skin of our
▪ Tritium (an isotope of hydrogen) is the highest body.
radioactive element. GAMMA RAYS
Gamma radiations are the electromagnetic waves
ALPHA PARTICLES
An alpha particle consists of two protons and two like X-rays and light. It has no charge and no mass.
neutrons. ▪ The speed of gamma radiations is the same as
▪ The mass of an alpha particle is roughly four the speed of light (in vacuum or air).
times the mass of a proton. ▪ The ionising power or gamma radiations is very
▪ In alpha decay, unstable, heavy nuclei (typically low.
Z>83 ) reduce their mass number A by 4 and ▪ The penetrating power of gamma radiations is
their atomic number Z by 2 with the emission the highest.
of a helium nuclei , known as an alpha particle. ▪ Gamma radiations are not deflected by the
▪ It has the speed up to 10% of the speed of light. electric and magnetic fields.

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▪ Gamma radiations cause fluorescence on
striking a fluorescent material.
▪ Gamma radiations are diffracted by crystals.
▪ Gamma radiations cause immense biological
damage as they can easily pass through the skin
of our body.
▪ Gamma radiations are very useful for the
treatment of cancer.
▪ X-rays are emitted when there is a transition of
elements in the inner orbits of an atom whereas
gamma radiations are given out from the
nucleus.
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE
Nuclear technology is mainly known for power
generation and weapons. But the scope and
potential of nuclear techniques is much wider.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Radioactive sources are used in Industrial
radiography, gauging applications and mineral
analysis.
▪ Short lived radioactive material is used in flow
tracing and mixing measurements.
ANALYSIS APPLICATIONS
a. Gamma ray transmission can be used to
determine the ash content of coal in line on a
conveyor belt.
b. Gamma radiography (also X-ray) is used in
luggage screening applications.
c. For Biochemical analysis
PRESERVATION PURPOSE
d. Gamma irradiation is widely used for sterilising
medical products.
e. Food preservation is also an increasingly
important application. Irradiation is a safe,
proven technology that destroys harmful
bacteria and other food pests.
MEDICAL APPLICATION
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
This is a branch of medicine that uses radiation to
provide information about the functioning of a
person’s specific organs or to treat diseases.
▪ The thyroid, bones, heart, liver and many other
organs can be easily imaged, and disorders in
their function revealed.
MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS
Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine use
radioactive tracers which emit gamma rays from
within the body.
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▪ These tracers are generally short-lived isotopes
linked to chemical compounds.
▪ Nuclear medicine imaging permits successful
imaging of both bones and soft tissues.
▪ Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging
procedure that uses special x-ray equipment to
create detailed pictures, or scans, of areas inside
the body.
RADIOTHERAPY
It is used for treating diseases like thyroid cancer and
leukaemia with low side effects.
RADIOACTIVE DATING
The technique of comparing the abundance ratio of
a radioactive isotope to a reference isotope to
determine the age of a material is called radioactive
dating.
▪ C14, a radioactive form of carbon is measured to
determine the correct age of once living thing.
▪ The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the
amount of time it takes for one-half of the
radioactive isotope to decay.
▪ The half-life of a specific radioactive isotope is
constant.
OTHER APPLICATIONS
a. Nuclear quadrupole resonance technique is
used to detect land mines.
b. Water management aspects like artificial
recharge of ground water, flow measurements
in rivers and seepage identification in dams can
be done using nuclear technology.
c. Nuclear Agriculture is another area where
radiation is used to develop new plant types or
to speed up the process of developing superior
products.
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