Pe Merge Files

TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED IV
Physical Education IV
TEAM SPORTS AND GAMES
Prepared by:
MILA ETHEL B. DE LOS REYES, MAEd
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TEAM SPORTS
Lesson 1: Introduction of Volleyball and Basic Concepts

of the Game; Facility and Equipment
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 1
Introduction of Volleyball
Lesson 1: Brief History, Basic Concepts of the Game, Facility

and Equipment
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TEAM SPORTS
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the brief history of Volleyball;
2. state the characteristics of the game and the playing format;
3. illustrate and identify the parts of volleyball court labeled with exact dimensions
and measurement; and
4. value fairness and observe sportsmanship through understanding the rules of the
game;
I. INTRODUCTION:
This module will reintroduce you to the brief history of volleyball, as well as
facilities and equipment used in the game. Volleyball is less physical as a team sport compare
to basketball and it also gained popularity here in the Philippines. One of the vital
developments of the sport that is the skill of set and spike was actually first introduced here in
the country. And ever since this game was played and loved by Filipinos. In this module, you
will be reintroduced to the brief history of volleyball, as well as facilities and equipment used
of the game.
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TEAM SPORTS
Engage:
Activity #1
Instruction: Describe volleyball using the words inside the table below:
Volleyball service team-sports six players
What is Volleyball?
Explore:
Activity #2
Instructions:
1. Watch the YouTube link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqON4EakBPI
2. After watching, answer the questions to explore the game
Volleyball.
1. Who invented the Volleyball?

.
2. When was Volleyball created? And what is the former name of the game?
.
3. How Philippines plays a vital role in the development of volleyball?
.
4. When was FIVB founded?
.
Essential Questions:
1. What are the important developments in Volleyball?
2. What are the game characteristics and playing format of
Volleyball?
3. What are the specifications of volleyball facility and
equipment? 3
TEAM SPORTS
Explain:
Brief History of Volleyball
William G. Morgan an instructor in YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association)
invented Volleyball in 1895, at Holyoke, Massachusetts, USA.
"Mintonette" – the former name of “Volley Ball” (the action, or the act phase,
of the ball's flight) which is now spelled as Volleyball.
July 7, 1896 – Volleyball was first played at Springfield, Massachusetts, USA.

1907 – Introduced in playgrounds of US.
1910 – Introduced in the Philippines.
1916 – Discovered the use of set and spike.
Offensive skill which is “Bomba”- spike (Filipino Bomb);
“Bomberino”- the Hitter or Spiker.
1917 – Change the scoring from 21-15pts.
1921 – Introduced other skills soft spike or dink; back row rules; diving and
rolling.
1930 – Two-man beach game
1947 – FIVB (Federation Internationale de Volley Ball) was founded at Paris, France
1957 – IOC (International Olympic Committee) identified volleyball to be played
as one of the Team Sports for the 1964 Olympics.
1964 – Volleyball was first played as part of the Olympics which was held at
Tokyo, Japan.
1996 – Beach Volleyball was played at Olympics.
Governing Bodies:
FIVB – Federation Internationale de Volley Ball (International)
PNVF – Philippine National Volleyball Federation (National)
NOVA – Negros Occidental Volleyball Association (Province)
II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE GAME:

Terminologies:
The Ball is “IN” when:
It touches the floor of the playing court including the boundary lines.
The Ball is “OUT” when:

The part of the ball contacts the floor is completely outside the boundary lines;
It touches and object outside of the court, the ceiling or a person out of play;
It touches an antennae, ropes, posts or the net outside the side bands.
Interval – The time between sets. All intervals last for three minutes. The interval
between the second and the third set can be extended up to 10min.
by the competent body at the request of the organizer.
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TEAM SPORTS
Replacement – This is the act by which a regular player leaves the court and the
libero takes his/her place.
Substitution – is the act by which a player, other than libero or his/her replacement
player, after being recorded by the scorer enters the game to occupy
the position of another player, who must leave the court at that
moment.
Interruption – are time-outs and substitutions. Each team may request a maximum of
two time-outs and six substitution per set.
III. FACILITY AND EQUIPMENT

A. PLAYING AREA (See Diagram 1)
Dimension
Playing Court – is rectangle measuring 18m x 9m; surrounded by free zone
which is a minimum of 3m wide in all sides.
Free Playing Space – 12.5 m in height from the playing surface.
Lines on the Court:

All lines are 5cm wide or 2in. – Light color different from the color of the
floor. eg. White
Boundary Lines
2 Sidelines
2 Endline / Service Line
Center Line:
Divides the playing court into two equal courts measuring 9 x 9m each;
however, the entire width of the line is considered to belong to both courts
equally.
Attack Line
The line drawn 3m back from the center line.
Zones and Areas:

Front Zone – is limited by the axis of the center line and rear edge of the
attack line. The front zone is considered to extend beyond the side
lines to the end of the free zone.
Service Zone – is a 9m wide area behind the end line. The service zones
extends to the end of the free zone.
Substitution Zone – is limited by the extension of both attack lines up to

the scorer’s table.
Libero Replacement Zone – is part of the free zone on the side of the
team benches, limited by the extension of the attack line up to the end line.
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TEAM SPORTS
Warm-up Area – sized approximately 3 x 3m are located in both of the

bench-side corners outside the free zone.
Diagram1. Playing Area
B. EQUIPMENT:
a. Ball – Shall be spherical

Material –Flexible leather or Synthetic Leather case
with a bladder inside
Circumference – 65-67 cm
Weight – 260-280g
Air Pressure – 0.30 and 0.325 kg/cm²
(4.26.1 o 4.61psi)
b. Net
Depth – 1m or 3ftwide and 9.50 to 10m long
Height:
Men – 2.43m
Women – 2.24m
c. Antennae – are considered part of the net and laterally delimit the crossing
space.
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TEAM SPORTS
Material – Flexible Rod, 1.80m long and 10mm in diameter; made of

Fiberglass or similar material; 80cm extends above the net and is
marked with 10cm stripes of contrasting color, preferably Red and
White.
d. Posts – supporting the net are placed at a distance 0.50-1.00m outside the side
lines. Height – 2.55m and preferably adjustable
e. Flag
Color – Red; 4 or 2 flags are used
Instructions: Using the insights you have gained from the lesson
notes, perform this activity:
1. Why are the equipment important in sport?
2. What do you think is the difference of volleyball compare to
Elaborate: other team sports?
3. Give two characteristics you find interesting in volleyball as a
sport?
4. Submit your work to LMS; and
5. Deadline will be on ___________.
Your work will be graded according to these criteria:

RURIC FOR ESSAY WRITING
Traits 5 4 3 2
Focus & There is one clear, well- There is one clear, There is one The topic and main
Details focused topic. Main well-focused topic. topic. ideas are not clear.
ideas are clear and are Main ideas are clear Main ideas are
well supported by but are somewhat clear.
detailed and accurate not well supported by
information. detailed information.
Organization The introduction is The introduction The introduction There is no clear
inviting, states the states the main topic states the main introduction,
main topic, and and provides an topic. A structure,
provides an overview overview of the paper. conclusion is or conclusion.
of the A conclusion is included.
paper. Information is included.
relevant and presented
in a logical order. The
conclusion is strong.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses The writer uses a
words and phrases. The words and phrases. words that limited vocabulary.
choice and placement The choice and communicate Jargon or clichés
of words seems placement clearly, but the may be present and
accurate, natural, and of words is inaccurate writing lacks detract from the
not forced. at times and/or seems variety meaning.
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TEAM SPORTS
overdone.
Sentence All sentences are well Most sentences are Most sentences Sentences sound
Structure, & constructed and have well-constructed and are well awkward, are
Spelling varied structure and have varied structure constructed, but distractingly,
length. The author and length. The they have a repetitive,
makes no errors in author similar structure or are difficult to
spelling. makes a few errors in and/or length. understand. The
spelling, but The author makes author makes
they do not interfere several errors in numerous errors in
with understanding. spelling that spelling that
interferes interfere with
with understanding.
understanding.
Total Score
Instructions:
Enumerate the important historical development in
volleyball using the table below.
Evaluation:
HISTORY OF VOLLEYBALL
YEAR HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
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TEAM SPORTS
Your work will be graded according to these criteria:

Traits 5 4 3 2
Focus & There is one clear, There is one clear, There is one The topic and
Details well-focused topic. well-focused topic. topic. main
Main ideas are Main ideas are Main ideas are ideas are not
clear and are well clear but are somewhat clear. clear.
supported by not well supported
detailed and by detailed
accurate information.
information.
Organization The introduction is The introduction The introduction There is no clear
inviting, states the states the main states the main introduction,
main topic, and topic and provides topic. A structure,
provides an an overview of the conclusion is or conclusion.
overview of the paper. A conclusion included.
paper. Information is included.
is relevant and
presented in a
logical order. The
conclusion is
strong.
Word Choice The author uses The author uses The author uses The writer uses a
vivid words and vivid words and words that limited
phrases. The phrases. The choice communicate vocabulary.
choice and and placement clearly, but the Jargon or clichés
placement of of words is writing lacks may be present
words seems inaccurate variety and detract from
accurate, natural, at times and/or the meaning.
and seems
not forced. overdone.
Sentence All sentences are Most sentences are Most sentences Sentences sound
Structure, & well well-constructed are well awkward, are
Spelling constructed and and have varied constructed, but distractingly,
have structure and they have a repetitive,
varied structure length. The author similar structure or are difficult to
and makes a few errors and/or length. understand. The
length. The author in The author author makes
makes no errors in spelling, but makes several numerous errors
spelling. they do not errors in in spelling that
interfere spelling that interfere with
with interferes understanding.
understanding. with
understanding.
Total Score
9
TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 2
Basic Rules of Volleyball
Lesson 2: Playing Format, Rules of the Game, Violations,

Players Specialization and Their Position
TEAM SPORTS
Lesson 2: Playing Format, Rules of the Game,

Violations, Players Specialization and Their Position
1. identify the important rules to be remembered in playing volleyball;

2. illustrate the different player’s specialization and their positions in a volleyball court; and
3. value fairness and apply positive attitude by learning the rules of the game.
Introduction
Understanding the rules of every game is very important. This will allow you to enjoy
the game and provide the rules to be observe while playing and violations or errors to avoid
while playing the game. Set of rules are implemented to ensure the harmony and conduct of the
game. Reintroducing to these rules will help understand the sport of volleyball better and can be
used as a part of recreation to engage to others and play the sport.
photo source: Western New England Board of Volleyball Officials

TEAM SPORTS
Engage:
Instruction: Identify the following common violations presented below. Write
you answer on the space provided.
source:volleywood.net source:sport.stackexchange.com source:betteratvolleyball.com
Explore:
Instructions:
Out of the 15 words in the box, create a phrase to explain the rule in playing
and winning a match the sport volleyball:

6 players match- 3 sets
2 teams set- 25 points
5 regular players 2-point lead
Volleyball Rules:
1. What are the important rules in playing volleyball?
2. What are the different fouls and violations in volleyball?
3. How are fouls and other violations affects the game?
TEAM SPORTS
Explain:
I. BASIC VOLLEYBALL RULES
A. Playing Format
1. To Score a Point
A team scores a point:
• By successfully grounding the ball on the opponent’s court;
• When the opponent team commits a fault;
• When the opponent team receives a penalty;
• Fault – if team commits a fault by making a playing action contrary to the
rules (or by violating them in some other way). The referees judge the
faults and determine the consequences according to the rules.
• Rally and completed rally
Rally – is the sequence of playing actions from the moment of the service
hit by the server until the ball is out of play.
A completed Rally –is the sequence of playing actions which results in the
award of a point.
• If the serving team wins a rally, it scores a point and continues to serve.
• If the receiving team wins a rally, it scores a point and it must serve next.
2. To Win a Set
• A set (except the deciding 5th set) is won by the team which first scores 25
points with a minimum lead of two points. In case of a 24-24 tie, play is
continued until a two-point lead is achieved (26-24; 27-25;…
3. The Match
• The match is won by the team that wins three sets.
• In case of a 2-2 tie, the deciding 5th set is played to 15points with a
minimum lead of 2 points.
B. Rules for Playing the Game

• 6 players on a team, 3 on the front row and 3 on the back row
• Maximum of three hits per side (1st Hit/Touch -Pass, Bump or Reception;
2nd Hit/Touch -Set or Toss; 3rd Hit/Touch -Attack, Hit or Spike)
• Player may not hit the ball twice in succession (A block is not considered a hit)
• Ball may be played off the net during a volley and on a serve
• A ball hitting a boundary line is "in"… (see Terminologies)
• A ball is "out" if it hits... (see Terminologies)
• It is legal to contact the ball with any part of a player’s body
• It is illegal to catch, hold, or throw the ball
TEAM SPORTS
• If two or more players contact the ball at the same time, it is considered one play and
either player involved may make the next contact (provided the next contact isn't the
teams 4th hit)
• A player cannot block or attack a serve from on or inside the 10 feet line
• After the serve, front line players may switch positions at the net
• At higher competition, the officiating crew may be made up of Two Referees, Line
Judges/ Linesman, Scorer, and an Assistant Scorer.
C. Violations
The following are some basic volleyball rules for violations.

The result of a violation is a point for the opponent.
• When serving, stepping on or across the service line as you make contact with the
serve
• Failure to serve the ball over the net successfully
• Contacting the ball illegally (lifting, carrying, throwing, etc.)
• Touching the net with any part of the body while the ball is in play. Exception: If the
ball is driven into the net with such force that it causes the net to contact an opposing
player, no foul will be called, and the ball shall continue to be in play.
TEAM SPORTS
• When blocking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, contacting the ball when
reaching over the net is a violation if both:
1) your opponent hasn't used 3 contacts AND
2) they have a player there to make a play on the ball
• When attacking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, contacting the ball when
reaching over the net is a violation if the ball hasn't yet broken the vertical plane of
the net.
• Crossing the court centerline with any part of your body. Exception: if it's the hand
or foot, the entire hand or entire foot must cross for it to be a violation.
• Serving out of order.
• Back row player blocking (deflecting a ball coming from their opponent), when at
the moment of contact the back row player is near the net and has part of his/her body
above the top of the net (an illegal block).
• Back row player attacking a ball inside the front zone (the area inside the 10-foot
line), when at the moment of contact the ball is completely above the net (an illegal
attack).
II. PLAYER SPECIALIZATION & THEIR POSITIONS:

A. Player Specialization:
1. Setter – Have the task for orchestrating the offense of the team. They aim for second
touch and their main responsibility is to place the ball in the air where the attackers can
place the ball into the opponents' court for a point. They have to be able to operate with
the hitters, manage the tempo of their side of the court and choose the right attackers to
set.
2. Outside hitters/Left side hitters – attack from near the left antenna. The outside hitter is
usually the most consistent hitter on the team and gets the most sets. Inaccurate first
passes usually result in a set to the outside hitter rather than middle or opposite.
3. Middle blockers/Middle hitters – are players that can perform very fast attacks that
usually take place near the setter. They are specialized in blocking, since they must
attempt to stop equally fast plays from their opponents and then quickly set up a double
block at the sides of the court.
4. Opposite hitters or Right-side hitters – carry the defensive workload for a volleyball
team in the front row. Their primary responsibilities are to put up a well-formed block
against the opponents' Outside Hitters and serve as a backup setter.
TEAM SPORTS
5. Libero – are defensive players who are responsible for receiving the attack or serve.
Liberos wear a different color jersey than their teammates.
B. Position of Players:
Front-Row Players – Positions: 4 (front-left);
3 (front-center); 2 (front-right)
Back-Row Players – Positions: 5 (back-left);
6 (back-center); 1 (back-right)
• Rotation of players on the court is done clockwise.
TEAM SPORTS
For additional reading and analysis:

TEAM SPORTS
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For more info refer to this link:

http://www.fivb.org/en/refereeing-rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-
EN-v06.pdf
TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 3
Volleyball Basic Skills
Lesson 1: Pass, Set/Toss, Types of Service, Attack,

Block and Dig
TEAM SPORTS
Lesson 1: Pass, Set/Toss, Types of Service, Attack,

Block and Dig
Introduction:
This module will reintroduce you to the basic skills and concepts in volleyball as well as
the specialization of players and their positions on the court to better understand the rules of the
game.

1. discuss the basic skills in playing volleyball;
2. execute the basic skills with 95% accuracy;
3. illustrate the different player’s positions in a basketball court; and
4. value fairness and apply positive attitude by learning the rules of the game
Learning Activity 2:
Instructions: Use the link given under each skill and write the
mechanics on how to perform the basic skill.
A. How to perform the following basic skills?
1.Forearm Pass
https://www.facebook.com/topflightvbc/videos/1015
6737913390577/
2.Overhand Pass / Toss
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFxs0EPD68Q
3.Underhand & Overhand Serve
Engage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnG7XJDunzs
1. After watching, answer the questions to explore the

A. How to perform the following basic skills?
game volleyball.
1.Forearm Pass
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2.Overhand Pass / Toss
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
TEAM SPORTS
3. Underhand & Overhand Serve

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Explore:
Activity 1: Fill in the blank letters to complete the skill or a player specialization.
Instruction: Fill in the lacking letters of the words inside the box about the Basic Skills in
Volleyball and the Specialization of players.
1. S__ T (second contact) 4. H I __ __ E R (other term for spiker)
2. A__ T __ __ K (other term for spike) 5. __ __ B E __ __ (defensive player)
3. B L __ __ K (to intercept the ball)
1. What are the different basic skills in volleyball?
2. How to execute the different basic skills in volleyball?
3.
Explain:
1.BASIC SKILLS:
A. Pass – Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the
opponent's serve, or any form of attack. Proper handling includes not only preventing
the ball from touching the court, but also making it reaches the position where the
setter is standing quickly and precisely.
*Instructional video:
1. Forarm Pass for Beginners – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgHKbjP5mRI
2. How to Move the Feet – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzZ_4mDQRIc
TEAM SPORTS
B. Set – Is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball. The main goal of
setting is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into
the opponent's court. The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team, and
is the player who ultimately decides which player will actually attack the ball.
There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the net.
*Instructional video for Toss
1. How to Set – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOwk2QN0PdM
2. Becoming a Better Setter – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFxs0EPD68Q
Photo source: Volleyball-basics.weebly.com
C. Service – the service is the act of putting the ball into play, by the back-right player,
placed in the service
zone.
Execution of service – the ball shall be hit with one hand or any part of the arm after
being tossed or released from the hand. Only one toss or release of the ball is allowed.
A serve is called an "ace" when the ball lands directly onto the court or travels outside the
court after being touched by an opponent.
TYPES OF SERVES:
1. Underhand – a serve in which the player strikes the ball below the waist instead of
tossing it up and striking it with an overhand throwing motion.
TEAM SPORTS
*Instructional video for Underhand Serve:

2. Overhand –
• Topspin - an overhand serve where the player tosses the ball high and hits it with
a wrist span, giving it topspin which causes it to drop faster
• Float - an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so that its path
becomes unpredictable.
• Jump Serve - an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then
the player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball,
hitting it with much pace and topspin.
• Jump Float - an overhand serve where the ball is tossed high enough that the
player may jump before hitting it similarly to a standing float serve. The ball is
tossed lower than a topspin jump serve, but contact is still made while in the air.
*Instructional video for over serves:

1.Types of Serves –
https://www.facebook.com/officialorvok/videos/1616883298614734
TEAM SPORTS
2.Serve Tips – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyR2IqKQt_o
D. Attack – also known as the spike, is usually the third contact a team makes with the
ball. The object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the opponent's
court and cannot be defended. A player makes a series of steps (the "approach"),
jumps, and swings at the ball.
*Instructional video for Spike for Beginners:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vyk4K8R9CLM
Photo source:setupforvolleyball.com
E. Block – Block is the action of players close to the net to intercept the ball coming
from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net.
In blocking, the player may place his/her hands and arms beyond the net, provided
that this action does not interfere with the opponent’s play. It is not permitted to touch
the ball beyond the net until an opponent has executed an attach hit.
A block contact is not counted as a team hit. After a block contact, a team is entitled
to three hits to return the ball.
Blocking an opponent’s serve is forbidden.

*Instructional video for Block:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30IxcOsUXGM
TEAM SPORTS
Photo source: Leake, Jon (History of Volleyball)
F. Dig – is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or
attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.
Specific Techniques:
"Dive" – Throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an
attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest.
"Pancake" – When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost
touching the court.
Photo source: Volleyball-court-central.com

TEAM SPORTS
Elaborate: *see appendices for the rubric on volleyball on scoring
a. Practice Skills in Passing, Set, Service, Block and Dig. Use the links posted on the
discussion as a guide for proper demonstration of the skills.
b. Record yourself activity. Kindly follow the instructions below.
Instructions: Using the insights you have gained from the

lesson notes, perform this activity:
1. Record yourself for 3min while performing the 3
basic skills in volleyball passing, set(toss) &
underhand and overhand serve;
2. You may use an alternative or improvised ball incase
you don’t have volleyball; &
3. Submit your work to LMS.
TEAM SPORTS
Evaluation:
Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ____________ Course/Year
& Section: ________________________________ Score: ___________
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before each number. 5
items for 2 points each, total of 10 point.
____ 1. In Volleyball, it is an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so
that its path becomes unpredictable.
A. Top Spin C. Float
B. Jump Float D. Jump Serve
____ 2. This is usually the second contact a team makes with the ball.
A. Attack C. Pass
B. Block D. Set
____3. This skill is also called reception.

A. Attack C. Pass
B. Block D. Set
____4. The main goal of these skill is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it
can be driven by an attack into the opponent's court.
A. Serve C. Pass
B. Block D. Set
____5. It is an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then the
player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball,
hitting it with much pace and topspin.
A. Top Spin C. Float
B. Jump Float D. Jump Serve
OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES
2017-2020
Approved by the 35th FIVB Congress 2016

Official Volleyball Rules 2017-2020
Published by FIVB in 2016 – www.fivb.com
Design and layout: Samuel Chesaux
Illustrations: © FIVB 2014

OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES
2017-2020
Approved by the 35th FIVB Congress 2016
To be implemented in all competitions beginning after 1st January 2017
OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES 2017-2020 1

CONTENTS
GAME CHARACTERISTICS 7
PART 1: PHILOSOPHY OF RULES AND REFEREEING 8
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME 11
CHAPTER 1: FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 12
1 PLAYING AREA.....................................................................................................................12
1.1 DIMENSIONS...............................................................................................................12
1.2 PLAYING SURFACE......................................................................................................12
1.3 LINES ON THE COURT.................................................................................................13
1.4 ZONES AND AREAS.....................................................................................................13
1.5 TEMPERATURE............................................................................................................14
1.6 LIGHTING....................................................................................................................14
2 NET AND POSTS...................................................................................................................14
2.1 HEIGHT OF THE NET....................................................................................................14
2.2 STRUCTURE................................................................................................................15
2.3 SIDE BANDS................................................................................................................15
2.4 ANTENNAE.................................................................................................................15
2.5 POSTS.........................................................................................................................15
2.6 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT...........................................................................................16
3 BALLS...................................................................................................................................16
3.1 STANDARDS...............................................................................................................16
3.2 UNIFORMITY OF BALLS...............................................................................................16
3.3 FIVE-BALL SYSTEM......................................................................................................16
CHAPTER 2: PARTICIPANTS 17
4 TEAMS.................................................................................................................................17
4.1 TEAM COMPOSITION..................................................................................................17
4.2 LOCATION OF THE TEAM............................................................................................18
4.3 EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................18
4.4 CHANGE OF EQUIPMENT............................................................................................19
4.5 FORBIDDEN OBJECTS..................................................................................................19
5 TEAM LEADERS....................................................................................................................19
5.1 CAPTAIN.....................................................................................................................19
5.2 COACH......................................................................................................................20
5.3 ASSISTANT COACH.....................................................................................................21
2
CHAPTER 3: PLAYING FORMAT 22
6 TO SCORE A POINT, TO WIN A SET AND THE MATCH...........................................................22

6.1 TO SCORE A POINT.....................................................................................................22
6.2 TO WIN A SET.............................................................................................................22
6.3 TO WIN THE MATCH...................................................................................................23
6.4 DEFAULT AND INCOMPLETE TEAM..............................................................................23
7 STRUCTURE OF PLAY............................................................................................................23
7.1 THE TOSS....................................................................................................................23
7.2 OFFICIAL WARM-UP SESSION......................................................................................23
7.3 TEAM STARTING LINE-UP............................................................................................24
7.4 POSITIONS..................................................................................................................25
7.5 POSITIONAL FAULT......................................................................................................25
7.6 ROTATION...................................................................................................................26
7.7 ROTATIONAL FAULT....................................................................................................26
CHAPTER 4: PLAYING ACTIONS 27
8 STATES OF PLAY...................................................................................................................27
8.1 BALL IN PLAY..............................................................................................................27
8.2 BALL OUT OF PLAY.....................................................................................................27
8.3 BALL “IN”...................................................................................................................27
8.4 BALL “OUT”...............................................................................................................27
9 PLAYING THE BALL.............................................................................................................. 28
9.1 TEAM HITS..................................................................................................................28
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIT...................................................................................28
9.3 FAULTS IN PLAYING THE BALL.....................................................................................29
10 BALL AT THE NET..................................................................................................................29
10.1 BALL CROSSING THE NET............................................................................................29
10.2 BALL TOUCHING THE NET...........................................................................................30
10.3 BALL IN THE NET.........................................................................................................30
11 PLAYER AT THE NET..............................................................................................................30
11.1 REACHING BEYOND THE NET.....................................................................................30
11.2 PENETRATION UNDER THE NET...................................................................................30
11.3 CONTACT WITH THE NET............................................................................................31
11.4 PLAYER’S FAULTS AT THE NET.....................................................................................31
12 SERVICE...............................................................................................................................31
12.1 FIRST SERVICE IN A SET...............................................................................................31
12.2 SERVICE ORDER..........................................................................................................32
12.3 AUTHORIZATION OF THE SERVICE...............................................................................32
12.4 EXECUTION OF THE SERVICE......................................................................................32

12.5 SCREENING.................................................................................................................32
12.6 FAULTS MADE DURING THE SERVICE..........................................................................33
12.7 SERVING FAULTS AND POSITIONAL FAULTS.................................................................33
13 ATTACK HIT..........................................................................................................................33
13.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTACK HIT......................................................................33
13.2 RESTRICTIONS OF THE ATTACK HIT.............................................................................33
13.3 FAULTS OF THE ATTACK HIT........................................................................................34
14 BLOCK.................................................................................................................................34
14.1 BLOCKING..................................................................................................................34
14.2 BLOCK CONTACT.......................................................................................................35
14.3 BLOCKING WITHIN THE OPPONENT’S SPACE..............................................................35
14.4 BLOCK AND TEAM HITS..............................................................................................35
14.5 BLOCKING THE SERVICE.............................................................................................35
14.6 BLOCKING FAULTS......................................................................................................35
CHAPTER 5: INTERRUPTIONS, DELAYS AND INTERVALS 36
15 INTERRUPTIONS....................................................................................................................36
15.1 NUMBER OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS...........................................................36
15.2 SEQUENCE OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS........................................................36
15.3 REQUEST FOR REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS.........................................................36
15.4 TIME-OUTS AND TECHNICAL TIME-OUTS....................................................................37
15.5 SUBSTITUTION............................................................................................................37
15.6 LIMITATION OF SUBSTITUTIONS..................................................................................37
15.7 EXCEPTIONAL SUBSTITUTION......................................................................................37
15.8 SUBSTITUTION FOR EXPULSION OR DISQUALIFICATION...............................................38
15.9 ILLEGAL SUBSTITUTION...............................................................................................38
15.10 SUBSTITUTION PROCEDURE........................................................................................38
15.11 IMPROPER REQUESTS..................................................................................................39
16 GAME DELAYS.....................................................................................................................39
16.1 TYPES OF DELAYS.......................................................................................................39
16.2 DELAY SANCTIONS.....................................................................................................40
17 EXCEPTIONAL GAME INTERRUPTIONS................................................................................. 40
17.1 INJURY / ILLNESS..........................................................................................................40
17.2 EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE...........................................................................................40
17.3 PROLONGED INTERRUPTIONS.....................................................................................40
18 INTERVALS AND CHANGE OF COURTS.................................................................................41
18.1 INTERVALS..................................................................................................................41
18.2 CHANGE OF COURTS.................................................................................................41
4
CHAPTER 6: THE LIBERO PLAYER 42
19 THE LIBERO PLAYER..............................................................................................................42

19.1 DESIGNATION OF THE LIBERO.....................................................................................42
19.2 EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................42
19.3 ACTIONS INVOLVING THE LIBERO...............................................................................42
19.4 RE-DESIGNATION OF A NEW LIBERO...........................................................................44
19.5 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................45
CHAPTER 7: PARTICIPANTS’ CONDUCT 46
20 REQUIREMENTS OF CONDUCT.............................................................................................46
20.1 SPORTSMANLIKE CONDUCT.......................................................................................46
20.2 FAIR PLAY...................................................................................................................46
21 MISCONDUCT AND ITS SANCTIONS.....................................................................................46
21.1 MINOR MISCONDUCT................................................................................................46
21.2 MISCONDUCT LEADING TO SANCTIONS.....................................................................47
21.3 SANCTION SCALE.......................................................................................................47
21.4 APPLICATION OF MISCONDUCT SANCTIONS..............................................................48
21.5 MISCONDUCT BEFORE AND BETWEEN SETS...............................................................48
21.6 SUMMARY OF MISCONDUCT AND CARDS USED.......................................................48
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS 49
CHAPTER 8: REFEREES 50
22 REFEREEING CORPS AND PROCEDURES................................................................................50

22.1 COMPOSITION............................................................................................................50
22.2 PROCEDURES..............................................................................................................50
23 1st REFEREE...........................................................................................................................51
23.1 LOCATION..................................................................................................................51
23.2 AUTHORITY................................................................................................................51
23.3 RESPONSIBILITIES........................................................................................................52
24 2nd REFEREE..........................................................................................................................53
24.1 LOCATION..................................................................................................................53
24.2 AUTHORITY................................................................................................................53
25 SCORER................................................................................................................................55
25.1 LOCATION..................................................................................................................55

26 ASSISTANT SCORER..............................................................................................................56
26.1 LOCATION..................................................................................................................56
27 LINE JUDGES........................................................................................................................57
27.1 LOCATION..................................................................................................................57
28 OFFICIAL SIGNALS................................................................................................................58
28.1 REFEREES’ HAND SIGNALS..........................................................................................58
28.2 LINE JUDGES’ FLAG SIGNALS......................................................................................58

PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS 59
D1a COMPETITION / CONTROL AREA.........................................................................................60

D1b THE PLAYING AREA...........................................................................................................61
D2 THE PLAYING COURT.........................................................................................................62
D3 DESIGN OF THE NET...........................................................................................................63
D4 POSITION OF PLAYERS.......................................................................................................64
D5a BALL CROSSING THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET TO THE OPPONENT COURT.................65
D5b BALL CROSSING THE VERTICAL PLANE TO THE OPPONENT FREE ZONE..............................66
D6 COLLECTIVE SCREEN.........................................................................................................67
D7 COMPLETED BLOCK..........................................................................................................67
D8 BACK ROW PLAYER’S ATTACK...........................................................................................68
D9 WARNINGS AND SANCTIONS SCALES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES..................................69
D9a MISCONDUCT WARNINGS AND SANCTIONS.....................................................................69
D9b DELAY WARNINGS AND SANCTIONS.................................................................................69
D10 LOCATION OF THE REFEREEING CORPS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS........................................70
D11 REFEREES’ OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS.............................................................................71-77
D12 LINE JUDGES’ OFFICIAL FLAG SIGNALS.........................................................................78-79
PART 3: DEFINITIONS 80
INDEX 83
6
GAME CHARACTERISTICS
Volleyball is a sport played by two teams on a playing court divided by a net.

There are different versions available for specific circumstances in order to
offer the versatility of the game to everyone.
The object of the game is to send the ball over the net in order to ground it on
the opponent’s court, and to prevent the same effort by the opponent. The
team has three hits for returning the ball (in addition to the block contact).
The ball is put in play with a service: hit by the server over the net to the
opponents. The rally continues until the ball is grounded on the playing court,
goes “out” or a team fails to return it properly.
In Volleyball, the team winning a rally scores a point (Rally Point System).
When the receiving team wins a rally, it gains a point and the right to serve,
and its players rotate one position clockwise.

PART 1
PHILOSOPHY OF RULES
AND REFEREEING
8
PART 1: PHILOSOPHY OF RULES AND REFEREEING
INTRODUCTION
Volleyball is one of the most successful and popular competitive and recreational sports in the
world. It is fast, it is exciting and the action is explosive. Yet Volleyball comprises several crucial
overlapping elements whose complimentary interactions render it unique amongst rally games.
VOLLEY
Service Rotation
PASSING
Explosive
Jumping Power
Action
DIVIDED
Attack TEAM GAME Defense
COURTS
In recent years the FIVB has made great strides in adapting the game to a modern audience.
This text is aimed at a broad Volleyball public – players, coaches, referees, spectators, commentators –
for the following reasons:
–– understanding the rules better, allows better play – coaches can create better team structure and
tactics, allowing players full rein to display their skills;
–– understanding the relationship between rules allows officials to make better decisions.
This introduction at first focuses on Volleyball as a competitive sport, before setting out to identify
the main qualities required for successful refereeing.
VOLLEYBALL IS A COMPETITIVE SPORT
Competition taps latent strengths. It exhibits the best of ability, spirit, creativity and aesthetics.
The rules are structured to allow all of these qualities. With a few exceptions, Volleyball allows
all players to operate both at the net (in attack) and in the back of the court (to defend or serve).
William Morgan, the game’s creator, would still recognize it because Volleyball has retained certain
distinctive and essential elements over the years. Some of these it shares with other net/ball/
racquet games:
–– Service
–– Rotation (taking turns to serve)
–– Attack
–– Defense
Volleyball is, however, unique amongst net games in insisting that the ball is in constant flight
– a flying ball – and by allowing each team a degree of internal passing before the ball must be
returned to the opponents.
The introduction of a specialist defensive player – the Libero – has moved the game forward in

terms of rally length and multi-phase play. Modifications to the service rule have changed the act
of service from simply a means of putting the ball in play to an offensive weapon.
The concept of rotation is entrenched to allow for all-round athletes. The rules on player positions
must permit teams to have flexibility and to create interesting developments in tactics.
Competitors use this framework to contest techniques, tactics and power. The framework also
allows players a freedom of expression to enthuse spectators and viewers.
And the image of Volleyball is increasingly a good one.
THE REFEREE WITHIN THIS FRAMEWORK
The essence of a good official lies in the concept of fairness and consistency:
–– to be fair to every participant,

–– to be viewed as fair by the spectators.
This demands a huge element of trust – the referee must be trusted to allow the players to entertain:
–– by being accurate in his/her judgement;

–– by understanding why the rule is written;
–– by being an efficient organizer;
–– by allowing the competition to flow and by directing it to a conclusion;
–– by being an educator – using the rules to penalise the unfair or admonish the impolite;
–– by promoting the game – that is, by allowing the spectacular elements in the game to shine
and the best players to do what they do best: entertain the public.
Finally we can say that a good referee will use the rules to make the competition a fulfilling
experience for all concerned.
To those who have read thus far, view the rules which follow as the current state of development of a
great game, but keep in mind why these preceding few paragraphs may be of equal importance to you
in your own position within the sport.
Get involved !
Keep the ball flying !
10
PART 2
SECTION 1: GAME

CHAPTER 1
FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
See Rules
1 PLAYING AREA
The playing area includes the playing court and the free zone. It shall be 1.1, D1a, D1b
rectangular and symmetrical.
1.1 DIMENSIONS D2
The playing court is a rectangle measuring 18 x 9 m, surrounded by a

free zone which is a minimum of 3 m wide on all sides.
The free playing space is the space above the playing area which is free
from any obstructions. The free playing space shall measure a minimum
of 7 m in height from the playing surface.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the free zone shall
measure 5 m from the side lines and 6.5 m from the end lines. The
free playing space shall measure a minimum of 12.5 m in height
from the playing surface.
1.2 PLAYING SURFACE

1.2.1 The surface must be flat, horizontal and uniform. It must not present
any danger of injury to the players. It is forbidden to play on rough or
slippery surfaces.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, only a wooden or

synthetic surface is allowed. Any surface must be previously
approved by the FIVB.
1.2.2 On indoor courts the surface of the playing court must be of a light
colour.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, white colours are 1.1, 1.3
required for the lines. Other colours, different from each other,
are required for the playing court and the free zone.
1.2.3 On outdoor courts a slope of 5 mm per metre is allowed for drainage. 1.3
Court lines made of solid materials are forbidden.
12
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
1.3 LINES ON THE COURT D2
1.3.1 All lines are 5 cm wide. They must be of a light colour which is different 1.2.2
from the colour of the floor and from any other lines.
1.3.2 Boundary lines
Two side lines and two end lines mark the playing court. Both side lines 1.1
and end lines are drawn inside the dimensions of the playing court.
1.3.3 Centre line
The axis of the centre line divides the playing court into two equal D2
courts measuring 9 x 9 m each; however the entire width of the line is
considered to belong to both courts equally. This line extends beneath
the net from side line to side line.
1.3.4 Attack line
On each court, an attack line, whose rear edge is drawn 3 m back from 1.3.3, 1.4.1
the axis of the centre line, marks the front zone.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the attack line is D2

extended by the addition of broken lines from the side lines,
with five 15 cm short lines 5 cm wide, drawn 20 cm from each
other to a total length of 1.75 m. The “coach’s restriction line” (a
broken line which extends from the attack line to the end line of
the court, parallel to the side line and 1.75 m from it) is composed
of 15 cm short lines drawn 20 cm apart to mark the limit of the
coach’s area of operation.
1.4 ZONES AND AREAS D1b, D2
1.4.1 Front zone 19.3.1.4,

23.3.2.3e, D2
On each court the front zone is limited by the axis of the centre line and 1.3.3, 1.3.4,
the rear edge of the attack line. 19.3.1.4,
23.3.2.3e
The front zone is considered to extend beyond the side lines to the end 1.1, 1.3.2
of the free zone.
1.4.2 Service zone
The service zone is a 9 m wide area behind each end line.
It is laterally limited by two short lines, each 15 cm long, drawn 20 cm 1.3.2, 12, D1b
behind the end line as an extension of the side lines. Both short lines are
included in the width of the service zone.
In depth, the service zone extends to the end of the free zone. 1.1

1.4.3 Substitution zone
The substitution zone is limited by the extension of both attack lines up 1.3.4, 15.6.1,
to the scorer's table. D1b
1.4.4 Libero Replacement zone
The Libero Replacement zone is part of the free zone on the side of 19.3.2.7, D1b
the team benches, limited by the extension of the attack line up to the
end line.
1.4.5 Warm-up area
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the warm-up areas, 24.2.5, D1a,
sized approximately 3 x 3 m, are located in both of the bench- D1b
side corners, outside the free zone.
1.4.6 Penalty area
A penalty area, sized approximately 1 x 1 m and equipped with two 21.3.2.1, D1a,
chairs, is located in the control area, outside the prolongation of each D1b
end line. They may be limited by a 5 cm wide red line.
1.5 TEMPERATURE
The minimum temperature shall not be below 10° C (50° F).
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the maximum

temperature shall not be higher than 25° C (77° F) and the
minimum not lower than 16° C (61° F).
1.6 LIGHTING
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the lighting on the 1
playing area should be 1000 to 1500 lux measured at 1 m above
the surface of the playing area.
2 NET AND POSTS D3
2.1 HEIGHT OF THE NET

2.1.1 Placed vertically over the centre line there is a net whose top is set at the 1.3.3
height of 2.43 m for men and 2.24 m for women.
2.1.2 Its height is measured from the centre of the playing court. The net 1.1, 1.3.2,
height (over the two side lines) must be exactly the same and must not 2.1.1
exceed the official height by more than 2 cm.
14
2.2 STRUCTURE
The net is 1 m wide and 9.50 to 10 m long (with 25 to 50 cm on each D3
side of the side bands), made of 10 cm square black mesh.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, in conjunction with

specific competition regulations, the mesh may be modified to
facilitate advertising according to marketing agreements.
At its top a horizontal band, 7 cm wide, made of two-fold white canvas,
is sewn along its full length. Each extreme end of the band has a hole,
through which passes a cord, fastening the band to the posts for
keeping its top taut.
Within the band, a flexible cable fastens the net to the posts and keeps
its top taut.
At the bottom of the net there is another horizontal band, 5cm wide,
similar to the top band, through which is threaded a rope. This rope
fastens the net to the posts and keeps its lower part taut.
2.3 SIDE BANDS

Two white bands are fastened vertically to the net and placed directly 1.3.2, D3
above each side line.
They are 5 cm wide and 1 m long and are considered as part of the net.
2.4 ANTENNAE
An antenna is a flexible rod, 1.80 m long and 10 mm in diameter, made
of fibreglass or similar material.
An antenna is fastened at the outer edge of each side band. The 2.3, D3
antennae are placed on opposite sides of the net.
The top 80 cm of each antenna extends above the net and is marked
with 10 cm stripes of contrasting colour, preferably red and white.
The antennae are considered as part of the net and laterally delimit the 10.1.1, D3,
crossing space. D5a, D5b
2.5 POSTS
2.5.1 The posts supporting the net are placed at a distance of 0.50-1.00 m D3
outside the side lines. They are 2.55 m high and preferably adjustable.
For all FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the posts supporting
the net are placed at a distance of 1 m outside the side lines and
must be padded.
2.5.2 The posts are rounded and smooth, fixed to the ground without wires.
There shall be no dangerous or obstructing devices.

2.6 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT
All additional equipment is determined by FIVB regulations.
3 BALLS
3.1 STANDARDS
The ball shall be spherical, made of a flexible leather or synthetic leather
case with a bladder inside, made of rubber or a similar material.
Its colour may be a uniform light colour or a combination of colours.
Synthetic leather material and colour combinations of balls used in

international official competitions should comply with FIVB standards.
Its circumference is 65-67 cm and its weight is 260-280 g.
Its inside pressure shall be 0.30 to 0.325 kg/cm2 (4.26 to 4.61 psi) (294.3
to 318.82 mbar or hPa).
3.2 UNIFORMITY OF BALLS

All balls used in a match must have the same standards regarding 3.1
circumference, weight, pressure, type, colour, etc.
FIVB, World and Official Competitions, as well as National or

League Championships, must be played with FIVB approved
balls, unless by agreement of FIVB.
3.3 FIVE-BALL SYSTEM

For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, five balls shall be D10
used. In this case, six ball retrievers are stationed, one at each
corner of the free zone and one behind each referee.
16
CHAPTER 2
PARTICIPANTS
See Rules
4 TEAMS
4.1 TEAM COMPOSITION

4.1.1 For the match, a team may consist of up to 12 players, plus 5.2, 5.3
–– Coaching Staff: one coach, a maximum of two assistant coaches,

–– Medical Staff: one team therapist and one medical doctor.
Only those listed on the score sheet may normally enter the Competition/
Control Area and take part in the official warm up and in the match.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors:
Up to 14 players may be recorded on the score sheet and play in

a match.
The maximum five staff members on the bench (including the

coach) are chosen by the coach him/herself but must be listed on
the score sheet, and be registered on the O-2(bis).
The Team Manager or Team Journalist may not sit on or behind

the bench in the Control Area.
Any Medical doctor or team therapist used in FIVB, World and D1a
Official Competitions must be part of the official Delegation
and accredited beforehand by the FIVB. However, for FIVB,
World and Official Competitions for Seniors, if they are not
included as members on the team bench, they must sit against
the delimitation fence, inside the Competition-Control Area and
may only intervene if invited by the referees to deal with an
emergency to the players. The team therapist (even if not on the 7.2.1
bench) may assist with the warm up until the start of the official
net warm up session.
The Official Regulations for each event will be found in the

Specific Competition Handbook.
4.1.2 One of the players, other than the Libero, is the team captain, who shall 5.1, 19.1.3
be indicated on the score sheet.

4.1.3 Only the players recorded on the score sheet may enter the court and 1, 4.1.1, 5.1.1,
play in the match. Once the coach and the team captain have signed the 5.2.2
score sheet, (team list for electronic score sheet) the recorded players
cannot be changed.
4.2 LOCATION OF THE TEAM

4.2.1 The players not in play should either sit on their team bench or be in 1.4.5, 5.2.3,
their warm-up area. The coach and other team members sit on the 7.3.3
bench, but may temporarily leave it.
The benches for the teams are located beside the scorer's table, outside D1a, D1b
the free zone.
4.2.2 Only the team composition members are permitted to sit on the bench 4.1.1, 7.2
during the match and to participate in the official warm-up session.
4.2.3 Players not in play may warm-up without balls as follows:
4.2.3.1 during play: in the warm-up areas; 1.4.5, 8.1, D1a,

D1b
4.2.3.2 during time-outs and technical time-outs: in the free zone behind their 1.3.3, 15.4
court.
4.2.4 During set intervals, players may warm-up using balls within their own 18.1
free zone. During the extended interval between sets 2 and 3 (if
used), players may use their own court as well.
4.3 EQUIPMENT
A player's equipment consists of a jersey, shorts, socks (the uniform)
and sport shoes.
4.3.1 The colour and the design for the jerseys, shorts and socks must be 4.1, 19.2
uniform for the team (except for the Libero). The uniforms must be
clean.
4.3.2 The shoes must be light and pliable with rubber or composite soles
without heels.
4.3.3 Players' jerseys must be numbered from 1 to 20. 4.3.3.2
In FIVB, World and Official Competitions for Seniors, where

larger playing squads are used, numbers may be extended.
4.3.3.1 The number must be placed on the jersey at the centre of the front and
of the back. The colour and brightness of the numbers must contrast
with the colour and brightness of the jerseys.
4.3.3.2 The number must be a minimum of 15 cm in height on the chest, and
a minimum of 20 cm in height on the back. The stripe forming the
numbers shall be a minimum of 2 cm in width.
18
4.3.4 The team captain must have on his/her jersey a stripe of 8 x 2 cm 5.1
underlining the number on the chest.
4.3.5 It is forbidden to wear uniforms of a colour different from that of the 19.2
other players (except for the Liberos), and/or without official numbers.
4.4 CHANGE OF EQUIPMENT

The 1st referee may authorize one or more players: 23
4.4.1 to play barefoot;
4.4.2 to change wet or damaged uniforms between sets or after substitution, 4.3, 15.5
provided that the colour, design and number of the new uniform(s) are
the same;
4.4.3 to play in training suits in cold weather, provided that they are of the 4.1.1, 19.2
same colour and design for the whole team (except for the Liberos) and
numbered according to Rule 4.3.3.
4.5 FORBIDDEN OBJECTS

4.5.1 It is forbidden to wear objects which may cause injury or give an artificial
advantage to the player.
4.5.2 Players may wear glasses or lenses at their own risk.
4.5.3 Compression pads (padded injury protection devices) may be worn for
protection or support.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors, these

devices must be of the same colour as the corresponding part of
the uniform. Black, white or neutral colours may also be used.
5 TEAM LEADERS
Both the team captain and the coach are responsible for the conduct 20
and discipline of their team members.
The Liberos cannot be either team or game captain.
5.1 CAPTAIN
5.1.1 PRIOR TO THE MATCH, the team captain signs the score sheet and 7.1, 25.2.1.1
represents his/her team in the toss.
5.1.2 DURING THE MATCH and while on the court, the team captain is the 15.2.1
game captain. When the team captain is not on the court, the coach
or the team captain must assign another player on the court, but not
the Libero, to assume the role of game captain. This game captain
maintains his/her responsibilities until he/she is substituted, or the team
captain returns to play, or the set ends.

When the ball is out of play, only the game captain is authorized to 8.2
speak to the referees:
5.1.2.1 to ask for an explanation on the application or interpretation of the 23.2.4

Rules, and also to submit the requests or questions of his/her team-
mates. If the game captain does not agree with the explanation of the
1st referee, he/she may choose to protest against such decision and
immediately indicates to the 1st referee that he/she reserves the right
to record an official protest on the score sheet at the end of the match;
5.1.2.2 to ask authorization:

a) to change all or part of the equipment, 4.3, 4.4.2
b) to verify the positions of the teams, 7.4, 7.6
c) to check the floor, the net, the ball, etc.; 1.2, 2, 3
5.1.2.3 in the absence of the coach to request time-outs and substitutions. 15.3.1, 15.4.1,
15.5.2
5.1.3 AT THE END OF THE MATCH, the team captain: 6.3
5.1.3.1 thanks the referees and signs the score sheet to ratify the result; 25.2.3.3
5.1.3.2 may, when it has been notified in due time to the 1 referee, confirm
st
5.1.2.1,
and record on the score sheet an official protest regarding the referee’s 25.2.3.2
application or interpretation of the rules.
5.2 COACH
5.2.1 Throughout the match, the coach conducts the play of his/her team 1.1, 7.3.2,
from outside the playing court. He/she selects the starting line-ups, the 15.4.1, 15.5.2
substitutes, and takes time-outs. In these functions his/her contacting
official is the 2nd referee.
5.2.2 PRIOR TO THE MATCH, the coach records or checks the names and 4.1, 19.1.3,
numbers of his/her players on the score sheet team roster, and then signs it. 25.2.1.1
5.2.3 DURING THE MATCH, the coach:
5.2.3.1 prior to each set, gives the 2nd referee or the scorer the line-up sheet(s) 7.3.2, 7.4, 7.6
duly filled in and signed;
5.2.3.2 sits on the team bench nearest to the scorer, but may leave it; 4.2
5.2.3.3 requests time-outs and substitutions; 15.4, 15.5
5.2.3.4 may, as well as other team members, give instructions to the players 1.3.4, 1.4.5,
on the court. The coach may give these instructions while standing or D1a, D1b, D2
walking within the free zone in front of his/her team’s bench from the
extension of the attack line up to the warm-up area, without disturbing
or delaying the match.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the coach is restricted D1a, D1b, D2
to performing his/her function from behind the coach’s restriction
line throughout the entire match.
20
5.3 ASSISTANT COACH

5.3.1 The assistant coach sits on the team bench, but has no right to intervene
in the match.
5.3.2 Should the coach have to leave his/her team for any reason including 5.1.2, 5.2
sanction, but excluding entering the court as a player, an assistant coach
may assume the coach's functions for the duration of the absence, once
confirmed to the referee by the game captain.

CHAPTER 3
PLAYING FORMAT
See Rules
6 TO SCORE A POINT, TO WIN A SET AND THE MATCH
6.1 TO SCORE A POINT

6.1.1 Point
A team scores a point:
6.1.1.1 by successfully landing the ball on the opponent’s court; 8.3, 10.1.1
6.1.1.2 when the opponent team commits a fault; 6.1.2
6.1.1.3 when the opponent team receives a penalty. 16.2.3, 21.3.1
6.1.2 Fault
A team commits a fault by making a playing action contrary to the rules

(or by violating them in some other way). The referees judge the faults
and determine the consequences according to the rules:
6.1.2.1 if two or more faults are committed successively, only the first one is
counted;
6.1.2.2 if two or more faults are committed by opponents simultaneously, a 6.1.2, D11 (23)
DOUBLE FAULT is called and the rally is replayed.
6.1.3 Rally and completed rally
A rally is the sequence of playing actions from the moment of the 8.1, 8.2,
service hit by the server until the ball is out of play. A completed rally 12.2.2.1, 12.4.4,
is the sequence of playing actions which results in the award of a point. 15.2.3,
This includes: 15.11.1.3,
19.3.2.1,
–– the award of a penalty 19.3.2.9,
–– loss of service for service hit made after the time-limit. 21.3.1
6.1.3.1 If the serving team wins a rally, it scores a point and continues to serve.
6.1.3.2 If the receiving team wins a rally, it scores a point and it must serve next.
6.2 TO WIN A SET D11 (9)
A set (except the deciding 5th set) is won by the team which first scores 6.3.2
25 points with a minimum lead of two points. In the case of a 24-24 tie,
play is continued until a two-point lead is achieved (26-24; 27-25; etc.).
22
6.3 TO WIN THE MATCH D11 (9)
6.3.1 The match is won by the team that wins three sets. 6.2
6.3.2 In the case of a 2-2 tie, the deciding 5th set is played to 15 points with a 7.1
minimum lead of 2 points.
6.4 DEFAULT AND INCOMPLETE TEAM

6.4.1 If a team refuses to play after being summoned to do so, it is declared 6.2, 6.3
in default and forfeits the match with the result 0-3 for the match and
0-25 for each set.
6.4.2 A team that, without justifiable reason, does not appear on the playing
court on time is declared in default with the same result as in Rule 6.4.1.
6.4.3 A team that is declared INCOMPLETE for the set or for the match, loses 6.2, 6.3, 7.3.1
the set or the match. The opponent team is given the points, or the
points and the sets, needed to win the set or the match. The incomplete
team keeps its points and sets.
7 STRUCTURE OF PLAY
7.1 THE TOSS

Before the match, the 1st referee carries out a toss to decide upon the 12.1.1
first service and the sides of the court in the first set.
If a deciding set is to be played, a new toss will be carried out. 6.3.2
7.1.1 The toss is taken in the presence of the two team captains. 5.1
7.1.2 The winner of the toss chooses:
EITHER
7.1.2.1 the right to serve or to receive the service, 12.1.1
OR
7.1.2.2 the side of the court.
The loser takes the remaining choice.
7.2 OFFICIAL WARM-UP SESSION

7.2.1 Prior to the match, if the teams have previously had a playing court
exclusively at their disposal, they are entitled to a 6-minute official
warm-up period together at the net; if not, they may have 10 minutes.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions, teams will be entitled

to a 10 minute warm up period together at the net.

7.2.2 If either captain requests separate (consecutive) official warm-ups at the 7.2.1
net, the teams are allowed 3 minutes each or 5 minutes each.
7.2.3 In the case of consecutive official warm-ups, the team that has the first 7.1.2.1, 7.2.2
service takes the first turn at the net.
7.3 TEAM STARTING LINE-UP

7.3.1 There must always be six players per team in play. 6.4.3
The team's starting line-up indicates the rotational order of the players 7.6
on the court. This order must be maintained throughout the set.
7.3.2 Before the start of each set, the coach has to present the starting line-up 5.2.3.1, 24.3.1,
of his/her team on a line-up sheet or via the electronic device, if used. 25.2.1.2
The sheet is submitted, duly filled in and signed, to the 2nd referee or the
scorer – or electronically sent directly to the e-scorer.
7.3.3 The players who are not in the starting line-up of a set are the substitutes 7.3.2, 15.5
for that set (except the Liberos).
7.3.4 Once the line-up sheet has been delivered to the 2nd referee or scorer, no 15.2.2, 15.5,
change in the line-up may be authorized without a regular substitution. D11 (5)
7.3.5 Discrepancies between players’ position on court and on the line-up 24.3.1
sheet are dealt with as follows:
7.3.5.1 when such a discrepancy is discovered before the start of the set, 7.3.2
players' positions must be rectified according to those on the line-up
sheet – there will be no sanction;
7.3.5.2 when, before the start of the set, any player on court is found not to be 7.3.2
registered on the line-up sheet of that set, this player must be changed
to conform to the line-up sheet – there will be no sanction;
7.3.5.3 however, if the coach wishes to keep such non-recorded player(s) on 15.2.2, D11 (5)
the court, he/she has to request regular substitution(s), by use of the
corresponding hand signal, which will then be recorded on the score
sheet.
If a discrepancy between players’ positions and the line-up sheet is

discovered later, the team at fault must revert to the correct positions.
The opponent’s points remain valid and in addition they receive a point
and the next service. All points scored by the team at fault from the
exact moment of the fault up to the discovery of the fault are cancelled.
7.3.5.4 Where a player is found to be on court but he/she is not registered on 6.1.2, 7.3.2
the team roster, the opponent’s points remain valid, and in addition
they gain a point and service. The team at fault will lose all points and/
or sets (0:25, if necessary) gained from the moment the non- registered
player entered the court, and will have to submit a revised line-up sheet
and send a new registered player into the court, in the position of the
non-registered player.
24
7.4 POSITIONS D4
At the moment the ball is hit by the server, each team must be positioned 7.6.1, 8.1, 12.4
within its own court in the rotational order (except the server).
7.4.1 The positions of the players are numbered as follows:
7.4.1.1 the three players along the net are front-row players and occupy
positions 4 (front-left), 3 (front-centre) and 2 (front-right);
7.4.1.2 the other three are back-row players occupying positions 5 (back-left), 6
(back-centre) and 1 (back-right).
7.4.2 Relative positions between players:
7.4.2.1 each back-row player must be positioned further back from the centre
line than the corresponding front-row player;
7.4.2.2 the front-row players and the back-row players, respectively, must be
positioned laterally in the order indicated in Rule 7.4.1.
7.4.3 The positions of players are determined and controlled according to the D4
positions of their feet contacting the ground as follows:
7.4.3.1 each front-row player must have at least a part of his/her foot closer 1.3.3
to the centre line than the feet of the corresponding back-row player;
7.4.3.2 each right (left) side player must have at least a part of his/her foot 1.3.2
closer to the right (left) sideline than the feet of the centre player in
that row.
7.4.4 After the service hit, the players may move around and occupy any
position on their court and the free zone.
7.5 POSITIONAL FAULT D4, D11 (13)
7.5.1 The team commits a positional fault, if any player is not in his/her correct 7.3, 7.4, 15.9
position at the moment the ball is hit by the server. When a player is on
court through illegal substitution, and play restarts, this is counted as a
positional fault with the consequences of an illegal substitution.
7.5.2 If the server commits a serving fault at the moment of the service hit, 12.4, 12.7.1
the server's fault is counted before a positional fault.
7.5.3 If the service becomes faulty after the service hit, it is the positional fault 12.7.2
that will be counted.
7.5.4 A positional fault leads to the following consequences:
7.5.4.1 the team is sanctioned with a point and service to the opponent; 6.1.3
7.5.4.2 players' positions must be rectified. 7.3, 7.4

7.6 ROTATION
7.6.1 The rotational order is determined by the team's starting line-up and 7.3.1, 7.4.1,
controlled with the service order and players' positions throughout the 12.2
set.
7.6.2 When the receiving team has gained the right to serve, its players rotate 12.2.2.2
one position clock-wise: the player in position 2 rotates to position 1 to
serve, the player in position 1 rotates to position 6, etc.
7.7 ROTATIONAL FAULT D11 (13)
7.7.1 A rotational fault is committed when the SERVICE is not made according 7.6.1, 12
to the rotational order. It leads to the following consequences in order:
7.7.1.1 the scorer stops play by the buzzer; the opponent gains a point and 6.1.3
next service;
If the rotational fault is determined only after the completion of the rally
which started with a rotational fault, only a single point is awarded to
the opponent, regardless of the result of the rally played.
7.7.1.2 the rotational order of the faulty team must be rectified; 7.6.1
7.7.2 Additionally, the scorer should determine the exact moment when the 25.2.2.2
fault was committed, and all points scored subsequently by the team at
fault must be cancelled. The opponent's points remain valid.
If that moment cannot be determined, no point(s) cancellation takes 6.1.3

place, and a point and service to the opponent is the only sanction.
26
CHAPTER 4
PLAYING ACTIONS
See Rules
8 STATES OF PLAY
8.1 BALL IN PLAY

The ball is in play from the moment of the hit of the service authorized 12, 12.3
by the 1st referee.
8.2 BALL OUT OF PLAY

The ball is out of play at the moment of the fault which is whistled by
one of the referees; in the absence of a fault, at the moment of the
whistle.
8.3 BALL ”IN” D11 (14),

D12 (1)
The ball is “in” if at any moment of its contact with the floor, some part 1.1, 1.3.2
of the ball touches the court, including the boundary lines.
8.4 BALL “OUT”

The ball is “out” when:
8.4.1 all parts of the ball which contact the floor are completely outside the 1.3.2, D11 (15),
boundary lines; D12 (2)
8.4.2 it touches an object outside the court, the ceiling or a person out of D11 (15),
play; D12 (4)
8.4.3 it touches the antennae, ropes, posts or the net itself outside the side 2.3, D3, D5a,
bands; D11 (15),
D12 (4)
8.4.4 it crosses the vertical plane of the net either partially or totally outside 2.3, D5a, D5b,
the crossing space, except in the case of Rule 10.1.2; D11 (15),
D12 (4)
8.4.5 it crosses completely the lower space under the net. 23.3.2.3f, D5a,
D11 (22)

9 PLAYING THE BALL
Each team must play within its own playing area and space
(except Rule 10.1.2). The ball may, however, be retrieved from beyond
its own free zone.
9.1 TEAM HITS

A hit is any contact with the ball by a player in play. 14.4.1
The team is entitled to a maximum of three hits (in addition to blocking),

for returning the ball. If more are used, the team commits the fault of
“FOUR HITS”.
9.1.1 CONSECUTIVE CONTACTS
A player may not hit the ball two times consecutively 9.2.3, 14.2,
14.4.2
(except Rules 9.2.3, 14.2 and 14.4.2).
9.1.2 SIMULTANEOUS CONTACTS
Two or three players may touch the ball at the same moment.
9.1.2.1 When two (or three) team-mates touch the ball simultaneously, it is
counted as two (or three) hits (with the exception of blocking). If they
reach for the ball, but only one of them touches it, one hit is counted. A
collision of players does not constitute a fault.
9.1.2.2 When two opponents touch the ball simultaneously over the net and
the ball remains in play, the team receiving the ball is entitled to another
three hits. If such a ball goes “out”, it is the fault of the team on the
opposite side.
9.1.2.3 If simultaneous hits by two opponents over the net lead to an extended 9.1.2.2
contact with the ball, play continues.
9.1.3 ASSISTED HIT
Within the playing area, a player is not permitted to take support from a 1
team-mate or any structure/object in order to hit the ball.
However, a player who is about to commit a fault (touch the net or 1.3.3, 11.4.4
cross the centre line, etc.) may be stopped or held back by a team-mate.
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIT

9.2.1 The ball may touch any part of the body.
9.2.2 The ball must not be caught and/or thrown. It can rebound in any 9.3.3
direction.
28
9.2.3 The ball may touch various parts of the body, provided that the contacts
take place simultaneously.
Exceptions:
9.2.3.1 at blocking, consecutive contacts may be made by one or more player(s), 14.1.1, 14.2
provided that the contacts occur during one action;
9.2.3.2 at the first hit of the team, the ball may contact various parts of the 9.1, 14.4.1
body consecutively, provided that the contacts occur during one
action.
9.3 FAULTS IN PLAYING THE BALL

9.3.1 FOUR HITS: a team hits the ball four times before returning it. 9.1, D11 (18)
9.3.2 ASSISTED HIT: a player takes support from a team-mate or any structure/ 9.1.3
object in order to hit the ball within the playing area.
9.3.3 CATCH: the ball is caught and/or thrown; it does not rebound from 9.2.2, D11 (16)
the hit.
9.3.4 DOUBLE CONTACT: a player hits the ball twice in succession or the ball 9.2.3, D11 (17)
contacts various parts of his/her body in succession.
10 BALL AT THE NET
10.1 BALL CROSSING THE NET

10.1.1 The ball sent to the opponent's court must go over the net within the 2.4, 10.2, D5a
crossing space. The crossing space is the part of the vertical plane of the
net limited as follows:
10.1.1.1 below, by the top of the net; 2.2
10.1.1.2 at the sides, by the antennae, and their imaginary extension; 2.4
10.1.1.3 above, by the ceiling.
10.1.2 The ball that has crossed the net plane to the opponent's free zone 9.1, D5b
totally or partly through the external space, may be played back within
the team hits, provided that:
10.1.2.1 the opponent's court is not touched by the player; 11.2.2
10.1.2.2 the ball, when played back, crosses the net plane again totally or partly 11.4.4, D5b
through the external space on the same side of the court.
The opponent team may not prevent such action.

10.1.3 The ball that is heading towards the opponent’s court through the lower 23.3.2.3f, D5a,
space is in play until the moment it has completely crossed the vertical D11 (22)
plane of the net.
10.2 BALL TOUCHING THE NET

While crossing the net, the ball may touch it. 10.1.1
10.3 BALL IN THE NET

10.3.1 A ball driven into the net may be recovered within the limits of the three 9.1
team hits.
10.3.2 If the ball rips the mesh of the net or tears it down, the rally is cancelled
and replayed.
11 PLAYER AT THE NET
11.1 REACHING BEYOND THE NET

11.1.1 In blocking, a player may touch the ball beyond the net, provided that 14.1, 14.3
he/she does not interfere with the opponent’s play before or during the
latter's attack hit.
11.1.2 After an attack hit, a player is permitted to pass his/her hand beyond
the net, provided that the contact has been made within his/her own
playing space.
11.2 PENETRATION UNDER THE NET

11.2.1 It is permitted to penetrate into the opponent’s space under the net,
provided that this does not interfere with the opponent’s play.
11.2.2 Penetration into the opponent's court, beyond the centre line: 1.3.3, 11.2.2.1,
D11 (22)
11.2.2.1 to touch the opponent's court with a foot (feet) is permitted, provided 1.3.3, D11 (22)
that some part of the penetrating foot (feet) remains either in contact
with or directly above the centre line;
11.2.2.2 to touch the opponent’s court with any part of the body above the feet 1.3.3, 11.2.2.1,
is permitted provided that it does not interfere with the opponent’s play. D11 (22)
11.2.3 A player may enter the opponent's court after the ball goes out of play. 8.2
11.2.4 Players may penetrate into the opponent's free zone provided that they
do not interfere with the opponent’s play.
30
11.3 CONTACT WITH THE NET

11.3.1 Contact with the net by a player between the antennae, during 11.4.4,
the action of playing the ball, is a fault. 23.3.2.3c,
24.3.2.3, D3
The action of playing the ball includes (among others) take-off,
hit (or attempt) and landing safely, ready for a new action.
11.3.2 Players may touch the post, ropes, or any other object outside the D3
antennae, including the net itself, provided that it does not interfere
with the play.
11.3.3 When the ball is driven into the net, causing it to touch an opponent,
no fault is committed.
11.4 PLAYER’S FAULTS AT THE NET

11.4.1 A player touches the ball or an opponent in the opponent's space 11.1.1,
before or during the opponent’s attack hit. D11 (20)
11.4.2 A player interferes with the opponent's play while penetrating into the 11.2.1
opponent’s space under the net.
11.4.3 A player’s foot (feet) penetrates completely into the opponent's court. 11.2.2.2,
D11 (22)
11.4.4 A player interferes with play by (amongst others):
–– touching the net between the antennae or the antenna itself during 11.3.1
his/her action of playing the ball,
–– using the net between the antennae as a support or stabilizing aid D11 (19)
–– creating an unfair advantage over the opponent by touching the net
–– making actions which hinder an opponent’s legitimate attempt to
play the ball,
–– catching/ holding on to the net
Any player close to the ball as it is played, and who is him/herself trying
to play it, is considered in the action of playing the ball, even if no
contact is made with it.
However, touching the net outside the antenna is not to be considered
a fault (except for Rule 9.1.3.)
12 SERVICE
The service is the act of putting the ball into play, by the back-right 1.4.2, 8.1,
player, placed in the service zone. 12.4.1
12.1 FIRST SERVICE IN A SET

12.1.1 The first service of the first set, as well as that of the deciding 5th set is 6.3.2, 7.1
executed by the team determined by the toss.

12.1.2 The other sets will be started with the service of the team that did not
serve first in the previous set.
12.2 SERVICE ORDER

12.2.1 The players must follow the service order recorded on the line-up sheet. 7.3.1, 7.3.2
12.2.2 After the first service in a set, the player to serve is determined as 12.1
follows:
12.2.2.1 when the serving team wins the rally, the player (or his/her substitute) 6.1.3, 15.5
who served before, serves again;
12.2.2.2 when the receiving team wins the rally, it gains the right to serve and 6.1.3, 7.6.2
rotates before actually serving. The player who moves from the front-
right position to the back-right position will serve.
12.3 AUTHORIZATION OF THE SERVICE

The 1st referee authorizes the service, after having checked that the two 12, D11 (1)
teams are ready to play and that the server is in possession of the ball.
12.4 EXECUTION OF THE SERVICE D11 (10)
12.4.1 The ball shall be hit with one hand or any part of the arm after being
tossed or released from the hand(s).
12.4.2 Only one toss or release of the ball is allowed. Dribbling or moving the
ball in the hands is permitted.
12.4.3 At the moment of the service hit or take-off for a jump service, the 1.4.2, 27.2.1.4,
server must not touch the court (the end line included) or the floor D11 (22),
outside the service zone. D12 (4)
After the hit, he/she may step or land outside the service zone, or inside
the court.
12.4.4 The server must hit the ball within 8 seconds after the 1st referee whistles 12.3, D11 (11)
for service.
12.4.5 A service executed before the referee's whistle is cancelled and repeated. 12.3
12.5 SCREENING D6, D11 (12)

12.5.1 The players of the serving team must not prevent their opponent, 12.5.2
through individual or collective screening, from seeing the server and
the flight path of the ball.
12.5.2 A player or a group of players of the serving team make(s) a screen by 12.4, D6
waving arms, jumping or moving sideways during the execution of the
service, or by standing grouped, and in so doing hides both the server
and the flight path of the ball until the ball reaches the vertical plane
of the net.
32
12.6 FAULTS MADE DURING THE SERVICE

12.6.1 Serving faults.
The following faults lead to a change of service even if the opponent is 12.2.2.2,
out of position. The server: 12.7.1
12.6.1.1 violates the service order, 12.2
12.6.1.2 does not execute the service properly. 12.4
12.6.2 Faults after the service hit.
After the ball has been correctly hit, the service becomes a fault (unless 12.4, 12.7.2
a player is out of position) if the ball:
12.6.2.1 touches a player of the serving team or fails to cross the vertical plane of 8.4.4, 8.4.5,
the net completely through the crossing space; 10.1.1,
D11 (19)
12.6.2.2 goes “out”; 8.4, D11 (15)
12.6.2.3 passes over a screen. 12.5, D11 (12)
12.7 SERVING FAULTS AND POSITIONAL FAULTS

12.7.1 If the server makes a fault at the moment of the service hit (improper 7.5.1, 7.5.2,
execution, wrong rotational order, etc.) and the opponent is out of 12.6.1
position, it is the serving fault which is sanctioned.
12.7.2 Instead, if the execution of the service has been correct, but the service 7.5.3, 12.6.2
subsequently becomes faulty (goes out, goes over a screen, etc.), the
positional fault has taken place first and is sanctioned.
13 ATTACK HIT
13.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTACK HIT 12, 14.1.1
13.1.1 All actions which direct the ball towards the opponent, with the
exception of service and block, are considered as attack hits.
13.1.2 During an attack hit, tipping is permitted only if the ball is cleanly hit, 9.2.2
and not caught or thrown.
13.1.3 An attack hit is completed at the moment the ball completely crosses
the vertical plane of the net or is touched by an opponent.
13.2 RESTRICTIONS OF THE ATTACK HIT

13.2.1 A front-row player may complete an attack hit at any height, provided 7.4.1.1
that the contact with the ball has been made within the player's own
playing space (except Rules 13.2.4 and 13.3.6).

13.2.2 A back-row player may complete an attack hit at any height from 1.4.1, 7.4.1.2,
behind the front zone: 19.3.1.2, D8
13.2.2.1 at his/her take-off, the player's foot (feet) must neither have touched 1.3.4
nor crossed over the attack line;
13.2.2.2 after his/her hit, the player may land within the front zone. 1.4.1
13.2.3 A back-row player may also complete an attack hit from the front zone, 1.4.1, 7.4.1.2,
if at the moment of the contact a part of the ball is lower than the top D8
of the net.
13.2.4 No player is permitted to complete an attack hit on the OPPONENT’S 1.4.1
service, when the ball is in the front zone and entirely higher than the
top of the net.
13.3 FAULTS OF THE ATTACK HIT

13.3.1 A player hits the ball within the playing space of the opposing team. 13.2.1,
D11 (20)
13.3.2 A player hits the ball “out”. 8.4, D11 (15)
13.3.3 A back-row player completes an attack hit from the front zone, if at the 1.4.1, 7.4.1.2,
moment of the hit the ball is entirely higher than the top of the net. 13.2.3,
D11 (21)
13.3.4 A player completes an attack hit on the opponent's service, when the 1.4.1, 13.2.4,
ball is in the front zone and entirely higher than the top of the net. D11 (21)
13.3.5 A Libero completes an attack hit if at the moment of the hit the ball is 19.3.1.2,
entirely higher than the top of the net. 23.3.2.3d,
D11 (21)
13.3.6 A player completes an attack hit from higher than the top of the net 1.4.1, 19.3.1.4,
when the ball is coming from an overhand finger pass by a Libero in his/ 23.3.2.3e,
her front zone. D11 (21)
14 BLOCK
14.1 BLOCKING
14.1.1 Blocking is the action of players close to the net to intercept the ball 7.4.1.1
coming from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net,
regardless of the height of the ball contact. Only front-row players are
permitted to complete a block, but at the moment of the contact with
the ball, a part of the body must be higher than the top of the net.
14.1.2 Block attempt
A block attempt is the action of blocking without touching the ball.
34
14.1.3 Completed block

A block is completed whenever the ball is touched by a blocker. D7
14.1.4 Collective block
A collective block is executed by two or three players close to each other
and is completed when one of them touches the ball.
14.2 BLOCK CONTACT

Consecutive (quick and continuous) contacts with the ball may occur 9.1.1, 9.2.3
by one or more blockers, provided that the contacts are made during
one action.
14.3 BLOCKING WITHIN THE OPPONENT’S SPACE

In blocking, the player may place his/her hands and arms beyond the 13.1.1
net, provided that this action does not interfere with the opponent’s
play. Thus, it is not permitted to touch the ball beyond the net until an
opponent has executed an attack hit.
14.4 BLOCK AND TEAM HITS

14.4.1 A block contact is not counted as a team hit. Consequently, after a 9.1, 14.4.2
block contact, a team is entitled to three hits to return the ball.
14.4.2 The first hit after the block may be executed by any player, including the 14.4.1
one who has touched the ball during the block.
14.5 BLOCKING THE SERVICE 12, D11 (12)

To block an opponent's service is forbidden.
14.6 BLOCKING FAULTS D11 (20)

14.6.1 The blocker touches the ball in the OPPONENT’S space either before or 14.3
simultaneously with the opponent’s attack hit.
14.6.2 A back-row player or a Libero completes a block or participates in a 14.1, 14.5,
completed block. 19.3.1.3
14.6.3 Blocking the opponent’s service. 14.5, D11 (12)
14.6.4 The ball is sent “out” off the block. 8.4
14.6.5 Blocking the ball in the opponent’s space from outside the antenna.
14.6.6 A Libero attempts an individual or collective block. 14.1.1,
19.3.1.3

CHAPTER 5
INTERRUPTIONS, DELAYS AND INTERVALS
See Rules
15 INTERRUPTIONS
An interruption is the time between one completed rally and the 1st 6.1.3, 8.1, 8.2,
referee’s whistle for the next service. 15.4, 15.5,
24.2.6
The only regular game interruptions are TIME-OUTS and
SUBSTITUTIONS.
15.1 NUMBER OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS

Each team may request a maximum of two time-outs and six 6.2, 15.4, 15.5
substitutions per set.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors, the FIVB
may reduce, by one, the number of team and/ or Technical Time
Outs in accordance with sponsorship, marketing and broadcast
agreements.
15.2 SEQUENCE OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS

15.2.1 Request for one or two time-outs, and one request for substitution 15.4, 15.5
by either team may follow one another, within the same interruption.
15.2.2 However, a team is not authorized to make consecutive requests for 15.5, 15.6.1
substitution during the same interruption. Two or more players may be
substituted at the same time within the same request.
15.2.3 There must be a completed rally between two separate substitution 6.1.3, 15.5
requests by the same team. (Exception: a forced substitution due to
injury or expulsion/disqualification (15.5.2, 15.7, 15.8)).
15.3 REQUEST FOR REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS

15.3.1 Regular game interruptions may be requested by the coach, or in the 5.1.2, 5.2,
absence of the coach, by the game captain, and only by them. 5.3.2, 15
15.3.2 Substitution before the start of a set is permitted, and should be 7.3.4
recorded as a regular substitution in that set.
36
15.4 TIME-OUTS AND TECHNICAL TIME-OUTS

15.4.1 Time-out requests must be made by showing the corresponding hand 6.1.3, 8.2,
signal, when the ball is out of play and before the whistle for service. 12.3, D11 (4)
All requested time-outs last for 30 seconds.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions it is obligatory to use D11 (4)
the buzzer and then the hand signal to request time-out.
15.4.2 For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, in sets 1-4, two 26.2.2.3
additional 60-second “Technical Time-Outs” are applied
automatically when the leading team reaches the 8th and 16th
point.
15.4.3 In the deciding (5th) set, there are no “Technical Time- Outs”; only 15.1
two time-outs of 30 seconds duration may be requested by each
team.
15.4.4 During all time-outs (including Technical Time Outs), the players D1a
in play must go to the free zone near their bench.
15.5 SUBSTITUTION
15.5.1 A substitution is the act by which a player, other than the Libero or his/ 19.3.2.1,
her replacement player, after being recorded by the scorer, enters the D11 (5)
game to occupy the position of another player, who must leave the
court at that moment.
15.5.2 When the substitution is enforced through injury to a player in play 5.1.2.3,
this may be accompanied by the coach (or game captain) showing the 5.2.3.3, 6.1.3,
corresponding hand signal. 8.2, 12.3, D11
(5)
15.6 LIMITATION OF SUBSTITUTIONS

15.6.1 A player of the starting line-up may leave the game, but only once in 7.3.1
a set, and re-enter, but only once in a set, and only to his/her previous
position in the line-up.
15.6.2 A substitute player may enter the game in place of a player of the 7.3.1
starting line-up, but only once per set, and he/she can only be
substituted by the same starting player.
15.7 EXCEPTIONAL SUBSTITUTION

A player (except the Libero) who cannot continue playing due to injury 6.1.3, 15.6,
or illness, should be substituted legally. If this is not possible, the team 19.4.3
is entitled to make an EXCEPTIONAL substitution, beyond the limits of
Rule 15.6

An exceptional substitution means that any player who is not on the
court at the time of the injury/illness, except the Libero, second Libero
or their regular replacement player, may be substituted into the game
for the injured/ill player. The substituted injured/ill player is not allowed
to re-enter the match.
An exceptional substitution cannot be counted in any case as a regular

substitution, but should be recorded on the score sheet as part of the
total of substitutions in the set and the match.
15.8 SUBSTITUTION FOR EXPULSION OR DISQUALIFICATION

An EXPELLED or DISQUALIFIED player must be substituted immediately 6.4.3, 7.3.1,
through a legal substitution. If this is not possible, the team is declared 15.6, 21.3.2,
INCOMPLETE. 21.3.3, D11 (5)
15.9 ILLEGAL SUBSTITUTION

15.9.1 A substitution is illegal, if it exceeds the limitations indicated in Rule
15.6 (except the case of Rule 15.7), or an unregistered player is
involved.
15.9.2 When a team has made an illegal substitution and the play has been 8.1, 15.6
resumed the following procedure shall apply, in sequence:
15.9.2.1 the team is penalized with a point and service to the opponent, 6.1.3
15.9.2.2 the substitution must be rectified,
15.9.2.3 the points scored by the team at fault since the fault was committed
are cancelled; the opponent’s points remain valid.
15.10 SUBSTITUTION PROCEDURE

15.10.1 Substitution must be carried out within the substitution zone. 1.4.3, D1b
15.10.2 A substitution shall only last the time needed for recording the 15.10, 24.2.6,
substitution on the score sheet, and allowing entry and exit of the 25.2.2.3
players.
15.10.3a The actual request for substitution starts at the moment of the
entrance of the substitute player(s) into the substitution zone, ready
to play, during an interruption. The coach does not need to make a
substitution hand signal except if the substitution is for injury or before
the start of the set.
15.10.3b If the player is not ready, the substitution is not granted and the team 16.2, D9
is sanctioned for a delay.
38
15.10.3c The request for substitution is acknowledged and announced by the 24.2.6
scorer or 2nd referee, by use of the buzzer or whistle respectively. The
2nd referee authorises the substitution.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, numbered paddles

are used to facilitate the substitution (including when electronic
devices are used).
15.10.4 If a team intends to make simultaneously more than one substitution, 1.4.3, 15.2.2
all substitute players must enter the substitution zone at the same time
to be considered in the same request. In this case, substitutions must
be made in succession, one pair of players after another. If one is illegal,
the legal one(s) is/are granted and the illegal is rejected and subject to
a delay sanction.
15.11 IMPROPER REQUESTS

15.11.1 It is improper to request any regular game interruption: 15
15.11.1.1 during a rally or at the moment of or after the whistle to serve, 12.3
15.11.1.2 by a non-authorized team member, 5.1.2.3, 5.2.3.3
15.11.1.3 for a second substitution by the same team during the same 15.2.2, 15.2.3,
interruption (i.e. before the end of next completed rally), except in the 16.1, 25.2.2.6
case of injury/illness of a player in play.
15.11.1.4 after having exhausted the authorized number of time-outs and 15.1
substitutions.
15.11.2 The first improper request by a team in the match that does not affect 16.1, 25.2.2.6
or delay the game shall be rejected, but it must be recorded on the
score sheet without any other consequences.
15.11.3 Any further improper request in the match by the same team constitutes 16.1.4
a delay.
16 GAME DELAYS
16.1 TYPES OF DELAYS

An improper action of a team that defers resumption of the game is a
delay and includes, among others:
16.1.1 delaying regular game interruptions; 15.10.2
16.1.2 prolonging interruptions, after having been instructed to resume the game; 15
16.1.3 requesting an illegal substitution; 15.9
16.1.4 repeating an improper request; 15.11.3
16.1.5 delaying the game by a team member.

16.2 DELAY SANCTIONS D9
16.2.1 “Delay warning” and “delay penalty” are team sanctions.
16.2.1.1 Delay sanctions remain in force for the entire match. 6.3
16.2.1.2 All delay sanctions are recorded on the score sheet. 25.2.2.6
16.2.2 The first delay in the match by a team member is sanctioned with a 4.1.1, D11 (25)
“DELAY WARNING”.
16.2.3 The second and subsequent delays of any type by any member of the 6.1.3, D11 (25)
same team in the same match constitute a fault and are sanctioned
with a “DELAY PENALTY”: a point and service to the opponent.
16.2.4 Delay sanctions imposed before or between sets are applied in the 18.1
following set.
17 EXCEPTIONAL GAME INTERRUPTIONS
17.1 INJURY / ILLNESS 8.1
17.1.1 Should a serious accident occur while the ball is in play, the referee
must stop the game immediately and permit medical assistance to
enter the court.
The rally is then replayed. 6.1.3
17.1.2 If an injured/ill player cannot be substituted legally or exceptionally, the 15.6, 15.7,
player is given a 3-minute recovery time, but not more than once for the 24.2.8
same player in the match.
If the player does not recover, his/her team is declared incomplete. 6.4.3, 7.3.1
17.2 EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE

If there is any external interference during the game, the play has to be 6.1.3, D11 (23)
stopped and the rally is replayed.
17.3 PROLONGED INTERRUPTIONS

17.3.1 If unforeseen circumstances interrupt the match, the 1st referee, the 23.2.3
organizer and the Control Committee, if there is one, shall decide the
measures to be taken to re-establish normal conditions.
17.3.2 Should one or several interruptions occur, not exceeding 4 hours in 17.3.1
total:
17.3.2.1 if the match is resumed on the same playing court, the interrupted set 1, 7.3
shall continue normally with the same score, players (except expelled
or disqualified ones) and positions. The sets already played will keep
their scores;
40
17.3.2.2 if the match is resumed on another playing court, the interrupted set 7.3, 21.4.1, D9
is cancelled and replayed with the same team members and the same
starting line-ups (except expelled or disqualified ones) and the record
of all sanctions will be maintained. The sets already played will keep
their scores.
17.3.3 Should one or several interruptions occur, exceeding 4 hours in total,

the whole match shall be replayed.
18 INTERVALS AND CHANGE OF COURTS
18.1 INTERVALS
An interval is the time between sets. All intervals last three minutes. 4.2.4
During this period of time, the change of courts and line-up registrations 7.3.2, 18.2,
of the teams on the score sheet are made. 25.2.1.2
The interval between the second and the third set can be extended up
to 10 minutes by the competent body at the request of the organizer.
18.2 CHANGE OF COURTS D11 (3)
18.2.1 After each set, the teams change courts, with the exception of the 7.1
deciding set.
18.2.2 In the deciding set, once the leading team reaches 8 points, the teams 6.3.2, 7.4.1,
change courts without delay and the player positions remain the same. 25.2.2.5
If the change is not made once the leading team reaches 8 points, it
will take place as soon as the error is noticed. The score at the time that
the change is made remains the same.

CHAPTER 6
THE LIBERO PLAYER
See Rules
19 THE LIBERO PLAYER
19.1 DESIGNATION OF THE LIBERO 5
19.1.1 Each team has the right to designate from the list of players on the 4.1.1
score sheet up to two specialist defensive players: Liberos.
In FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors, if a team
has more than 12 players recorded in the score sheet, TWO
Liberos are mandatory in the team list.
19.1.2 All Liberos must be recorded on the score sheet in the special lines 5.2.2, 25.2.1.1,
reserved for this. 26.2.1.1
19.1.3 The Libero on court is the Acting Libero. If there is another Libero, he/
she is the second Libero for the team.
Only one Libero may be on court at any time.
19.2 EQUIPMENT 4.3
The Libero player(s) must wear a uniform (OR JACKET/BIB FOR THE RE-
DESIGNATED Libero) which has a different dominant colour from any
colour of the rest of the team. The uniform must clearly contrast with
the rest of the team.
The Libero uniforms must be numbered like the rest of the team.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions, the re-designated

Libero should, if possible, wear the same style and colour of jersey
as the original Libero, but should keep his/her own number.
19.3 ACTIONS INVOLVING THE LIBERO

19.3.1 The playing actions:
19.3.1.1 The Libero is allowed to replace any player in a back row position. 7.4.1.2
19.3.1.2 He/she is restricted to perform as a back row player and is not allowed 13.2.2, 13.2.3,
to complete an attack hit from anywhere (including playing court and 13.3.5
free zone) if at the moment of the contact the ball is entirely higher
than the top of the net.
19.3.1.3 He/she may not serve, block or attempt to block. 12.4.1, 14.6.2,
14.6.6, D11 (12)
42
19.3.1.4 A player may not complete an attack hit when the ball is entirely higher 1.4.1, 13.3.6,
than the top of the net, if the ball is coming from an overhand finger 23.3.2.3d, e,
pass by a Libero in his/her front zone. The ball may be freely attacked D1b
if the Libero makes the same action from outside his/her front zone.
19.3.2 Libero Replacements
19.3.2.1 Libero Replacements are not counted as substitutions. 6.1.3, 15.5
They are unlimited but there must be a completed rally between two
Libero replacements (unless a penalty causes the team to rotate and
the Libero to move to position four, or the Acting Libero becomes
unable to play, making the rally incomplete.)
19.3.2.2 The regular replacement player may replace and be replaced by

either Libero. The Acting Libero can only be replaced by the regular
replacement player for that position or by the second Libero.
19.3.2.3 At the start of each set, the Libero cannot enter the court until the 2nd 7.3.2, 12.1
referee has checked the line-up and authorised a Libero replacement
with a starting player.
19.3.2.4 Other Libero replacements must only take place while the ball is out of 8.2, 12.3
play and before the whistle for service.
19.3.2.5 A Libero replacement made after the whistle for service but before the 12.3, 12.4, D9
service hit should not be rejected; however, at the end of the rally, the
game captain must be informed that this is not a permitted procedure,
and that repetition will be subject to delay sanctions.
19.3.2.6 Subsequent late Libero replacements shall result in the play being 16.2, D9
interrupted immediately, and the imposition of a delay sanction. The
team to serve next will be determined by the level of the delay sanction.
19.3.2.7 The Libero and the replacing player may only enter or leave the court 1.4.4, D1b
through the Libero Replacement Zone.
19.3.2.8 Libero replacements must be recorded in the Libero Control Sheet (if 26.2.2.1,
one is used) or on the electronic score sheet. 26.2.2.2
19.3.2.9 An illegal Libero replacement can involve (amongst others)
–– no completed rally between Libero replacements, 6.1.3
–– the Libero being replaced by a player other than the second Libero or 15.9
the regular replacement player.
An illegal Libero replacement should be considered in the same way as 15.9

an illegal substitution:
i.e. should the illegal Libero replacement be noticed before the start D9
of the next rally, then this is corrected by the referees, and the team is
sanctioned for delay;

should the illegal Libero replacement be noticed after the service hit, 15.9
the consequences are the same as for an illegal substitution.
19.4 RE-DESIGNATION OF A NEW LIBERO

19.4.1 The Libero becomes unable to play if injured, ill, expelled or disqualified. 21.3.2, 21.3.3,
D9
The Libero can be declared unable to play for any reason by the coach
or, in the absence of a coach, by the game captain. 5.1.2.1, 5.2.1
19.4.2 Team with one Libero
19.4.2.1 When only one Libero is available for a team according to Rule 19.4.1, 19.4, 19.4.1
or the team has only one registered, and this Libero becomes or is
declared unable to play, the coach (or game captain if no coach is
present) may re-designate as Libero for the remainder of the match
any other player (replacement player excepted) not on the court at the
moment of the re-designation.
19.4.2.2 If the Acting Libero becomes unable to play, he/she may be replaced by
the regular replacement player or immediately and directly to court
by a re-designated Libero. However, a Libero who is the subject of a
re-designation may not play for the remainder of the match.
If the Libero is not on court when declared unable to play, he/she may
also be the subject of a re-designation. The Libero declared unable to
play may not play for the remainder of the match.
19.4.2.3 The coach, or game captain if no coach is present, contacts the second 5.1.2.1, 5.2.1
referee informing him/her about the re-designation.
19.4.2.4 Should a re-designated Libero become or be declared unable to play, 19.4.1

further re-designations are permitted.
19.4.2.5 If the coach requests the team captain to be re-designated as the new 5.1.2, 19.4.1
Libero, this will be permitted – but the team captain must in this case
relinquish all leadership privileges.
19.4.2.6 In the case of a re-designated Libero, the number of the player re- 25.2.2.7,
designated as Libero must be recorded on the score sheet remarks 26.2.2.1
section and on the Libero control sheet (or electronic score sheet if
one is used.)
19.4.3 Team with two Liberos
19.4.3.1 Where a team has registered on the score sheet two Liberos, but one 4.1.1, 19.1.1
becomes unable to play the team has the right to play with only one
Libero.
No re-designation will be allowed, however, unless the remaining 19.4

Libero is unable to continue playing for the match.
44
19.5 SUMMARY
If the Libero is expelled or disqualified, he/she may be replaced 19.4, 21.3.2,
immediately by the team’s second Libero. Should the team have only 21.3.3
one Libero, then it has the right to make a re-designation.

CHAPTER 7
PARTICIPANTS’ CONDUCT
See Rules
20 REQUIREMENTS OF CONDUCT
20.1 SPORTSMANLIKE CONDUCT

20.1.1 Participants must know the “Official Volleyball Rules” and abide by
them.
20.1.2 Participants must accept referees' decisions with sportsmanlike conduct,

without disputing them.
In case of doubt, clarification may be requested only through the game 5.1.2.1
captain.
20.1.3 Participants must refrain from actions or attitudes aimed at influencing

the decisions of the referees or covering up faults committed by their
team.
20.2 FAIR PLAY

20.2.1 Participants must behave respectfully and courteously in the spirit
of FAIR PLAY, not only towards the referees, but also towards other
officials, the opponent, team-mates and spectators.
20.2.2 Communication between team members during the match is permitted. 5.2.3.4
21 MISCONDUCT AND ITS SANCTIONS
21.1 MINOR MISCONDUCT

Minor misconduct offences are not subject to sanctions. It is the 5.1.2, 21.3
1st referee’s duty to prevent the teams from approaching the sanctioning
level.
This is done in two stages: D9, D11 (6a)
Stage 1: by issuing a verbal warning through the game captain;
Stage 2: by use of a YELLOW CARD to the team member(s) concerned.

This formal warning is not in itself a sanction but a symbol that the team
member (and by extension the team) has reached the sanctioning level
for the match. It is recorded in the score sheet but has no immediate
consequences.
46
21.2 MISCONDUCT LEADING TO SANCTIONS

Incorrect conduct by a team member towards officials, opponents, 4.1.1
team-mates or spectators is classified in three categories according to
the seriousness of the offence.
21.2.1 Rude conduct: action contrary to good manners or moral principles.
21.2.2 Offensive conduct: defamatory or insulting words or gestures or any

action expressing contempt.
21.2.3 Aggression: actual physical attack or aggressive or threatening

behaviour.
21.3 SANCTION SCALE D9
According to the judgment of the 1 referee and depending on the

st
21.2, 25.2.2.6
seriousness of the offence, the sanctions to be applied and recorded on
the score sheet are: Penalty, Expulsion or Disqualification.
21.3.1 Penalty D11 (6b)
The first rude conduct in the match by any team member is penalized 4.1.1, 21.2.1
with a point and service to the opponent.
21.3.2 Expulsion D11 (7)
21.3.2.1 A team member who is sanctioned by expulsion shall not play for the 1.4.6, 4.1.1,
rest of the set, must be substituted legally and immediately if on court 5.2.1, 5.3.2,
and must remain seated in the penalty area with no other consequences. D1a, D1b
An expelled coach loses his/her right to intervene in the set and must 5.2.3.3
remain seated in the penalty area.
21.3.2.2 The first offensive conduct by a team member is sanctioned by expulsion 4.1.1, 21.2.2
with no other consequences.
21.3.2.3 The second rude conduct in the same match by the same team member 4.1.1, 21.2.1
is sanctioned by expulsion with no other consequences.
21.3.3 Disqualification D11 (8)
21.3.3.1 A team member who is sanctioned by disqualification must be 4.1.1, D1a

substituted legally and immediately if on court and must leave the
Competition-Control Area for the rest of the match with no other
consequences.
21.3.3.2 The first physical attack or implied or threatened aggression is sanctioned 21.2.3
by disqualification with no other consequences.
21.3.3.3 The second offensive conduct in the same match by the same team 4.1.1, 21.2.2
member is sanctioned by disqualification with no other consequences.

21.3.3.4 The third rude conduct in the same match by the same team member is 4.1.1, 21.2.1
sanctioned by disqualification with no other consequences.
21.4 APPLICATION OF MISCONDUCT SANCTIONS

21.4.1 All misconduct sanctions are individual sanctions, remain in force for the 21.3, 25.2.2.6
entire match and are recorded on the score sheet.
21.4.2 The repetition of misconduct by the same team member in the same 4.1.1, 21.2,
match is sanctioned progressively (the team member receives a heavier 21.3, D9
sanction for each successive offence).
21.4.3 Expulsion or disqualification due to offensive conduct or aggression 21.2, 21.3

does not require a previous sanction.
21.5 MISCONDUCT BEFORE AND BETWEEN SETS

Any misconduct occurring before or between sets is sanctioned 18.1, 21.2,
according to Rule 21.3 and sanctions apply in the following set. 21.3
21.6 SUMMARY OF MISCONDUCT AND CARDS USED D11 (6a, 6b, 7, 8)
Warning: no sanction – Stage 1: verbal warning 21.1

Stage 2: symbol Yellow card
Penalty: sanction – symbol Red card 21.3.1
Expulsion: sanction – symbol Red + Yellow cards jointly 21.3.2
Disqualification: sanction – symbol Red + Yellow card separately 21.3.3
48
PART 2
SECTION 2:
THE REFEREES,
THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES
AND OFFICIAL
HAND SIGNALS

CHAPTER 8
REFEREES
See Rules
22 REFEREEING CORPS AND PROCEDURES
22.1 COMPOSITION
The refereeing corps for a match is composed of the following officials:
–– the 1st referee, 23
–– the 2 referee,
nd
24
–– the scorer, 25
–– four (two) line judges. 27
Their location is shown in Diagram 10.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions an assistant scorer is 26

compulsory.
22.2 PROCEDURES
22.2.1 Only the 1st and 2nd referees may blow a whistle during the match:
22.2.1.1 the 1st referee gives the signal for the service that begins the rally; 6.1.3, 12.3
22.2.1.2 the 1 or 2 referee signals the end of the rally, provided that they
st nd
are sure that a fault has been committed and they have identified its
nature.
22.2.2 They may blow the whistle when the ball is out of play to indicate that 5.1.2, 8.2
they authorize or reject a team request.
22.2.3 Immediately after the referee’s whistle to signal the completion of the 22.2.1.2, 28.1
rally, they have to indicate with the official hand signals:
22.2.3.1 if the fault is whistled by the 1st referee, he/she will indicate in order:
a) the team to serve, 12.2.2, D11 (2)
b) the nature of the fault,
c) the player(s) at fault (if necessary).
50
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS
22.2.3.2 If the fault is whistled by the 2nd referee, he/she will indicate:
a) the nature of the fault,
b) the player at fault (if necessary),
c) the team to serve following the hand signal of the 1st referee. 12.2.2
In this case, the 1 referee does not show either the nature of the fault
st
D11 (2)
or the player at fault, but only the team to serve.
22.2.3.3 In the case of an attack hit fault or blocking fault by back row or Libero 12.2.2, 13.3.3,
players, both referees indicate according to 22.2.3.1 and 22.2.3.2 13.3.5,
above. 19.3.1.2,
23.3.2.3d, e,
D11 (21)
22.2.3.4 In the case of a double fault both referees indicate in order:
a) the nature of the fault, 17.3, D11 (23)
b) the players at fault (if necessary),
The team to serve next is then indicated by the 1st referee. 12.2.2, D11 (2)
23 1st REFEREE
23.1 LOCATION
The 1st referee carries out his/her functions standing on a referee's D1a, D1b, D10
stand located at one end of the net on the opposite side to the scorer.
His/her view must be approximately 50 cm above the net.
23.2 AUTHORITY
23.2.1 The 1st referee directs the match from the start until the end. He/ 4.1.1, 6.3
she has authority over all members of the refereeing corps and the
members of the teams.
During the match his/her decisions are final. He/she is authorized to

overrule the decisions of other members of the refereeing corps, if it is
noticed that they are mistaken.
He/she may even replace a member of the refereeing corps who is not
performing his/her functions properly.
23.2.2 He/she also controls the work of the ball retrievers, floor wipers and 3.3
moppers.
23.2.3 He/she has the power to decide any matters involving the game,
including those not provided for in the rules.
23.2.4 He/she shall not permit any discussion about his/her decisions. 20.1.2

However, at the request of the game captain, the 1st referee will give 5.1.2.1
an explanation on the application or interpretation of the rules upon
which he/she has based the decision.
If the game captain does not agree with this explanation and chooses 5.1.2.1,
to protest against such decision, he/she must immediately reserve the 5.1.3.2,
right to file and record this protest at the conclusion of the match. The 25.2.3.2
1st referee must authorize this right of the game captain.
23.2.5 The 1st referee is responsible for determining before and during the Chapter 1,
match whether the playing area equipment and the conditions meet 23.3.1.1
playing requirements.
23.3 RESPONSIBILITIES
23.3.1 Prior to the match, the 1st referee:
23.3.1.1 inspects the conditions of the playing area, the balls and other Chapter 1,
equipment; 23.2.5
23.3.1.2 performs the toss with the team captains; 7.1
23.3.1.3 controls the teams' warming-up. 7.2
23.3.2 During the match, he/she is authorized:
23.3.2.1 to issue warnings to the teams; 21.1
23.3.2.2 to sanction misconduct and delays; 16.2, 21.2, D9,

D11 (6a, 6b, 7,
8, 25)
23.3.2.3 to decide upon:
a) the faults of the server and of the positions of the serving team, 7.5, 12.4, 12.5,
including the screen; 12.7.1, D4, D6,
D11 (12,13)
b) the faults in playing the ball; 9.3,
D11 (16, 17)
c) the faults above the net, and the faulty contact of the player with the 11.3.1,11.4.1,
net, primarily on the attacker’s side; 11.4.4,
D11 (20)
d) the attack hit faults of the Libero and back-row players; 13.3.3, 13.3.5,
24.3.2.4, D8,
D11 (21)
e) the completed attack hits made by a player on a ball above net 1.4.1, 13.3.6,
height coming from an overhand pass with fingers by the Libero in his/ 24.3.2.4,
her front zone; D11 (21)
f) the ball crossing completely the lower space under the net; 8.4.5, 24.3.2.7,
D5a, D11 (22)
52
g) the completed block by back row players or the attempted block by 14.6.2, 14.6.6,
the Libero. D11 (12)
h) the ball that crosses the net totally or partly outside of the crossing D11 (15)
space to the opponent’s court or contacts the antenna on his/her side
of the playing court.
i) the served ball and the 3rd hit passing over or outside the antenna on D11 (15)
his/ her side of the court
23.3.3 At the end of the match, he/she checks the score sheet and signs it. 24.3.3,
25.2.3.3
24 2nd REFEREE
24.1 LOCATION
The 2nd referee performs his/her functions standing outside the playing D1a, D1b, D10
court near the post, on the opposite side of and facing the 1st referee.
24.2 AUTHORITY
24.2.1 The 2nd referee is the assistant of the 1st referee, but has also his/her 24.3
own range of jurisdiction.
Should the 1st referee become unable to continue his/her work, the 2nd
referee may replace him/her.
24.2.2 He/she may, without whistling, also signal faults outside his/her range 24.3
of jurisdiction, but may not insist on them to the 1st referee.
24.2.3 He/she controls the work of the scorer(s). 25.2, 26.2
24.2.4 He/she supervises the team members on the team bench and reports 4.2.1
their misconduct to the 1st referee.
24.2.5 He/she controls the players in the warm-up areas. 4.2.3
24.2.6 He/she authorizes the regular game interruptions, controls their 15, 15.11,
duration and rejects improper requests. 25.2.2.3
24.2.7 He/she controls the number of time-outs and substitutions used by 15.1, 25.2.2.3
each team and reports the 2nd time-out and 5th and 6th substitutions to
the 1st referee and the coach concerned.
24.2.8 In the case of an injury of a player, he/she authorizes an exceptional 15.7, 17.1.2
substitution or grants a 3-minute recovery time.
24.2.9 He/she checks the floor condition, mainly in the front zone. He/she 1.2.1, 3
also checks, during the match, that the balls still fulfil the regulations.

24.2.10 He/she supervises the team members in the penalty areas and reports 1.4.6, 21.3.2
their misconduct to the 1st referee.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the duties recorded

under 24.2.5 and 24.2.10 are carried out by the Reserve Referee.
24.3.1 At the start of each set, at the change of courts in the deciding set and 5.2.3.1, 7.3.2,
whenever necessary, the 2nd referee checks that the actual positions 7.3.5, 18.2.2
of the players on the court correspond to those on the line-up sheets.
24.3.2 During the match, he/she decides, whistles and signals:
24.3.2.1 penetration into the opponent's court, and the space under the net; 1.3.3, 11.2,
D5a, D11 (22)
24.3.2.2 positional faults of the receiving team; 7.5, D4,
D11 (13)
24.3.2.3 the faulty contact of the player with the net primarily on the blocker’s 11.3.1
side and with the antenna on his/her side of the court;
24.3.2.4 the completed block by back row players or the attempted block by 13.3.3, 14.6.2,
the Libero; or the attack hit fault by back row players or by the Libero; 14.6.6,
23.3.2.3d, e, g,
D11 (12, 21)
24.3.2.5 the contact of the ball with an outside object; 8.4.2, 8.4.3,
D11 (15)
24.3.2.6 the contact of the ball with the floor when the 1st referee is not in 8.3
position to see the contact;
54
24.3.2.7 the ball that crosses the net plane totally or partly outside of the 8.4.3, 8.4.4,
crossing space to the opponent’s court or contacts the antenna on his/ D5a, D11 (15)
her side of the court.
24.3.2.8 the served ball and the 3rd hit passing over or outside the antenna on D11 (15)
his/ her side of the court.
24.3.3 At the end of the match, he/she checks and signs the score sheet. 23.3.3,
25.2.3.3
25 SCORER
25.1 LOCATION
The scorer performs his/her functions seated at the scorer's table on D1a, D1b, D10
the opposite side of the court from and facing the 1st referee.
He/she fills in the score sheet according to the rules, co-operating with
the 2nd referee.
He/she uses a buzzer or other sound device to notify irregularities or

give signals to the referees on the basis of his/her responsibilities.
25.2.1 Prior to the match and set, the scorer:
25.2.1.1 registers the data of the match and teams, including the names and 4.1, 5.1.1,
numbers of the Liberos, according to the procedures in force, and 5.2.2, 7.3.2,
obtains the signatures of the captains and the coaches; 19.1.2,
19.4.2.6
25.2.1.2 records the starting line-up of each team from the line-up sheet (or 5.2.3.1, 7.3.2
checks the data submitted electronically.)
If he/she fails to receive the line-up sheets on time, he/she immediately 5.2.3.1
notifies this fact to the 2nd referee.
25.2.2 During the match, the scorer:
25.2.2.1 records the points scored; 6.1
25.2.2.2 controls the serving order of each team and indicates any error to the 12.2
referees immediately after the service hit;
25.2.2.3 is empowered to acknowledge and announce requests for player 15.1, 15.4.1,
substitutions by use of the buzzer, controlling their number, and 15.10.3c,
records the substitutions and time-outs, informing the 2nd referee; 24.2.6, 24.2.7
25.2.2.4 notifies the referees of a request for regular game interruption that is 15.11
out of order;
25.2.2.5 announces to the referees the ends of the sets, and the scoring of the 6.2, 15.4.1,
8th point in the deciding set; 18.2.2

25.2.2.6 records misconduct warnings, sanctions and improper requests; 15.11.3, 16.2,
21.3
25.2.2.7 records all other events as instructed by the 2nd referee, i.e. exceptional 15.7, 17.1.2,
substitutions, recovery time, prolonged interruptions, external 17.2, 17.3,
interference, re-designation, etc.; 19.4
25.2.2.8 controls the interval between sets. 18.1
25.2.3 At the end of the match, the scorer:
25.2.3.1 records the final result; 6.3
25.2.3.2 in the case of protest, with the previous authorization of the 1st referee, 5.1.2.1,
writes or permits the team/game captain to write on the score sheet a 5.1.3.2, 23.2.4
statement on the incident being protested;
25.2.3.3 signs the score sheet him/herself, before obtaining the signatures of 5.1.3.1, 23.3.3,
the team captains and then the referees. 24.3.3
26 ASSISTANT SCORER
26.1 LOCATION 22.1, D1a, D1b,

D10
The assistant scorer performs his/her functions seated beside the scorer
at the scorer’s table.
26.2 RESPONSIBILITIES 19.3
He/she records the replacements involving the Libero.
He/she assists with the administrative duties of the scorer’s work.
Should the scorer become unable to continue his/her work, the

assistant scorer substitutes for the scorer.
26.2.1 Prior to the match and set, the assistant scorer:
26.2.1.1 prepares the Libero control sheet;
26.2.1.2 prepares the reserve score sheet.
26.2.2 During the match, the assistant scorer:
26.2.2.1 records the details of the Libero replacements/re-designations; 19.3.1.1, 19.4
26.2.2.2 notifies the referees of any fault of the Libero replacement, by using 19.3.2
the buzzer;
26.2.2.3 starts and ends the timing of Technical Time-outs; 15.4.1
26.2.2.4 operates the manual scoreboard on the scorer's table;
26.2.2.5 checks that the scoreboards agree; 25.2.2.1
56
26.2.2.6 if necessary, updates the reserve score sheet and gives it to the scorer. 25.2.1.1
26.2.3 At the end of the match, the assistant scorer:
26.2.3.1 signs the Libero control sheet and submits it for checking;
26.2.3.2 signs the score sheet.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions which use an e-score

sheet, the Assistant Scorer acts with the Scorer to announce the
substitutions, to direct the 2nd Referee to the team requesting an
interruption, and identify the Libero replacements.
27 LINE JUDGES
27.1 LOCATION
If only two line judges are used, they stand at the corners of the court D1a, D1b, D10
closest to the right hand of each referee, diagonally at 1 to 2 m from
the corner.
Each one of them controls both the end line and side line on his/her
side.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, it is compulsory to

have four line judges.
They stand in the free zone at 1 to 3 m from each corner of the D10
court, on the imaginary extension of the line that they control.
27.2.1 The line judges perform their functions by using flags (40 x 40 cm), to D12
signal:
27.2.1.1 the ball ”in” and “out” whenever the ball lands near their line(s); 8.3, 8.4,
D12 (1, 2)
27.2.1.2 the touches of "out" balls by the team receiving the ball; 8.4, D12 (3)
27.2.1.3 the ball touching the antenna, the served ball and the third hit of the 8.4.3, 8.4.4,
team crossing the net outside the crossing space, etc.; 10.1.1, D5a,
D12 (4)
27.2.1.4 any player (except the server) stepping outside of his/her court at the 7.4, 12.4.3,
moment of the service hit; D12 (4)
27.2.1.5 the foot faults of the server; 12.4.3
27.2.1.6 any contact with the top 80 cm of the antenna on their side of the court 11.3.1, 11.4.4,
by any player during his/her action of playing the ball or interfering D3, D12 (4)
with the play;

27.2.1.7 the ball crossing the net outside the crossing space into the opponent's 10.1.1, D5a,
court or touching the antenna on his/her side of the court. D12 (4)
27.2.2 At the 1st referee's request, a line judge must repeat his/her signal.
28 OFFICIAL SIGNALS
28.1 REFEREES’ HAND SIGNALS D11
The referees must indicate with the official hand signal the reason for
their whistle (the nature of the fault whistled or the purpose of the
interruption authorized). The signal has to be maintained for a moment
and, if it is indicated with one hand, the hand corresponds to the side
of the team which has made the fault or the request.
28.2 LINE JUDGES’ FLAG SIGNALS D12
The line judges must indicate with the official flag signal the nature of
the fault called, and maintain the signal for a moment.
58
PART 2
SECTION 3:
DIAGRAMS

FIVB Volleyball Official Competition Court Layout Configuration Plan of Playing Area
OCL-1 under Exclusive FIVB Control
Back, Free Zone, Playing Court, Dimensions,
Panels, Enlargement, Personnel and Brandin
First-tier Event Branding First-tier Event Branding
Competition Control Area Competition Control Area
2m
Delimitation Fence
Photographers‘ Positions VIS Photographers‘ Positions
Relevant Rules: 1, 1.4.5, 1.4.6, 4.2.1, 4.2.3.1, 15.4.4, 19.3.2.7, 21.3.2.1, 21.3.3.1, 23.1, 24.1, 25.1, 26.1
Advertising Boards Advertising Boards

Blue or black carpet to cover
Photographers‘ Positions
the parquet in the control
min. 3 m (5 m)
Ball Retriever Ball Retriever Ball Retriever
area and around tribunes
20 cm
Free Zone
First-tier Event Branding

Other Material Needed Microphone & 5 cm

Replay Light 15 cm
– Hygrometer
5 cm
1.75 m
– Thermometer 20 cm
– Clock or Chronograph 6m 3m
1m
– Manual Scoreboard
– 2 rubber wheel trolleys
– Net measuring rod
– 6x1m long mops
Team Statistician
– 8 absorbent towels
– 4 Linejudge‘s red or
yellow flags 40x40cm
– Pressure gauge
– Ball measuring devices
min. 21.50 m (25.50 m)

(weight & circumference)
Advertising Boards
Advertising Boards
– TV Replay light
– 1 set of post pads
– 1 reserve net
VIS
VIS
9m
9m
– 1 pair of reserve antennae
(...) Values are valid for FIVB, World and Official Competitions
– 2 bibs for Liberos

– Bibs for Photographers /
DIAGRAM 1a: COMPETITION / CONTROL AREA
another colour for the HB

– Official jacket for CC members 5 cm
5 cm
TeamStatistician
20 cm
15 cm

Positions
1.75 m
Net Camera
Alternate replay light
min. 3 m (5 m)
Blue or black carpet to cover
Photographers‘
Official Scorers the parquet in the control

Free Zone Buzzer
Scoreboard
Buzzer
area and around tribunes
Coach VIS Operator Ball Retriever Coach
Ball Retriever Ball Retriever
Numbered Cards
Cameraman
Quick Moppers Numbered Cards +
Protection Fence Assistant Coaches & Cableman Table Cover Assistant Coach Protection Fence
0.45m
Moppers Players Chairs 150x90x70 Players Chairs Moppers
appr. 3m 150x90x70 150x90x70 0.70m
Cover 2m 2.20m Cover 2m
Players Chairs Cover 5.8m
4.50 m
Court Announcer 1.30m Players Chairs Cover 5.8 m
appr. 3m
Competition Control Area Match Balls Reserve ref./linejudge Competition Control Area
TV Commentator*
Warm-Up Therapist/doctor Penalty 150x45x70 Control Committee Penalty Therapist/doctor Warm-Up
Area 300x90x70 150x45x70 Area
Area Area
Ball Trolley Organiser *To be located on the Ball Trolley
Riser 360x180x20 Media Tribune if possible
First-tier Event Branding Cover 3.6m First-tier Event Branding
2m min. 3 m (6.50 m) 9m 9m min. 3 m (6.50 m) 2m
min. 28 m (35 m)
60
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
DIAGRAM 1b: THE PLAYING AREA

Relevant Rules: 1, 1.4, 1.4.2, 1.4.3, 1.4.4, 1.4.5, 1.4.6, 4.2.1, 4.2.3.1, 15.10.1, 19.3.1.4, 19.3.2.7, 21.3.2.1,
23.1, 24.1, 25.1, 26.1
(...) Values are valid for FIVB, World and Official Competitions
warm-up area
9m
Service zone
Free zone
min. 3 m (6.50 m)
appr. 3 x 3 m
min. 3 m (5 m)
Libero replacement zone
Back zone
COURT
team bench
0.50 m-1 m
Front zone
Substitution zone
min. 24 m (31 m)
Scorer's table
Playing court
Free zone
A
Front zone
1.75 m 1.75 m
Libero replacement zone
team bench
Back zone
COURT
min. 3 m (5 m)
appr. 3 x 3 m
min. 3 m (6.50 m)
Free zone
9m
Service zone
warm-up area
min. 15 m (19 m)

62
18 m 0.20 m 0.15 m
0.05 m
9m 9m
1,75 m
End line
0.05 m
3m 3m
Side line
0.05 m
Back zone
axis of the centre line
Back zone
0.15 m
DIAGRAM 2: THE PLAYING COURT
0.20 m
3m 0.15 m
Relevant Rules: 1.1, 1.3, 1.3.3, 1.3.4, 1.4.1, 5.2.3.4
Coach’s Restriction Line 0.20 m

1.75 m 0.15 m
rear edge 0.20 m
of the attack line
9m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.15 m
Lines of the service zone

0.20 m
Lines should be 17 in all. How to measure the Front zone 0.15 m
Each line should be15cm long 0.20 m
with 20cm gap in
between lines. Front zone Front zone
0.05 m
0.05 m
Side line 0.05 m 0.05 m 0.05 m 0.05 m
0.05 m
0.05 m
End line Attack line Centre line Attack line End line
1,75 m
Coach’s Restriction Line Coach’s Restriction Line

DIAGRAM 3: DESIGN OF THE NET

Relevant Rules: 2, 2.1.6, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5.1, 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 27.2.1.6
0.80 m 9m
Cable
0.07 m
Cord 2.43 m
Men
1m
2.24 m
Women
2.55 m
0.05 m
Cord
9.50 - 10 m
0.50 m / 1 m
Axis
0.01 m
Top band
0.10 m
Cable
0.07 m
Cord
0.10
x
0.10 m
Side band
0.05 m

DIAGRAM 4: POSITION OF PLAYERS
Relevant Rules: 7.4, 7.4.3, 7.5, 23.3.2.3a, 24.3.2.2
Example A:
Determination of the positions between

a front-row player and the corresponding
back-row player
Front-row player
Front-row player Front-row player
Back-row player
Back-row player Back-row player
Correct Fault Fault
Example B:
Determination of the positions between

players of the same row
C (C) R (D) CCC

(C) R (D)
L (G) L (G)
Correct Fault
R (D)
CC
(C)
L (G) Correct R (D)
CC
(C)
Fault L (G)
C (C) = Centre player

R (D) = Right player
L (G) = Left player
64
DIAGRAM 5a: BALL CROSSING THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET TO THE OPPONENT COURT
Relevant Rules: 2.4, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 8.4.5, 10.1.1, 10.1.3, 24.3.2.7, 27.2.1.3, 27.2.1.7
External space Crossing space External space
Lower space
= Fault
= Correct crossing

DIAGRAM 5b: BALL CROSSING THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET TO THE OPPONENT FREE ZONE
Relevant Rules: 10.1.2, 10.1.2.2, 24.3.2.7
66
DIAGRAM 6: COLLECTIVE SCREEN

Relevant Rules: 12.5, 12.5.2, 23.3.2.3a
= Correct = Fault
DIAGRAM 7: COMPLETED BLOCK

Relevant Rule: 14.1.3
Ball above the net Ball lower than Ball touches the net Ball bounces off the net
the top of the net

DIAGRAM 8: BACK ROW PLAYER’S ATTACK
Relevant Rules: 13.2.2, 13.2.3, 23.3.2.3d, 24.3.2.4
A B
C
Net
Front Zone
Attack Line
C
A B
A = Correct
B, C = Fault
B
A
Net
Height of the ball at the moment of the attack-hit
A = Correct
B = Fault
68
DIAGRAM 9: WARNINGS AND SANCTIONS SCALES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES

Relevant Rules: 16.2, 21.3, 21.4.2
9a: MISCONDUCT WARNINGS AND SANCTIONS
CATEGORIES OCCURRENCE OFFENDER SANCTION CARDS CONSEQUENCE

MINOR Stage 1 Any member Not considered None Prevention only
MISCONDUCT as sanction
Stage 2 Yellow
repetition Penalty as below as below

any time
RUDE First Any member Penalty Red A point and service to the
CONDUCT opponent
Second Same member Expulsion Red + Yellow Player leaves playing area
jointly and stays in the penalty
area for the remainder of
the set
Third Same member Disqualification Red + Yellow Player leaves the
separately Competition-Control
Area for the remainder of
the match
OFFENSIVE First Any member Expulsion Red + Yellow Player leaves the playing
CONDUCT jointly area and stays in the
penalty area for the
remainder of the set
Second Same member Disqualification Red + Yellow Player leaves the
the match
AGGRESSION First Any member Disqualification Red + Yellow Player leaves the
the match
9b: DELAY WARNING SYMBOLS AND SANCTIONS
CATEGORIES OCCURRENCE OFFENDER DETERRENT or CARDS CONSEQUENCE

SANCTION
DELAY First Any member Delay Warning Hand signal Prevention – no penalty
of the team No. 25 with
Yellow card
Second and Any member Delay Penalty Hand signal A point and service to the
subsequent of the team No. 25 with opponent
Red card

DIAGRAM 10: LOCATION OF REFEREEING CORPS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS
Relevant Rules: 3.3, 23.1, 24.1, 25.1, 26.1, 27.1
2 1
1 L
1
L
2
S/AS
3 R2 R1 6
L
2
3
L
4 5
R1 = First Referee
R2 = Second Referee
S/AS = Scorer/Assistant Scorer
2 = Lines Judges (numbers 1-4 or 1-2)
4 = Ball Retrievers (numbers 1-6)
= Floor Moppers
70
DIAGRAM 11: REFEREES’ OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS

Legend:
FS Referee(s) who must show the signal according to their regular responsibilities
Referee(s) who show the signal in special situations
1 AUTHORISATION TO SERVE
Relevant Rules: 12.3, 22.2.1.1
Move the hand to indicate direction of service
2 TEAM TO SERVE
Relevant Rules: 22.2.3.1, 22.2.3.2, 22.2.3.4
Extend the arm to the side of team that will serve
FS
3 CHANGE OF COURTS
Relevant Rule: 18.2
Raise the forearms front and back and
twist them around the body
4 TIME-OUT
Place the palm of one hand over the fingers of
the other, held vertically (forming a T) and then
indicate the requesting team
FS

5 SUBSTITUTION
Relevant Rules: 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.8
Circular motion of the forearms around each other
FS
6a MISCONDUCT WARNING
Relevant Rule: 21.1, 21.6
Show a yellow card for warning
6b MISCONDUCT PENALTY
Relevant Rules: 21.3.1, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show a red card for penalty
7 EXPULSION
Relevant Rules: 21.3.2, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show both cards jointly for expulsion
72
8 DISQUALIFICATION
Relevant Rules: 21.3.3, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show red and yellow cards separately
for disqualification
9 END OF SET (OR MATCH)

Relevant Rules: 6.2, 6.3
Cross the forearms in front of the chest, hands open
FS
10 BALL NOT TOSSED OR RELEASED AT THE SERVICE HIT

Lift the extended arm, the palm of the hand
facing upwards
11 DELAY IN SERVICE
Raise eight fingers, spread open

12 BLOCKING FAULT OR SCREENING
Relevant Rules: 12.5, 12.6.2.3, 14.6.3, 19.3.1.3, 23.3.2.3a, g, 24.3.2.4
Raise both arms vertically, palms forward
FS
13 POSITIONAL OR ROTATIONAL FAULT

Relevant Rules: 7.5, 7.7, 23.3.2.3a, 24.3.2.2
Make a circular motion with the forefinger
FS
14 BALL “IN”
Relevant Rule: 8.3
Point the arm and fingers toward the floor
15 BALL “OUT”
Relevant Rules: 8.4.1, 8.4.2, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 24.3.2.5, 24.3.2.7
Raise the forearms vertically, hands open,
palms towards the body
FS
74
16 CATCH
Relevant Rules: 9.2.2, 9.3.3, 23.3.2.3b
Slowly lift the forearm, palm of the hand facing upwards
17 DOUBLE CONTACT
Relevant Rules: 9.3.4, 23.3.2.3b
Raise two fingers, spread open
18 FOUR HITS
Relevant Rules: 9.3.1, 23.3.2.3b
Raise four fingers, spread open
19 NET TOUCHED BY PLAYER – SERVED BALL TOUCHES THE NET BETWEEN THE ANTENNAE AND
DOES NOT PASS THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET
Relevant Rules: 11.4.4, 12.6.2.1

Indicate the relevant side of the net with the
corresponding hand
FS

20 REACHING BEYOND THE NET
Relevant Rules: 11.4.1, 13.3.1, 14.3, 14.6.1, 23.3.2.3c
Place a hand above the net, palm facing downwards
21 ATTACK HIT FAULT

Relevant Rules:
–
by a back-row player, by a libero or on the opponent’s service:
13.3.3, 13.3.4, 13.3.5, 23.3.2.3d, e, 24.3.2.4
– on an overhand finger pass by the libero in his/her front zone or its extension:
13.3.6
Make a downward motion with the forearm, hand open
FS
22 PENETRATION INTO THE OPPONENT COURT

BALL CROSSING THE LOWER SPACE OR
THE SERVER TOUCHES THE COURT (END LINE) OR
THE PLAYER STEPS OUTSIDE HIS/HER COURT AT THE MOMENT OF THE SERVICE HIT
Relevant Rules: 8.4.5, 11.2.2, 12.4.3, 23.3.2.3a, f, 24.3.2.1

Point to the center line or to the relevant line
FS
23 DOUBLE FAULT AND REPLAY

Relevant Rules: 6.1.2.2, 17.2, 22.2.3.4
Raise both thumbs vertically
76
24 BALL TOUCHED
Relevant Rules: 23.3.2.3b, 24.2.2
Brush with the palm of one hand the fingers

of the other, held vertically
25 DELAY WARNING / DELAY PENALTY

Relevant Rules: 15.11.3, 16.2.2, 16.2.3, 23.3.2.2
Cover the wrist with a yellow card (warning)
and with a red card (penalty)

DIAGRAM 12: LINE JUDGES’ OFFICIAL FLAG SIGNALS
1 BALL “IN”
Relevant Rule: 8.3, 27.2.1.1
Point down with flag
2 BALL “OUT”
Relevant Rules: 8.4.1, 27.2.1.1
Raise flag vertically
3 BALL TOUCHED
Relevant Rule: 27.2.1.2
Raise flag and touch the top with the palm of the free hand
4 CROSSING SPACE FAULTS, BALL TOUCHED AN OUTSIDE OBJECT, OR FOOT FAULT BY ANY PLAYER DURING SERVICE
Relevant Rules: 8.4.2, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 12.4.3, 27.2.1.3,
27.2.1.4, 27.2.1.6, 27.2.1.7
Wave flag over the head and point to the antenna
or the respective line
78
5 JUDGEMENT IMPOSSIBLE
Raise and cross both arms and hands in front of the chest

PART 3
DEFINITIONS
80
PART 3: DEFINITIONS
COMPETITION / CONTROL AREA
The Competition / Control Area is a corridor around the playing court and free zone, which includes
all spaces up to the outer barriers or delimitation fence. See diagram/fig 1a.
ZONES
These are sections within the playing area (i.e. playing court and free zone) as defined for a specific
purpose (or with special restrictions) within the rule text. These include: Front Zone, Service Zone,
Substitution Zone, Free Zone, Back Zone, and Libero Replacement Zone.
AREAS
These are sections of the floor OUTSIDE the free zone, identified by the rules as having a specific
function. These include: warm-up area and penalty area.
LOWER SPACE
This is the space defined at its upper part by the bottom of the net and the cord joining it to the
posts, at the sides by the posts, and the bottom by the playing surface.
CROSSING SPACE
The crossing space is defined by:
–– The horizontal band at the top of the net

–– The antennae and their extension
–– The ceiling
The ball must cross to the opponent’s COURT through the crossing space.
EXTERNAL SPACE
The external space is in the vertical plane of the net outside of the crossing and lower spaces.
SUBSTITUTION ZONE
This is the part of the free zone through which substitutions are carried out.
UNLESS BY AGREEMENT OF FIVB

This statement recognizes that while there are regulations on the standards and specification of
equipment and facilities, there are occasions when special arrangements can be made by FIVB in
order to promote the game of Volleyball or to test new conditions.
FIVB STANDARDS
The technical specifications or limits as defined by FIVB to the manufacturers of equipment.
PENALTY AREA
In each half of the competition/control area, there is a Penalty Area located behind the prolongation
of the end line, outside the free zone, which should be placed a minimum of 1.5 metres behind
the rear edge of the bench.
FAULT
a) A playing action contrary to the rules.
b) A rule violation other than a playing action.
DRIBBLING
Dribbling means bouncing the ball (usually as a preparation to tossing and serving). Other
preparatory actions could include (amongst others) moving the ball from hand to hand.
TECHNICAL TIME-OUT
This special mandatory time-out is, in addition to time-outs, to allow the promotion of Volleyball,
analysis of the play and to allow additional commercial opportunities. Technical Time-Outs are
mandatory for FIVB, World and Official competitions.
BALL RETRIEVERS AND MOPPERS

These are personnel whose job it is to maintain the flow of the game by rolling the ball to the
server between rallies.
Moppers: are personnel whose job it is to keep the floor clean and dry. They mop the court before
the match, between the sets and, if necessary, after each rally.
RALLY POINT
This is the system of scoring a point whenever a rally is won.
INTERVAL
The time between sets. The change of courts in the 5th (deciding) set is not to be regarded as an interval.
RE-DESIGNATION
This is the act by which a Libero, who cannot continue or is declared by the team “unable to play”,
has his/her role taken by any other player (except the regular replacement player) not on the court
at the moment of the re-designation.
REPLACEMENT
This is the act by which a regular player leaves the court and either Libero (if more than one) takes
his/her place. This can even include Libero for Libero exchanges. The regular player can then replace
either Libero. There must be a completed rally between replacements involving any Libero.
INTERFERING
Any action which will create an advantage against the opponent team or any action which prevents
an opponent from playing the ball.
O-2bis
An FIVB official form which registers players and team officials. It should be presented during the
Preliminary Inquiry.
OUTSIDE OBJECT
An object or a person which while outside the playing court or close to the limit of the free playing
space provides an obstruction to the flight of the ball. For example: overhead lights, the referee’s
chair, TV equipment, scorer’s table, and net posts. Outside objects do not include the antennae
since they are considered as the part of the net.
SUBSTITUTION
This is the act by which one regular player leaves the court and another regular player takes his/
her place.
82
INDEX
A F
Actions involving the Libero......................... 42 Fair play...................................................... 46
Additional Equipment................................. 16 Faults in playing the ball.............................. 29
Antennae.................................................... 15 Faults made during the service.................... 33
Application of misconduct sanctions............ 48 Faults of the attack hit................................ 34
Assistant Coach.......................................... 21 First Referee................................................ 51
Attack hit.................................................... 33 – Authority................................................. 51
Authorization of the service........................ 32 – Location.................................................. 51
First service in a set..................................... 31
B Five-ball system........................................... 16
Ball at the net............................................. 29 Forbidden objects........................................ 19
Ball crossing the net.................................... 29
Ball “in”.......................................... 27, 74, 78 G
Ball in play.................................................. 27 Game delays............................................... 39
Ball in the net.............................................. 30 Game interruptions............................... 36, 40
Ball “out”....................................... 27, 74, 78
Ball out of play............................................ 27 H
Ball touching the net................................... 30 Height of the net........................................ 14
Balls............................................................ 16
Block..................................................... 34, 67 I
Block contact.............................................. 35 Illegal substitution....................................... 38
Blocking................................................ 34, 74 Improper request......................................... 39
Block and team hits..................................... 35 Injury / Illness................................................ 40
Blocking faults............................................ 35 Interruptions............................................... 36
Blocking the service..................................... 35 Intervals...................................................... 41
Blocking within the opponent’s space.......... 35 Intervals and change of courts..................... 41
C L
Captain....................................................... 19 Lighting...................................................... 14
Change of courts.................................. 41, 71 Limitation of substitutions........................... 37
Change of equipment................................. 19 Line judges....................................... 57, 78-79
Characteristics of the attack hit................... 33 Line judges’ flag signals.................... 58, 78-79
Characteristics of the hit............................. 28 – Location.................................................. 57
Coach......................................................... 20 – Responsibilities........................................ 57
Contact with the net................................... 31 Lines on the court....................................... 13
Location of the team................................... 18
D
Default and incomplete team...................... 23 M
Delay sanctions........................................... 40 Minor misconduct....................................... 46
Designation of the Libero............................ 42 Misconduct and its sanctions....................... 46
Dimensions................................................. 12 Misconduct before and between sets.......... 48
Misconduct leading to sanctions................. 47
E
Equipment............................................ 18, 42 N
Exceptional game interruption..................... 40 Net and posts.............................................. 14
Exceptional substitution.............................. 37 Number of regular game interruptions........ 36
Execution of the service............................... 32
External interference................................... 40

O T
Official signals....................... 58, 71-77, 78-79 Teams......................................................... 17
Official warm-up session............................. 23 Team composition....................................... 17
Team leaders............................................... 19
P Team hits.............................................. 28, 35
Player’s faults at the net.............................. 31 Team starting line-up................................... 24
Playing area........................................... 12, 61 Temperature................................................ 14
Playing surface............................................ 12 The Libero Player......................................... 42
Playing the ball............................................ 28 The toss...................................................... 23
Positions..................................................... 25 Time-out and Technical Time-out................. 37
Positional fault............................................ 25 To score a point........................................... 22
Posts........................................................... 15 To score a point, win a set and the match.... 22
Prolonged interruptions............................... 40 To win a set................................................. 22
To win the match........................................ 23
R Types of delays............................................ 39
Reaching beyond the net...................... 30, 76
Refereeing corps................................... 50, 70 U
– Procedures............................................... 50 Uniformity of balls....................................... 16
– Responsibilities....................... 52, 54, 55, 56
Referees’ hand signals...................... 58, 71-77 Z
Request for regular game interruptions....... 36 Zones and areas.......................................... 13
Requirements of conduct............................ 46
Restrictions of the attack hit........................ 33
Rotation...................................................... 26
Rotational fault..................................... 26, 74
S
Sanction cards........................... 48, 69, 72, 73
Sanction scales...................................... 47, 69
Scorer......................................................... 55
– Location.................................................. 55
– Responsibilities........................................ 55
Screening.............................................. 32, 74
Second Referee........................................... 53
– Authority................................................. 53
– Location.................................................. 53
– Responsibilities........................................ 54
Service........................................................ 31
Service order............................................... 32
Sequence of regular game interruptions...... 36
Serving faults and positional faults.............. 33
Side bands.................................................. 15
Sportsmanlike conduct................................ 46
Standards.................................................... 16
States of play.............................................. 27
Structure..................................................... 15
Structure of play.......................................... 23
Substitution................................................ 37
Substitution for expulsion or disqualification.. 38
Substitution procedure................................ 38
84
MEMO

MEMO
86
Gender Issues in
Physical Education
Sarah Smiley
Kennaradeild
Hug- og félagsvísindasvið
Háskólinn á Akureyri
2015
Gender Issues in Physical
Education
Sarah Smiley
30 eininga lokaverkefni sem er hluti af

Magister Educationis-prófi í menntunarfræði
Leiðsögukennari
Andrea Hjálmsdóttir
Kennaradeild
Akureyri, janúar 2015
Titill: Gender Issues in Physical Education
30 eininga meistaraprófsverkefni sem er hluti af Magister Educationis-prófi í
menntunarfræði
Höfundarréttur © 2015 Sarah Smiley

Öll réttindi áskilin
Kennaradeild
Sólborg, Norðurslóð 2
600 Akureyri
Sími: 460 8000
Skráningarupplýsingar:
Sarah Smiley, 2015, meistaraprófsverkefni, kennaradeild, hug- og
félagsvísindasvið, Háskólinn á Akureyri, 92 bls.
Prentun: Stíll
Akureyri, janúar 2015
Ágrip
Íþróttir barna í grunnskóla eru hugsaðar til þess að efla heilbrigðan lífstíl og
hreyfingu með því að veita börnum tækifæri til að hreyfa sig í öruggu og
kunnuglegu umhverfi í þeirri von að upplifun verði jákvæð. Margar þjóðir,
Íslendingar meðtaldir, hafa áhyggjur af minnkandi hreyfingu á unglingsárunum
og þá sérstaklega hjá stúlkum. Í viðtölum við fjóra íþróttakennara og fjóra
skólastjóra í grunnskólum Akureyrar voru viðhorf þeirra könnuð til
íþróttakennslu, mikilvægi hennar, kynjamun í íþróttaiðkun og gildi þess að hafa
kynin saman eða sitt í hvoru lagi í kennslustundum.
Kennarar og skólastjórar voru sammála hvað varðar markmið og skilvirkni

íþróttakennslu þeirra. Skólar á Íslandi fá engar leiðbeiningar í gegnum
aðalnámskrá frá menntamálaráðuneytinu varðandi kynjaskiptingu í
íþróttakennslu og ræður þá hugmyndafræði kennara og stjórnenda í hverjum
skóla fyrir sig, þrátt fyrir takmarkaða formlega fræðslu um áhrif þess að hafa
kynjaskipta kennslu eða ekki. Kennararnir fjórir voru allir á sama máli um að
auðveldara væri að virkja stúlkur þegar þær væru án drengjanna, sérstaklega á
unglingastigi og þegar um mikla líkamlega áreynslu væri að ræða. Kennararnir
voru samt sem áður allir hlynntir því að hafa stundum kynjaskiptingu og
stundum ekki til þess að efla félagsfærni nemenda. Meiri munur var á skoðunum
viðmælenda um hversu karllæg þeirra námskrá væri hvað íþróttakennslu varðar.
Þar að auki gáfu kennarar í skyn að stúlkur þyrftu meiri hvatningu og
persónulega athygli kennara til þess að taka virkari þátt. Niðurstaða þessarar
ritgerðar er að formleg fræðsla (nám) um kynjamun í íþróttum ætti að vera
skylda fyrir íþróttakennara og ennfremur að mjög gott væri að skólar skoðuðu
hvort þeir uppfylli þarfir beggja kynja þegar kemur að íþróttakennslu.
Abstract
Physical education programs in schools are designed to promote lifelong habits
of physical activity by providing children with both the opportunity to be
physically active and positive experiences of that activity. In many nations,
including Iceland, there is general concern that levels of physical activity
decrease during adolescence, and that girls are even less active than boys.
Interviews with four physical education teachers and four principals at the
elementary school level in Akureyri, Iceland, explored current beliefs about the
effectiveness and value of physical education, gender issues within the physical
education system, as well as the value of coed and same sex physical education.
A general consensus was found amongst educators regarding the goals and
effectiveness of their physical education program. Schools in Iceland have no
guidelines from the Ministry of Education curriculum as to when, or whether to
use single sex or coed classroom environments; and that current school physical
education program set-ups are developed based on the opinions and beliefs of
the educators who have very little formal education regarding the use of single
sex and coed environments. All four teachers found it easier to activate girls in a
single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in activities that
were more physical in nature and in the upper grades. However, all teachers
were in favour of a mix of coed and single sex teaching environments within
their programs in order that students benefit from the social interaction.
Educators had a variety of opinions regarding to what degree their programs
could be considered “masculinized”. In addition, the teachers indicated that girls
in general needed more motivation or individual attention on behalf of the
teachers in order to achieve greater levels of participation. This paper concludes
that formal education regarding gender issues in physical education should be a
requirement for physical education teachers. Furthermore, that schools should
investigate whether their physical education programs are truly meeting the
needs of both genders.
Foreword
This paper constitutes a Master’s thesis worth 30 ECTS credit points in
Educational Studies (Primary Education) in the Faculty of Education of the
University of Akureyri. The thesis was written under the supervision of Andrea
Hjálmsdóttir. I would like to thank her for her continuous support and
encouragement. I also want to thank my mother Alison Smiley for editing this
paper and my husband Ingvar Þór Jónsson for his support and patience.
Table of Contents
Ágrip........................................................................................................................ iii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................iv
Foreword ................................................................................................................. v
1 Introduction....................................................................................................1
2 Literature Review .........................................................................................3
2.1 Children and Activity ..................................................................... 3
Physical Inactivity ................................................................................... 3
Childhood Obesity .................................................................................. 3
The Benefits of Physical Activity ........................................................... 4
Physical Activity Recommendations ...................................................... 5
Recommendations in Iceland .................................................................. 5
Summary: Children and Activity ............................................................ 6
2.2 Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity ................................ 7
Age, Gender and Physical Activity ......................................................... 7
Self-Perception and Activity ................................................................... 8
Sporting Role Models and Environment ................................................. 9
Peer and Parental Influences ................................................................. 11
Age and Gender Differences in Iceland ................................................ 12
Summary: Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity ....................... 13
2.3 Physical Education ....................................................................... 14
Physical Education Goals and Benefits ................................................. 14
Effective Physical Education ................................................................ 15
Physical Education Program Requirements .......................................... 18
Summary: Physical Education .............................................................. 18
2.4 Gender Issues and Physical Education ....................................... 19
Gender Issues in Physical Education .................................................... 19
Improving Physical Education Programs .............................................. 20
Summary: Gender Issues in Physical Education ................................... 22
2.5 Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ..................................... 22
Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education Arguments ............................ 22
Single Sex and Coed Physical Education in Iceland ............................. 27
Summary: Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ............................. 29
2.6 The Masculinization of Physical Education ............................... 30
The Masculinization of Physical Education .......................................... 30
3 Research Goal .............................................................................................. 33
4 Method ........................................................................................................... 35
4.1 Qualitative Social Research ......................................................... 35
4.2 Reliability and Validity ................................................................ 36
4.3 Interview Method ......................................................................... 36
4.4 Population Sample ........................................................................ 37
4.5 Data Recording ............................................................................. 38
4.6 Data Analysis and Interpretation................................................ 38
5 Results............................................................................................................ 41
5.1 Physical Education Program ....................................................... 41
Goals and Effectiveness of Program ..................................................... 41
Effective Teachers and Teaching in Physical Education ...................... 43
5.2 Health Awareness and Initiatives................................................ 46
Health Awareness and Initiatives .......................................................... 46
School Programs ................................................................................... 48
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Principals ................. 50
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Teachers .................. 51
Teaching Environment Preferences ...................................................... 54
5.4 Gender Issues ................................................................................ 56
Masculine and Feminine Influences ...................................................... 56
Equality in Physical Education ............................................................. 59
Treatment of Male and Female Students............................................... 61
6 Discussion..................................................................................................... 63
6.1 Effective Programs and Teaching ............................................... 63
6.3 Gender Issues ................................................................................ 67
7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 71
References ........................................................................................................... 73
Print Sources............................................................................................ 73
Electronic Sources ................................................................................... 79
Appendix .............................................................................................................. 81
1 Introduction
In many countries around the world the health of future generations is at risk
due to the growing problem of obesity and overweight. The World Health
Organization [WHO] (2010) has identified physical inactivity as the fourth
leading risk factor for global mortality. Physical education programs in
schools are designed to promote lifelong habits of physical activity by
providing children with both the opportunity to be physically active and
positive experiences of that physical activity. In many nations, including
Iceland, there is general concern that levels of physical activity decrease
during adolescence, and that girls in particular are less active than boys. If
this is the case, we need to investigate the effectiveness of our physical
education programs at the elementary school level.
By interviewing 4 physical education teachers and 4 principals at the

elementary school level in Akureyri, Iceland, this paper intends to explore
current beliefs about the effectiveness and value of physical education,
gender issues within the physical education system, as well as the value of
coed and same sex physical education. This paper begins with a literature
review which focuses on the following: health risks associated with obesity
and overweight and the significance that physical activity plays in health; the
effect that gender and age have on physical activity and the potential social
influences of this effect; and finally, the effectiveness of physical education
programs as well as gender issues in physical education. Following the
literature review is the methods section, which provides a description of the
qualitative research, used to collect data; subsequently, the results section
outlines that data. The discussion section reflects the data in relation to the
literature review and the conclusion follows.
1
2 Literature Review
2.1 Children and Activity

This section of the literature review covers the immediate and long term
social and health consequences of physical inactivity and childhood obesity
on children. The benefits of physical activity are reviewed as well as the
current global recommendations for physical activity, which are necessary to
achieve in order to enjoy those benefits. This section also covers in detail the
current health status of Icelandic children as well as Icelandic government
recommendations for physical activity.
Physical Inactivity
According to the WHO (2010), “physical inactivity has been identified as the
fourth leading risk factor for global mortality (6% of deaths globally). This
follows high blood pressure (13%), tobacco use (9%) and high blood glucose
(6%). Overweight and obesity are responsible for 5% of global mortality”
(p.10). The WHO explains that a person’s rate of physical activity or
inactivity effect the risk factors of non-communicable diseases such as,
raised blood pressure, raised blood sugar, and being overweight and
according to the WHO, non communicable diseases now account for almost
half of global deaths. In addition, the WHO states, “physical inactivity is
estimated as being the principal cause for approximately 21–25% of breast
and colon cancer burden, 27% of diabetes and approximately 30% of
ischemic heart disease burden” (p.10).
Childhood Obesity
According to the WHO (2012), obesity is increasing at an “alarming rate”

globally. The WHO (2014) states that the rate of obesity world-wide has
doubled since 1980, that 65% of adults live in countries where overweight
and obesity kills more people than being underweight and that more than
11% of the world’s population is considered obese. The WHO’s (2012)
report furthermore, shows that the growing trend of obesity has not only been
found in adult populations but also in children. The report found that
globally, 170 million children, under the age of 18, are considered to be
overweight.
3
According to Must and Strauss (1999), possible immediate physical
consequences of childhood obesity include: bowing of the legs, the
development of gallstones, hepatitis, sleep-disorders, intracranial pressure
and menstrual abnormalities. There are also social consequences of obesity,
which may include, being more likely to be described as “lazy, cheating,
sloppy, dirty, ugly and stupid” (Must & Strauss, 1999, p. 4). Moreover, Must
and Strauss explain that obese children may be more likely to have low self-
esteem or low confidence and this may lead to lowered academic success and
therefore future personal economic consequences. Of great consequence, it
has been found that childhood obesity leads to a greater likelihood for
continued obesity in adulthood (Must & Strauss, 1999). The long-term
effects of obesity are dangerous and can include: the development of
hypertension, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer and
osteoarthritis (Avenell et. al, 2004).
According to the WHO, “the fundamental cause of obesity and

overweight is an energy imbalance between calories consumed and calories
expended” (2014, n.p.). The WHO explains that globally there has been an
“increased intake of energy-dense foods that are high in fat; and an increase
in physical inactivity due to the increasingly sedentary nature of many forms
of work, changing modes of transportation, and increasing urbanization”
(2013, n.p.). Lobstein, Baur and Uauy (2004) highlight the current social
changes that have contributed to an increase in obesity in both children and
adults worldwide. The authors reported the following social trends, amongst
others, as problematic: increase in motorized transport, decrease in
opportunities for recreational physical activity, increased sedentary
recreation (including television, computer games and internet), an increase of
the marketing of energy dense foods, widespread food purchasing
opportunity, and the rising use of soft drinks to replace water. Lobstein et al.,
recommends that these social changes and their health consequences be
recognized by countries worldwide and suggest different social changes as
obesity prevention measurements, for example: public funding of physical
education programs and sporting facilities, providing the public with safe
parks, playgrounds and pedestrian zones; encouraging food companies to
market lower energy, more nutritious food to children; developing criteria for
advertising that encourages healthier eating; and encouraging schools to
develop comprehensible food, nutrition and physical activity policies
(Lobstein et al., 2004).
The Benefits of Physical Activity
The WHO (2010) states that regular physical activity will reduce the risk of
non-communicable diseases such as: coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes,
hypertension, colon cancer, breast cancer and depression. Furthermore the
4
WHO explains that regular physical activity is a fundamental factor in
controlling weight. Additionally, the WHO has found through research that
overall health benefits to children ages 7-17, who participate in regular
physical activity, include increased physical fitness, reduced body fatness,
favourable cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk profiles, enhanced bone
health and reduced symptoms of depression. Furthermore, the WHO has
found evidence which supports that higher amounts of physical activity
achieved by children in this age group lead to improved cardiorespiratory and
metabolic health and lower rates of morbidity from cardiovascular disease
and diabetes later in life. According to Khan et al. (2000) it has been
observed that high rates of physical activity in childhood, particularly before
and until the end of puberty, will lead to increased measures of bone density
which persist into adulthood. Khan states that regular activity during
childhood may therefore greatly reduce occurrences of the degeneration of
bones known as osteoporosis later on in life.
Physical Activity Recommendations
In order to benefit from the well documented health advantages of regular

physical activity, including cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular endurance,
and muscular strength, decrease in overweight, reduced risk of depression
and anxiety, and the reduction of risk of non-communicable diseases, the
WHO (2010, p.20) has created the following guidelines for the minimum
necessary physical activity in children ages 7-17:
1. Children and youth aged 5–17 should accumulate at least 60 minutes

of moderate- to vigorous intensity physical activity daily.
2. Amounts of physical activity greater than 60 minutes provide

additional health benefits.
3. Most of the daily physical activity should be aerobic. Vigorous-

intensity activities should be incorporated, including those that
strengthen muscle and bone, at least 3 times per week.
Recommendations in Iceland
The Public Health Office of Iceland (2013) recommends that children and
adolescents are physically active for at least 60 minutes daily at a moderate
to difficult level; and that the total time may be made up from short intervals
of activity, for example bouts of 10-15 minutes. The Public Health Office
advises that the physical activity engaged in be as varied as possible in order
to develop different components of fitness, including: cardiovascular
5
capacity, muscle strength, flexibility, and coordination. The Public Health
Office emphasizes that some of the activity be vigorous in order to develop
the bone formation and bone mineral density, which is an essential part of
development during puberty. Furthermore, the Public Health Office advises
no more than 2 hours of sedentary time per day in front of either a television
or computer screen.
The current status of children‘s health in Iceland reflects that which is

occurring globally. Þórsdóttir (2005), found that 15-20% of Icelandic
children, ages 2-15, were considered overweight based on international
standards. Another study by Johannsson, Arngrimsson, Thorsdóttir and
Sveinsson (2006), investigated overweight in children and found that at the
age of 6, the children in the study who were born in 1994 were significantly
more overweight than those who were born in 1988, demonstrating a rise in
obesity within the Icelandic population in only a short time.
Further studies have indicated that Icelandic children are not meeting their
minimum recommendations for physical activity. Magnússon, Arngrímsson,
Sveinsson and Jóhannsson (2011), concluded that only 5% of 9 year olds and
9% of 15 year olds reached the recommended 60 minutes of moderate to
vigorous daily physical activity. Furthermore, Gunnarsdóttir (2005) found
that only one third of Icelandic children in grades 6-10 reached the
recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity. The diets of Icelandic
children are also of concern. A study by Bjarnason, Jónsson, Ólafsson,
Hjálmsdóttir and Ólafsson (2006) looked at the health behaviours of students
in grades 6-10, and discovered while 65% of grade 6 children consumed fruit
5 times or more per week, only 39% of children in grade 10 did the same.
The study also concluded that 7% of those in grade 6 consumed candy 5
times or more per week while 21% of those in grade 10 did the same. A 2010
continuation of the same study found that while on average, grade 6 children
were physically active more than 60 minutes a day 4.2 days a week, grade 10
children did this only 3.6 days a week (Bjarnason, Hjálmsdóttir, Arnarsson,
2010).
Summary: Children and Activity
Obesity and overweight in children is an ever increasing problem in many

countries around the world. This is an alarming problem because of the
negative immediate and long term physical, psychological and economic
impact associated with obesity and overweight in children. Physical activity
has been found to improve physical fitness, reduce body fat, and improve
overall physical and psychological health and is therefore a key factor in
battling obesity and overweight in children. In order for children to benefit
from the health advantages associated with physical activity they need to be
6
active for a minimum of 60 minutes a day. It is therefore of great concern
that not enough children in Iceland are meeting these standards. In order to
understand why children are not meeting their daily recommended levels of
physical activity one must look at the different factors affecting this age
group.
2.2 Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity

This section of the literature review examines how age and gender affect the
physical activity levels of children. Furthermore this section reviews how
social factors during childhood and adolescents affect physical activity
including: self-perception, role models, social environment, as well as peer
and parental influence. The effects of gender, age and social factors on
physical activity in Iceland are also reviewed.
Age, Gender and Physical Activity
Research evidence suggests that the exercise habits formed in adolescence

tend to continue on into adulthood (Schwarz & Peterson, 2010). It is
therefore of great concern that levels of physical activity seem to decline
steadily from the age of ten (Efrat, 2009). Of further concern is that girls are
overall less active than boys (Riddoch et. al, 2004), which puts girls at an
even greater risk for underachieving recommended levels of physical
activity. A study by Klasson-Heggebo and Anderssen (2003) conducted on
Norwegian children ages 9-15 found significant differences in the amount of
physical activity between boys and girls, as well as a decrease in physical
activity during adolescence. Klasson-Heggebo and Anderssen found that
approximately 12% of boys and 20% of girls in the 9-year-old group did not
reach the recommended 60 minutes of moderate physical activity per day;
whereas, approximately 39% of boys and 50% of girls from the 15-year-old
age group did not reach the recommended 60 minutes of moderate physical
activity. Furthermore, a study that assessed levels of physical activity in
children ages 9 to 15, in four countries across Europe (Norway, Estonia,
Denmark and Portugal) came to similar conclusions (Riddoch et al., 2003).
Riddoch et al. found that at age 9, boys were 21% more active than girls, and
at the age of 15, boys were 26% more active than girls. In addition, there was
a significant reduction of physical activity with age. In activities which were
of moderate intensity or higher, at 9 years of age boys were 94% more active
than their 15 year old counter parts; and 9 year old girls, 129% more active
than their 15 year old counterparts.
Some studies have attempted to see whether the physical changes of
7
puberty affect activity levels of children during adolescence. Finnel,
Bucksch, Lampert and Kolip (2011) looked at the effects of physical
maturation on physical activity and found that chronological age was a far
more important factor in the decline of physical activity than the timing of
puberty or puberty status. The authors suggest that there therefore may be
more social factors than physical factors influencing the decline of physical
activity during adolescence.
Self-Perception and Activity
Perceptions that children and adolescents have about themselves and physical
activity can greatly affect their levels of participation. Body dissatisfaction
has been found to be associated with a decrease in physical activity. Finnel et
al. (2011) found that girls who felt “too fat” and boys who felt “too thin”,
were more at risk for infrequent physical activity. Perceiving one’s body type
in a negative way could therefore affect how one feels about attending
physical education classes where one’s body and abilities are very much on
display.
The way boys and girls perceive themselves and each other are also
strong social influencers in physical activity. A study involving semi-
structured interviews of adolescent girls and boys was conducted to discuss
perceptions of gender and physical activity (Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, and Jobe,
2006). While girls were more likely to see other active girls as motivating,
healthy and fit, boys often regarded physically active girls in a more negative
way, sighting that active girls were trying to be like boys and were less
attractive. The study also found that both boys and girls saw girls who were
very physically active and participated in sports as too aggressive, or as
“tomboys”. Furthermore, Vu et al., found that the adolescent girls in this
study considered boys to be their greatest barrier to physical activity. The
girls interviewed in the study explained that they felt teased by the boys, that
the boys said they did not know the rules to games and that the boys made
them feel low in confidence about their abilities. Both the boys and girls
groups in this study also identified girls themselves as a main hindrance to
participating in physical activity. The boys said that the girls did not care for
sports and did not want to get dirty or sweaty. The girls stated that, lack of
interest, self-esteem and shyness were the reasons why they did not want to
be involved in physical activity (Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, & Jobe, 2006).
Australian research from the New South Wales Department of Education

and Communities has given further indication as to why girls are less likely
to participate in sporting activities than boys. The department found the top
reasons listed for girls not wanting to participate in sports were when the
activity was: “repetitive and boring, it’s serious and competitive, it is played
8
with boys, boys watch girls play, girls are treated differently from boys, and
girls are made to feel inadequate, because of a lack of skills” (NSW, 1997,
n.p.). It is clear that perceptions that girls and boys have about themselves, or
the opposite sex, can strongly influence their participation in physical
activity.
Sporting Role Models and Environment
Another possible social reason for the under representation of girls in sports
and lower rates of physical activity may be related to the perceived
masculinity or femininity of a given sport or activity. In most countries
around the world males outnumber females who participate in sport (Right to
Play, 2012). Although the gender gap in participation rates has been
decreasing over the past few decades (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2013),
there still seems to be difference in choice of sport between genders. For
example, Klomsten, Marsh and Skaalvik (2005) found that more girls
participate in sports such as dance, horse riding, figure skating and aerobics,
whereas more boys participate in sports such as ice hockey, martial arts,
football and boxing. A report from the Sports Council of Wales (2009)
indicated that football and rugby are still the number one choice of sport for
boys, whereas dance and swimming have the highest number of participating
girls.
Masculinity and femininity can be described as the personality traits,

interests or behaviours associated with a given gender (Howard & Hollander,
1997). What we consider to be masculine and feminine traits may originate
from the biological and physiological characteristics of the sexes. For
example, women were child bearers and took care of children so certain
behaviours and activities, such as nurturing and caring for children, became
associated with that sex (Beal, 1997). Over time and across cultures the roles
of men and women have varied considerably, so much so that we can
observe that gender roles and expectations are socially constructed and
subsequently learned by children (Beal, 1997). For example, what used to be
considered an inappropriate activity for women, running, is now considered
acceptable in Western culture. However, whether or not a sport is considered
acceptable for a boy or girl is still affected by its masculine or feminine
status. For example, it is still socially unacceptable for girls to participate in
American football, which can be characterized as competitive, aggressive,
strength and speed based, as well as violent (all masculine traits).
Participation levels of girls in team sports, which until recently were only
seen as acceptable for boys, is now on the rise, and this is leading changing
perceptions of these sports (Everhart & Pemberton, 2001).
9
A major change in the rights of women and girls to participate in sports
occurred in 1972 when the United States put in place the education
amendment, Title IX. The Title IX law states, "No person in the United
States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied
the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational
program or activity receiving federal financial assistance" (Women’s Sports
Foundation, 2013, n.p.). Since the inauguration of Title IX, participation by
girls in high school sports has increased by 900% (Women’s Sports
Foundation, 2013). This has been a factor in increasing the number of
amateur and professional female athletes globally in the past 4 decades, and
has led as well to female athletes, such as the soccer player Mia Hamm, or
the tennis playing sisters Venus and Serena Williams becoming international
stars (Daniles and Wartena, 2011). It can therefore be assumed that girls’
right to participate in sports and availability of female sports roles models
has improved in many countries around the world. Unfortunately, female
athletes in the media still do not receive as much coverage as their male
counterparts, are often photographed in sexual poses, and their feminine
attributes are highlighted in articles. The 2012 Olympics marked a historic
year for women in athletics. According to Kian, Bernstein and McGuire
(2013), it was the first Olympics where every competing country sent at least
one female athlete to compete. Furthermore, Kian et al., found that the
participation of women reached an all time high of 45%, and it was the first
year where all sports had events for both men and women. However, Kian et
al., also found that the media covering the 2012 Olympics, covered with
higher frequency women’s sports, which can be considered more feminine,
covered more athletes that are known for their heterosexual appeal, and
broadcasters emphasized women for their femininity by referring to them as
girls or referring to their family status.
It is therefore no surprise that girls have trouble identifying with female

sports role models. A study by Colley, Berman, and Millingen (2005), looked
at gender differences in the perception of sports by having children draw
what they considered to be sports figures. Colley et al., explain that previous
research has shown that when asked to draw figures, boys and girls tend to
draw figures of their own sex. In the Colley et al. study, however the boys
drew male versions of sporting figures whereas girls drew both male and
female figures. This study demonstrates that children are exposed to more
male athletic role models.
The environment of a given sports association can also dictate the levels
of participation based on gender. An Icelandic study by Vilhjálmsson and
Kristjansdóttir (2003) found that the lower levels of enrolment of girls in
sports associations, as well as higher incidence of withdrawal from sports
associations, accounted for lower levels of physical activity overall in
10
comparison with that of boys. Vilhjálmsson and Kristjansdóttir, theorize that
despite recent increases in female enrolment in sports associations, the
associations are still more male friendly environments and therefore less
inviting to girls. The authors explain that the majority of executives and
board members in the Icelandic associations are men and that the
associations emphasize competitive sports such as: soccer, handball and
basketball, where males still outnumber female participants. In conclusion,
Vilhjálmsson and Kristjansdóttir (2003) stated, “by reﬂecting girls’ and
women’s as well as boys and men’s perspectives and interests, offering a
broader array of sports and exercises, and developing linkages with the
primary school system, we believe organized sport programs could recruit
more children and adolescents into sport and exercise, and reduce or
eliminate gender disparities” (p.372).
Peer and Parental Influences
Research evidence supports that peer and parental influences can greatly
impact the physical activity level of children and adolescents (Ornelas,
Perreir & Ayala, 2007; Trost & Loprinzi, 2011). In 2011 the Canadian
Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute in collaboration with
ParticipACTION, a Canadian non-profit health organization, came to the
conclusion that parental enjoyment of physical activity was the strongest
predictor of their children’s levels of physical activity. They found that
parental support and encouragement can influence their children’s level of
participation in physical activity; and that greater support is associated with
greater intensity of physical activity in children. A research review by Trost
and Loprinzi (2011) also found that parents can greatly influence their child’s
level of physical activity by: actively playing with their child; watching their
child participate in an activity; signing up their child for activities and
providing transportation to the activities; positively reinforcing their active
behaviour; and teaching their child how to play active games and sports.
Furthermore, a study by Ornelas, Perreir and Ayala (2007) found that
parental involvement could have a positive effect on adolescents in grades 6
through 12. According to the authors, family cohesion, parent-child
communication and parental engagement specifically were predictors of
adolescents meeting daily moderate to vigorous physical activity guidelines.
These research studies suggest that parental involvement could play a part in
increasing the number of children who stay physically active throughout their
adolescence.
According to Fitzgeralda, Fitzgeralda and Aherneb (2012), as children

reach adolescence they start to spend significantly more time with their
peers; and this can therefore be a contributing social factor which influences
their level of physical activity. The authors found evidence that overweight
11
adolescents were more likely to engage in intense physical activity when in
the presence of peers, and that peer norms could influence attitudes about,
and intention to participate in physical activity. In conclusion, Fitzgeralda et
al., stated: “friendship quality and peer acceptance in adolescence was crucial
for sport continuation, perceived self-competence, and enjoyment of physical
activity” (p.954). Efrat (2009) also found connections between peer
influences and physical activity levels of children. Efrat found that peer
modeling (watching others partake in an activity) could significantly affect
physical activity levels in girls and also improve the self-efficacy (belief in
one’s ability) levels for physical activity, in children with low self-efficacy.
The study also indicated that changing beliefs about physical activity could
change levels of physical activity in girls and boys. Efrat suggests that
interventions where girls are motivated to engage in physical activity to
increase their attractiveness and where boys are motivated to engage in
physical activity to increase their popularity may have an impact on physical
activity levels. Furthermore Efrat found that peer victimization (bullying and
teasing), had a negative effect on physical activity levels in children.
Age and Gender Differences in Iceland
Considering impacts of age and gender on physical activity, the current

findings of physical activity levels in Icelandic children seem to reflect the
international research. Bjarnason et al. (2006) found that 30% of boys in
grade 6 and 19% of boys in grade 10 participated in daily physical activity
outside of school; whereas even fewer girls, 22% in grade 6 and 10% in
grade 10 did the same. Furthermore, in the 2010 continuation of this study,
Bjarnason et al., found that while grade 6 children spent on average 74
minutes per day on the Internet during weekdays, grade 10 children spent
167 minutes per day. Arnardóttir (2008) also concluded that the amount of
time children spent in front of screens increased with age, and was especially
high in boys. Arnardóttir found that less than 10% of 9-year-old children
spent an hour or more on the Internet during weekdays whereas, 50% of 15-
year-old children did the same. She found that while only 1.1% of 9 year old
girls and 4.2% of 15 year old girls spent 3 or more hours playing computer
games during the weekdays, 10.2 % of boys aged 9 and 33.3% of 15 year old
boys did the same. Arnardóttir also found that screen time was negatively
associated with bouts of moderate or greater intensity activity; as well as
amount of vigorous activity participated in on the weekends.
As cited in the Children and Activity section, Magnússon et al. (2011),

found that only 5% of 9 year olds and 9% of 15 year olds, reached the
recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous daily physical activity in
Iceland. The study goes on to explain that in their findings, younger children
did indeed move more overall than their older peers, but with more frequent
12
lighter movements, which is consistent with findings that overall physical
activity decreases during adolescence. Magnússon et al. also found that boys
moved much more overall than girls when considering moderate to vigorous
amounts of activity. In the 9-year-old group 8.5% of boys met the daily-
recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity, whereas
only 2% of girls met the same recommendation. In the 15-year-old group,
14.5% of boys and 1.5% of girls met the recommendation (Magnússon et al.,
2011). In addition, Vilhjalmsson and Kristjansdottir (2003) found that boys
are also more active than girls in sports associations; boys were enrolled at a
rate of 57% and girls at 44%. Furthermore girls were found to have higher
rates of withdrawal from sport associations. A large survey by Jónsdóttir,
Björnsdóttir, Ásgeirsdóttir and Sigfúsdóttir (2002), done in the Reykjavik
area, found that the type of sports in which children participated was very
differentiated by gender. When looking at participation in ball sports (soccer,
handball, basketball or volleyball), Jónsdóttir et al. found that 18%-36% of
boys and 23-40% of girls in grades 5-8 took part in ball sports a few times a
month, up to two times per week. However, when Jónsdóttir et al., looked at
participation in ball sports at a rate of 3 times per week or more, they found
that 49-50% of boys and only 19-23% of girls in the grades 5-8 took part at
this rate. Moreover when the Jónsdóttir et al. study looked at participation in
gymnastics (which can be considered a more female friendly activity) at a
rate of 3 times per week or more, they found that 1-5% of boys and 5-8% of
girls in the grades 5-8 took part at this rate. The study found overall in grade
8, 52% of boys and 34% of girls trained or competed with a sports club three
times a week or more. The studies from Iceland clearly reflect what appears
to be happening in other countries: that physical activity decreases starting in
adolescence, that boys are more active than girls, have higher levels or
registration in sports associations and that boys’ dominant participation is in
what are considered more “masculine” sports and that girls have higher
registration in more “feminine” sports.
Summary: Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity
It has been found that levels of physical activity in children in Iceland and in
many places around the world decrease during adolescence. This is of great
concern because the exercise habits formed during adolescence often
continue into adulthood and furthermore physical activity during adolescence
is key to the developmental health of the individual. Also of great concern is
that girls have been found to be less active than boys both in Iceland and
worldwide. It has been suggested that decrease in physical activity during
adolescence is related more to social factors than to chronological age. For
example, studies show how the influence of parents and peers are an
important factor in levels of physical activity during childhood and
adolescence, specifically through peer or parental modeling and
13
encouragement. The self-image or body perception of the individual
adolescent can also affect his level of participation in physical activity.
Moreover, how boys and girls perceive what is socially acceptable for their
own gender, including sporting role models, effects their choice of activity as
well as their likelihood of participating in sport.
2.3 Physical Education

This section of the literature review covers the goals and benefits of a
physical education program, as well as different elements, which encourage
an effective physical education program. The section reviews briefly the
physical education program requirements in a variety of countries including
Iceland.
Physical Education Goals and Benefits
One way to meet the physical activity recommendations from the WHO is to
provide students with regular access to physical education at school.
Research has found that physical education programs in school can
contribute to physical activity levels during childhood and later on in life
(Penney, 2010). The main goal of physical education, available in most
westernized schools around the globe, can be defined as “preparing students
to live physically active, healthy lives by providing a carefully planned scope
and sequence of learning experiences. These experiences must be designed to
foster the developmentally appropriate acquisition of motor skills, health-
related fitness knowledge, confidence in being physically active, and an
appreciation of the benefits of physical activity” (Pettifor, 1999, p. 5).
Regular physical education in schools can help children reach recommended
guidelines for daily activity, increase their physical fitness, and can help
motivate children to maintain a physically active lifestyle (Penny, 2010). A
physical education program can also provide children with the movement
skills and physical competence that are arguably critical to engagement in
lifelong activity (Penney, 2010). Physical education can therefore lead to a
healthier future including a decreased risk of obesity and overweight and
therefore decreased risk of morbidity from non-communicable diseases.
Pettifor (1999) explains that a regular physical education program can

lead to benefits that are not only physical, but also emotional, social, and
cognitive. For example, Pettifor points to a major emotional benefit of
regular exercise as the reduced likelihood of suffering from depression or
anxiety; and furthermore that positive physical activity experiences can lead
to increased self-esteem in children. Additionally, Pettifor explains that one
14
of the main goals of physical education is to teach, develop, and reinforce
social skills. Bailey (2006) argues that well organized physical education
programs have been found to have social benefits such as improving
children’s moral reasoning, fair play, sportsmanship, and sense of personal
responsibility. Furthermore, Bailey suggests that increasing amount of school
time dedicated to physical education may have positive academic benefits.
Moreover Bailey argues that physical activity increases blood flow to the
brain, improves mood and increases mental alertness, having a positive effect
on a child’s academics. A well-organized physical education program can
furthermore engage its students cognitively, by offering games and activities
that focus on problem solving and strategy (Pettifor, 1999).
Effective Physical Education
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) measured levels of heart rate in children ages
11-14 during physical education classes. The data were used to assess
whether or not physical education could be effective in reaching
recommended daily physical activity levels. Fairclough and Stratton found
many factors that affected how active the children were during their classes.
One of these factors was level of physical ability. Students with the highest
ability levels (as rated by their teachers) were the most active, and this
concurs with most research. Fairclough and Stratton theorize that because
students of lower ability may not have the necessary motor skills required to
participate in a certain activity, this demonstrates the need for more
individualized teaching in order to increase likelihood of activating all
students. It is important to motivate all students to be engaged and enjoy the
physical activity because this can affect their likelihood of participating in
physical activity outside of school hours as well as later on in life. The
Fairclough and Stratton data also revealed that the boys were more active
than the girls, consistent with other research findings. It is important to note
that the boys and girls were however in single sex education classes (the
classes were separated by gender). Fairclough and Stratton found that in the
girls’ lessons there was more dance and gymnastics taught, whereas the boys
participated in more games. The authors furthermore found that games, as
well as individualized stations (running, swimming), produced higher levels
of vigorous activity. However, they also noted that gymnastics and dance
could benefit strength and flexibility of the children, which is also an
essential part of fitness. Moreover, Fairclough and Stratton theorized that the
girls might have been less motivated in their gym classes to move vigorously.
In conclusion Fairclough and Stratton emphasized that there would be value
in understanding the perception of the girls in order to increase their
enjoyment of physical activity during lessons and help them understand the
relevance of physical education.
15
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) found that the children operated at
moderate to vigorous levels of activity for approximately 18 minutes per
class. This brought the individual child one third of the way to meeting their
60 minutes of moderate activity levels recommended per day. Unfortunately,
very few physical education programs in Western education, offer daily
physical education. Fairclough and Stratton argue that children would benefit
from daily physical education because it increases the likelihood that they
reach their daily recommendations for physical activity, and that research has
shown that increased time in physical education is not detrimental to
academic performance in other subjects. Supporting their argument, Dale,
Corbin & Dale (2000):
Reported that third and fourth graders were significantly more active
on days when they attended physical education class compared to non-
physical education days. Furthermore, this study demonstrated how
children did not compensate after school or in the evenings with
increased activity when school-based activity, such as physical
education, was restricted (p.240).
Bailey (2006) supports the argument that physical education is not

detrimental to academic performance. Bailey states:
Overall, the available research evidence suggests that increased levels

of physical activity in school—such as through increasing the amount
of time dedicated to PES [physical education] —does not interfere
with pupils’ achievement in other subjects (although the time available
for these subjects is consequently reduced) and in many instances is
associated with improved academic performance (p.399).
A research review by Rink and Hall (2008) discusses the necessary

elements of a physical education program in order for it to be effective in the
development of a physically active lifestyle for all students. The national
standards for physical education in the United States identify six critical
areas to encourage the development of a physically active lifestyle, which are
to: “develop motor skills, impart knowledge needed for a physically active
lifestyle, encourage regular participation in physical activity, facilitate the
development and maintenance of fitness, cultivate responsible personal and
social behaviours, and help students to value participation” (Rink & Hall,
2008, p.208). Rink and Hall explain that the activities in which active adults
take part are wide and varied. Some adults take part in home aerobics,
whereas others take part in recreational sports teams. The authors argue that
developing the fundamental motor skills required to take part in a wide
variety of physical activities is therefore a critical part of an effective
physical education program if children are to continue to be active in their
adult life. According to Rink & Hall, fundamental motor skills, which are
16
critical to involvement in a variety of activities, include, “loco motor patterns
(skipping, hopping, jumping, etc.), manipulative patterns (throwing,
catching, striking, and receiving objects), and body-management skills
(balancing, rolling, transferring the weight of the body)” (p.209). The authors
furthermore state that the school’s physical education program is responsible
for developing these motor skills in all children. Additionally they indicate
that effective physical education programs are ones in which children are
given the opportunity to build these motor skills over time; rather than
programs which emphasize specialized sports skills which exceed the current
motor skill abilities of the child. Moreover, Rink and Hall argue that
effective physical education programs encourage its students to participate in
a wide variety of physical activities such as: dance, gymnastics, games and
different ball sports; in order to acquire motor skills and experience a great
opportunity to enjoy movement.
Rink & Hall (2008) argue that effective physical education teaching
requires an environment, which is positive and stimulates learning.
Moreover, Rink and Hall state that “it is well organized, expectations are
clear, and the teacher is consistent in enforcing and maintaining behaviours
conducive to a quality learning environment” (p.211). The authors explain
that in order to provide an effective learning environment, physical education
teachers must be ‘good managers’, who can effectively manage students,
equipment, space, and time so that the goals of the lesson can be met.
Furthermore according to Rink and Hall, effective teachers can motivate and
challenge students to succeed at level appropriate tasks; they encourage
students to use their own improvement as a measure of success, rather than
comparing themselves to others; and they provide students with quality
feedback and positive reinforcement.
If an effective physical education environment is to motivate students to

be physically active throughout childhood as well as for a lifetime, it is
critical that students are in a learning environment that they enjoy and where
they develop positive attitudes towards health and fitness. A year long
intervention study by Digelidis, Papaioannou, Laparidis and Christodoulidis
(2001) looked at the effects of changing the physical education environment
in order to increase student motivation, goal orientation and attitudes towards
exercise and healthy diets. The intervention was complex, focusing on: a
personal goal setting program, students exercising in stations, goal oriented
activities, teacher to student feedback, decreasing the percentage of
competitive tasks, verbal emphasis from the teacher concerning the value of
the task, the use of positive mental imagery and self talk techniques, lessons
that connected health and exercise, and increasing the quality and quantity of
student’s interactions. Digelidis et al. found that, “after the end of the
intervention, students in the experimental classes had more positive attitudes
17
towards exercise and eating fruits, they were less ego-oriented and the
students of the three teachers [in the study] were more task-oriented than the
students in the typical classes” (p.206). The study indicates that through an
effective and appropriate learning environment, student’s attitudes towards
physical education can be changed.
Physical Education Program Requirements
Physical education programs around the globe are varied. Often countries
apply national standards to their programs; but school administration and
physical education teachers often dictate how programs are run. For example,
in France, compulsory physical education is 3 hours a week; whereas in
Spain, physical education is only 3 sessions of 45 minutes per week
(Weichselbaum, et. al, 2012). In Canada and the United Sates, there is no
uniform policy for physical education programs; rather the policies vary by
province or state (Iannotti, Kogan, Janssen, & Boyce, 2009). According to
the Iceland’s Ministry of Education, Science and Culture in the national
physical education curriculum (2007), physical education is divided into two
programs, skólaíþróttir (which will be referred to as physical education in
this paper) and skólasund (which will be referred to as swimming in this
paper). The curriculum states that it is the right of all students to have at least
3 teaching periods per week in physical education and that the school
principal has the right to increase this time if he or she sees fit. Specifically,
the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (2013) states that the total
amount of time dedicated to physical education per week is 480 minutes for
grades 1-4 and 360 minutes for grades 5-10. The goals of the physical
education program according to the Ministry of Education, Science and
Culture include, an interconnection of physical education within all school
subjects in order to promote a healthy environment for students where there
is an emphasis on “exercise, positive self-image, nutrition, rest, mental
wellbeing, creative thinking, positive communication, security, hygiene,
sexual health and understanding of one’s own feelings and those of others”
(p.187).
Summary: Physical Education
Physical education has been shown not only to help children meet their daily
60 minutes of recommended physical activity but to help them begin healthy
lifestyle habits which should continue into adulthood. It has been argued that
physical education also benefits children on social and academic levels. In
order to meet these physical education goals, according to the research,
effective physical education requires effective teachers who motivate
individuals regardless of their ability, organize their lesson plans to
18
incorporate moderate to vigorous activity, help children develop a variety of
motor skills, and allow children to experience a wide variety of physical
activities. Effective teachers furthermore have clear expectations; are
consistent in their classroom management (behaviour, time and space), so
that lesson goals can be met; and provide students with quality feedback.
Fundamentally, the effective physical education environment should
therefore have the same qualities of any effective school environment.
2.4 Gender Issues and Physical Education

This section of the literature reviews different gender issues specific and
broad, which arise in physical education. Furthermore this section provides
an overview of different recommendations that may reduce gender issues and
improve physical education.
Gender Issues in Physical Education
As has been discussed, children in Iceland and many places around the world
are not meeting their daily recommendations for physical activity, and
moreover, that adolescents and in particular, girls are more at risk for not
meeting these recommendations. It can therefore be seen as critical that
adolescents and in particular girls, are active during physical education
lessons and furthermore enjoy their experience; in order to increase the
likelihood that they maintain healthy activity habits for life. Unfortunately,
there are many issues in physical education that may make the environment
uncomfortable or negative during adolescence for boys, and more frequently
for girls.
Decrease in enjoyment of physical education classes is one factor that

might help identify why boys and girls become less active during
adolescence. Cairney et al. (2012) in their study examining perceived
confidence in physical education (i.e. confidence in physical abilities), found
that children, both boys and girls, who reported high levels of perceived
confidence, reported high levels of physical education enjoyment over time.
The study also found that children who reported low levels of perceived
competence, reported lower levels of enjoyment of physical education.
Cairney et al. found that boys who reported early on low perceived
competence had stable low levels of physical education enjoyment
throughout school. On the other hand, the study found that girls who early on
reported low levels of enjoyment and low perceived competence decreased
their level of enjoyment more rapidly throughout school. Cairney et al.
19
concluded that it was necessary to examine how to improve children’s self-
competence in physical education, especially in girls.
In addition, there may be broader, whole school, issues that creates a

negative experience of physical education. For example, the New South
Wales [NSW] Education Department (1999-2011a) in Australia state concern
over the unfair organization of sports programs and facilities at schools. The
department claims that some schools emphasize only traditional male sports
for their extra curricular, and female students may not receive as much
encouragement as their male counterparts to participate. The NSW Education
Department furthermore claims that some schools put more funding to pay
for coaches, referees, travel and uniforms into their male sporting programs.
There is also concern from the department that because of the nature of boys’
play during recess, running games and different sports, they often take over
the majority of the space in the school yard.
A Canadian study by Chorney and Weitz (2012) examined possible

reasons why girls are less likely than boys to continue into non-compulsory
physical education courses when they reach high school. In their review, the
authors suggested that a sexist and competitive environment, which favours
male athleticism, could begin turning off girls at an early age. Chorney and
Weitz found that girls often felt uncomfortable when a physical activity, such
as running or push-ups, was used as punishment, or when they were subject
to derogatory comments by male students or male physical education
teachers. A Spanish study by Andrés, Granados, Ramírez and Mesa (2012)
investigated how gender stereotypes were being conveyed through
communication in the physical education environment. Andrés et al., found
that communications between teachers and male and female students were
unequal. The authors observed that male students received more
individualized communications, whereas the girls received more
communication via the group setting. Furthermore, it was observed that male
teachers were more likely than female teachers to give male students more
explanations when teaching sports skills. Other findings from the Andrés et
al. study included: more frequent use of male students to demonstrate skills
to the class, preference of the male teachers to group the students based on
gender, and higher frequency of reprimands for discipline for male students,
especially by female teachers. The Australian, Canadian and the Spanish
studies demonstrate that a key factor to level of enjoyment by girls in
physical education may be related to a lack of a female friendly environment.
Improving Physical Education Programs
Because of the decrease among girls in enjoyment of physical education, as

well as decrease in the rates of daily physical activity among adolescent girls,
20
as they grow older, it is important to consider how schools can improve their
physical education programs to meet the needs of adolescent girls in
particular. A Scottish study by Kirby, Levin and Inchley (2011), examined
how the environment of the physical education program, including: the
school’s physical activity initiatives, sporting facilities, total time spent in
physical education, and opportunities to be physical provided by the school,
could be associated with the physical activity levels of adolescent girls.
Kirby et al. found that the strongest predictor of activity level among girls
was the total amount of time spent in physical education. That is, the authors
found that in the schools that allocated more time to physical education
lessons, the girls showed higher levels of physical activity overall. This
reflects the study by Dale, Dale and Corbin (2000), which found that children
who spent time in physical education were more likely to continue to be
active outside of school hours. Kirby et al. did not find an association
between more school sports facilities and higher levels of physical activity.
However, they found that a predictor for higher levels of physical activity
was the availability of sports clubs and extra-curricular activities at the
school. Kirby et al. argue that previous studies have shown that more sports
facilities are associated with higher levels of physical activity, but they
suggested that their study could indicate that lack of sports facilities or funds
do not need to be a barrier to creating opportunities for physical activity.
Furthermore, Kirby et al. found that more program diversity and greater
number of sports clubs available at the school could increase the level of
activity amongst girls. The authors suggested that offering girls more options
allows them more freedom to choose a sport they feel confident is
appropriate to their level of skill and that they find enjoyable.
The NSW Education Department (1999-2011b), recommends different

practical solutions for schools to improve rates of physical activity amongst
girls. Some of these practical solutions suggested by the department coincide
with what was considered effective physical education in this the earlier
section in this paper entitled “Effective Physical Education”. For example,
the NSW Education Department recommends giving effective feedback to
both boys and girls, setting realistic goals to ensure that both boys and girls
can be successful while at the same time being challenged and ensure that
expectations are based on individual merit, rather than comparisons to others
within the same class. The department also makes several recommendations
to ensure that the environment is a non-sexist one. They recommend:
teaching children about the social construction of masculine and feminine
stereotypes in sport, as a part of the physical education program; using both
boys and girls to demonstrate a variety of activities, and encouraging
students to be aware of sexist comments or statements made and see them as
unacceptable; as well as the physical education teacher being aware of his or
her own use of language. Furthermore the NSW Education Department
21
recommends different practical solutions for catering to different needs of
female students. They suggest for example, eliminating myths about female
participation in physical activity, surveying all students to find out what
activities they like best and ensure that there is a balance of activities
between what both genders enjoy, being sensitive to the different abilities
and experiences of boys and girls, and ensuring use of a variety of teaching
methods and organization to meet those needs. The NSW Education
Department also recommends a practical solution that has been much
debated in circles of physical education administrators, educators and
researchers around the world, that is, determining whether girls and boys
prefer single sex or coed environments for their physical education.
Summary: Gender Issues in Physical Education
In summary, there are many identifiable gender issues in physical education

that may affect levels of physical activity in girls during adolescence and
different suggestions as to how to combat this problem. Gender issues
include: low levels of enjoyment as well as low levels of perceived
competence amongst girls, unbalance of funds and focus towards male sports
programing in schools, as well as lack of a female friendly physical
education environment. Suggestions to improve physical education for girls
include: increasing the amount of time in physical education, offering a
greater variety of extra curricular programing, focusing on individualized
programing, facilitating student discussion on gender stereotypes, surveying
what activities students enjoy, and investigating when to use single sex and
coed education.
2.5 Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education

This section of the literature review defines and briefly reviews a history of
single sex and coed physical education. The objective of this section is to
examine the different arguments for and against single sex and coed teaching
environments. This section also reviews in detail a recent study conducted in
Iceland examining physical education program set-ups and teacher
preferences for single sex and coed teaching environments.
Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education Arguments
In our Western school history, most physical education programs started out
as “single sex”, meaning, girls and boys partook in gender separated physical
education classes (Keay, 2007). As laws about education changed to
incorporate issues of gender equality, for example Title IX in the United
22
States, physical education became “coed”, meaning a mixed gender physical
education experience (Ronspies, 2011). Many credit the Title IX law for
major positive change in women’s education as well athletics (Title IX,
2013).
Equal rights for men and women in education is still a much discussed
issue in many countries, as are growing concerns about the levels of physical
activity amongst children and adolescents. It could be these factors which
have encouraged the discussion amongst physical education teachers,
administrators and researchers, as to whether or not to return to the single sex
physical education format; in hopes of creating more gender equity and more
physically active youth. Although single sex and coed education formats
have been much debated and somewhat researched amongst physical
educators, parents, students and researchers alike, no consensus has been
reached as to which is the better system. It is therefore difficult to determine
if a single sex program benefits both genders, more or less, than a coed
program. Within this debate, some argue strongly for single sex education,
some against it, while others argue for the use of both. At the same time,
arguments have been made that neither single sex, nor coed environments,
can create equal opportunities for genders because there are other hidden
issues such as the masculization of the school environment which will later
be examined.
The findings of an American study by Derry (2002) are supportive of the

single sex teaching environment. Derry examined perceived attitudes
amongst girls and teachers towards coed and single sex physical education
environments. In the study, girl’s ages 12-15 years of age were interviewed.
The girls were participants in both single sex and coed physical education
environments, and while the majority of the girls had previous experience
with coed physical education, less than half of the girls had experience with
single sex education classes. When discussing attitudes toward the coed
environment, Derry found common themes that arose during the interviews
included: feelings that the boys saw themselves as athletically superior; that
the size, strength and competitive nature of the boys made them intimidating
to be with; and a concern for the criticizing remarks from boys towards girls.
Conversely, Derry found themes that emerged from interviews with the girls
referring to the single sex environment included: feelings that their individual
participation level was much higher in the single sex environment rather than
in the coed environment, including that boys were no longer dominating the
activities; feelings of relief of no longer being in front of boys and worrying
about their appearance, or about their critical remarks; feelings that the single
sex environment was safer and more supportive and that they were more
likely to grow athletically and challenge themselves; and feelings that coed
was acceptable in elementary school but now that they were starting to
23
mature the single sex environment was more comfortable. Overall, when
asked in which environment they would rather have their physical education
Derry found that overall, 75% of the girls responded in favour of the single
sex environment. In the single sex classes, it was found that 84% of the girls
responded that they would want to continue in single sex classes; whereas
only 63% of the girls in coed classes responded that they would rather switch
to single sex classes (however, it was noted by Derry that only 43% of these
girls had experienced single sex classes and that this number could possibly
be higher had the girls previous experience in single sex classes). Derry cited
arguments for not switching to a single sex environment, which arose during
the interview, included a desire to be challenged physically by the boys.
Derry explained that the majority of girls who responded in favour of coed
classes rated themselves as highly capable athletes.
Derry (2002) furthermore interviewed teachers concerning coed and

single sex teaching environments. Two-thirds of the teachers, the majority of
whom had teaching experiences in both environments, felt that single sex
classes required less behaviour management. Furthermore Derry noted that
teachers observed their highly skilled female students as more social and
active in coed classes, whereas the lesser skilled female students were more
likely to display signs of shyness and intimidation, and were less likely to
participate. Derry cited other concerns reported by the teachers including:
concern by all that female students, regardless of skill, on their appearance,
and the potential impact the coed environment could have on suppressing the
development of the boy’s skills. Derry asked the teachers why they believed
that girls were dropping out of physical education when it became non-
compulsory, the teachers responded that they felt the girls lost interest due to
not wanting to be sweaty or concern over their appearance. In the interviews,
one teacher pointed out that the preference for teaching team sports in
physical education was not in favour to the interests of the female students.
Derry found that a total of 80% of the teachers responded that they would
prefer teaching a single sex environment, with special concern over allowing
the less athletically skilled girls a chance to participate.
Pearson and Web (2010) present findings which also argue for a single
sex teaching environment. The Pearson and Web study investigated the
perceptions of elementary school teachers concerning levels of performance
and physical activity amongst students in coed and single sex physical
education settings through both qualitative (interviews) and quantitative
(questionnaire) research formats. Pearson and Web found that the large
majority, 82%, of teachers believed that a single sex environment was
preferable to helping students achieve physical education goals. Moreover,
Pearson and Web found that the majority of teachers believed that the single
sex environment could increase physical activity levels among girls during
24
physical education classes, especially during contact sports. The teachers in
the study indicated that because the boys were growing physically girls were
participating less in games of physical strength and contact such as, soccer,
hockey or basketball. Pearson and Web found that the majority of teachers
felt there was a large level of skill difference between boys and girls and that
reducing the disparity in skill difference, in for example games such as
volleyball or golf; could best be achieved in a single sex environment. An
implication of participating in contact and skills sports in a coed
environment, as suggested by Pearson and Web, as well as other researchers
is that the development of both boys and girls will be hindered, due to lack of
competition for boys and under participation by girls. Teachers in the
Pearson and Web study also identified peer pressure as a contributing factor
to influencing participation levels amongst both boys and girls; as both boys
and girls in adolescence are concerned with keeping a certain favourable
image towards the opposite sex and that these “distracting” behaviours could
be lessened within a single sex environment. Furthermore, Pearson and Web
indicated that teachers also identified intimidation as an influencing factor on
participation levels in both single sex and coed environment. The teachers
noted that within the single sex environment, boys and girls who have higher
levels of abilities can often dominate the environment, leaving boys and girls
of lower ability feeling intimidated. However, Pearson and Web found that
most teachers agreed intimidation levels increased during coed environments,
where girls of lower ability were greatly intimidated by dominating boys and
that boys of lower ability felt in adept in comparison towards girls of high
ability.
Further studies have shown a variety of conclusions concerning single sex

and coed teaching environments. A study by Wilson (2012) looked at the
physical effects of coed and single sex gender groupings in grade 6 physical
education. Wilson found that students in the single sex grouping performed
better on physical fitness tests where motivation influenced the outcome. For
example, Wilson found that both boys and girls in the single sex groupings
performed better on tests of chin-ups, sit-ups and distance runs. Wilson
theorized that feeling more comfortable in the single sex environment
allowed the students to exert themselves more fully than in the coed
environment. In addition, the study also found that single sex and coed
environments affected attitudes of the students. Specifically, Wilson found
that boys who participated in coed environments had significantly more
positive attitudes towards girl’s participation in sports than did boys in the
single sex environment.
In a study by Ronspies (2011), a small sample of boys and girls ages 12-
13 years old were interviewed and the results interpreted slightly
contradicted those of the Derry study. Ronspies found the children had a
25
variety of perceptions about same sex and coed physical education. Of the
boys and girls interviewed, Ronspies found that 4 out of the 6 would rather
have coed physical education; this was mainly for social reasons, including
opportunities to show off or to make friends. Desire to interact with the other
gender as a reason for wanting to continue coed physical education has also
been found in other studies (Furrer, 2010). At the same time, in the Ronspies
(2011) study, both the boys and girls also listed reasons why they were
reluctant to be in coed classes including, the girls felt embarrassed about
making mistakes in coed classes and they felt that the boys disrupted class
and wasted class time; whereas, the boys felt that they could not have as
competitive games when the girls were involved, and that many of the girls
did not try their best. Ronspies concluded that it is critical to listen to the
voices of the students; that clearly the students have social needs and this is
an important part of their whole school development experience and at the
same time, that the environment of the class needs to be one that is safe as
well as challenging and motivating. Ronspies suggested that perhaps
different opportunities to participate in coed and same sex activities or
classes might be a way to address to diversity of student needs.
Other relevant studies have argued the case for a mixed physical
education program, which would offer both single sex and coed physical
education environments. Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) surveyed
approximately 750 middle school students (grades 7 and 8) with the aim of
improving school curriculum by determining the interests of boys and girls.
Boys and girls were found to have some similar, and some dissimilar
interests. For example, the boys in the study preferred activities such as
bowling, flag football and wrestling, while the girls preferred gymnastics,
softball and tennis. In conclusion, Greenwood and Stillwell suggested that
single sex classes may be appropriate for activities of dissimilar interests.
Conversely, Greenwood and Stillwell also suggested coed classes would be
appropriate where both boys and girls had similar interests, such as,
basketball, cycling, soccer and swimming.
Other studies have argued that single sex education environments are not
always beneficial. A report by McKenzie, Prochaska, Sallis, and LaMaster
(2004), which was based on 4 years of physical education research of grades
6-8, both single sex and coed classes, interpreted data to assess and discuss
levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity amongst boys and girls in
both learning environments. McKenzie et al. found that in the single sex
environments, boys were more active than girls, by a total of approximately 4
minutes. Furthermore the report indicated that when the classes were coed,
the boys were found to be similarly active, whereas the girls had higher
levels of activity in comparison to their activity levels during single sex
classes. Mckenzie et al. suggested that the difference in activity levels
26
between those of the female only classes and the coed or male only classes
could be attributed to the higher accumulated time spent working on skill
development activities during the female only classes. Mckenzie et al.
indicated that during the coed or boys single sex classes there was more time
accumulated in game play activities which they argue produced more
vigorous activity levels than the skill development on which the girls’ classes
focused. In conclusion Mckenzie et al. questioned why the female only
classes had allocated more time towards skill development, and theorized
that this was to help the girls develop the necessary skills needed to partake
in a greater variety of physical activities. They furthermore questioned
whether or not the time dedicated to skill development paid off in the long
term in regards to better motor skills amongst the girls and importantly, a
greater interest in physical activity. Although physical activity levels were
higher in coed classes in comparison to female only classes, this cannot be
the only determining factor as to whether or not one type of class
environment holds more value to the other.
Of note is that some researchers have argued that regardless of the

teaching environment, coed or single sex, the two genders are being treated
differently. Wright (1997) examined how gender was constructed through
language use in both coed and single sex physical education environments.
Wright observed that in coed classes, girls developed more inter-personal
relationships with their teachers, which often seemed to be facilitated or
encouraged by the teacher. Conversely, Wright observed that boys in the
coed classes received more simple instructions, which were task oriented,
and they were also subject to quicker and more frequent discipline.
Furthermore, Wright found that boys were praised more often than the girls,
receiving statements such as “good catch” or “well done”; whereas, the girls
received more statements from the teacher such as “bad luck” or negative
statements about the way they were participating in an activity or playing a
game. In the single sex classes, Wright observed that the girls received more
lengthy instructions, which explained why a certain task was at hand, as if
the girls were expected to resist, ask more questions or need reassurance that
they had the competence to complete the task. Furthermore Wright observed
that the girls received more instructional feedback during skills practice.
Conversely, boys observed in the single sex classes received simple
instructions as if expected to get to the task straight away, had no questions
and had the abilities to complete the task. Wright noted these observations
regardless of what sex the teacher was, male or female.
Single Sex and Coed Physical Education in Iceland
There has been one small study conducted in Iceland investigating the merits
of single sex and coed physical education. Stefánsson (2010), interviewed
27
three elementary physical education teachers at three different schools in
order to investigate whether the schools were using any type of single sex
education, and what the experiences of the teachers were who taught physical
education concerning gender dividing practices. The three teachers
interviewed (referred to as teacher A, teacher B and teacher C) in the
Stefánsson study were teaching in very different environments; teacher A
taught both coed classes and single sex classes; teacher B taught coed classes
and occasional single sex classes; and teacher C only taught coed classes.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher A, who taught both coed classes and
single sex classes, was satisfied with the current system in the school, which
was being taught for the first time. The teacher explained that the students
participated in coed physical education classes until grade 6, when they
switched to single sex swimming classes, as well as one coed and one single
sex class a week at the school. Ball sports were only taught during single sex
classes, whereas stations and games were taught during coed classes. Teacher
A interviewed by Stefánsson found that in this current system, all students
were more active during ball sports and seemed to enjoy themselves more.
The teacher indicated that the change had been brought about because of
concern for under-participating girls during coed ball sports. Teacher A in
the Stefánsson study also emphasized that separating boys and girls in
swimming classes during the adolescent grades created a more focused
environment. The teacher, who had 30 years of teaching experience, felt that
the current system he was teaching with was the best that he had ever used in
terms of activating and focusing his students. Teacher A in the Stefánsson
study furthermore believed that it was not necessary to begin single sex
classes before the grade 6 as strength and size differences were not as evident
between boys and girls; and that students in grade 6 and above benefited from
having one time a week where they were taught in a coed environment.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher B who taught coed classes with the
occasional single sex class was not satisfied with the current system at his
school. The teacher had many years previous experience with single sex
teaching environment and found this preferable. Teacher B in the Stefánsson
study found that teaching coed classes was challenging and that he could not
activate students to the same degree. The teacher furthermore felt that
teaching fitness, stretching and stations was reasonable during coed classes
but that any ball sports or other physical sports were especially difficult to
teach. Teacher B in the Stefánsson study also felt that teaching single sex
classes was more beneficial for both sexes. This teacher believed that in the
single sex environment the girls had better attendance, felt more comfortable,
were more active and focused, and communicated better with their teachers.
Teacher B in the Stefánsson study also believed that boys in the single sex
environment were able to exert themselves on a higher level. The teacher,
28
who had 25 years experience, mostly in teaching single sex classes, believed
that only single sex classes should be taught in all grades, both in physical
education and swimming.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher C who taught only coed classes was
relatively satisfied with the school’s current system. The teacher felt that
having coed classes was a positive way for the classes to be active together
and therefore improve their class moral. Teacher C in the Stefánsson study
found however that while some girls were very active in the coed classes that
others stepped to the side. The teacher also found that boys did not always
exert themselves to the fullest. Teacher C in the Stefánsson study believed
that single sex classes could be beneficial during the adolescent ages,
especially to assist girls in becoming more active during ball sports and
physical sports; and that the boys could equally benefit by the ability to be
more competitive. The teacher believed it was not necessary to begin single
sex classes before grade 6 because all students were on rather equal levels.
Teacher C in the Stefánsson study furthermore believed that it was important
to have the classes as coed for part of the physical education as it could
improve class dynamics and moral, but that for activities that were physical
and involved ball sports would indeed be better off in a single sex
environment.
In conclusion to his study, Stefánsson (2010) found it relevant that all

three teachers agreed that girls tended to be less active during coed
experiences of sports, which were physical in nature, and that boys did not
exert themselves fully during coed classes. Stefánsson found that all three
teachers seemed interested in having some type of single sex teaching
system. Stefánsson however concluded that his study was limited by its size
and recommended completing larger studies involving more teachers in
Iceland.
Summary: Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education
In summary, the arguments for and against single sex education are varied.
Both the Derry 2002 study and the Pearson and Web 2010 study found that
teachers in their studies overwhelmingly preferred the single sex
environment in order to activate both girls and boys to a greater degree, as
well as make the environment more supportive and effective. Both studies
argue that this is due to: a tendency for boys to dominate the coed
environment because of physical strength and size, girls being able to feel
more comfortable in a single sex environment and therefore have higher
levels of participation, and that boys would be provided with more
competition in a single sex environment. There are also arguments in favour
of the coed environment. For example, a teacher in the Iceland Stefánsson
29
(2010) study found that the coed environment promoted class bounding.
Furthermore, Wilson (2010) found that the attitudes of the boys in his study
were more positive regarding girls in physical education if they were
involved in coed classes. There are also arguments for a mixed program,
which include opportunities for both single sex and coed physical education
environments. For example, Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) found that the
interests of boys and girls were sometimes the same and sometimes different
and argued that physical education could be coed when activity interests
were similar and single sex when the interests of boys and girls were
different. Conversely, some researchers and educators have pointed out that
the challenges facing adolescent girls in particular lie within the deep rooted
gender roles that have been established in physical education.
2.6 The Masculinization of Physical Education

This final section of the literature review examines briefly a history of the
masculinization of physical education in schools both in Iceland and
elsewhere.
The Masculinization of Physical Education
Researchers have argued that girls are disadvantaged in the physical

education environment not only because of physical strength or skill ability
but because the physical education environment has been masculinized since
its inauguration. Jóhannesson (2004) explains that in Iceland schools were
originally founded for men not women; and that boys who attended school (it
was not originally obligatory), were being educated to become officials in
society. Furthermore Jóhannesson explains that at this time children were, for
the most part, educated by their parents and that gender roles were very clear;
and that this lasted far into the 20th century. Jóhannesson makes the
argument that today’s schools are still modeled after those founded in the
19th century with the exception that now both girls and boys can attend.
Keay (2007) argues different ways in which physical education has

become masculinized in the United Kingdom. For example, Keay identifies a
post World War II increase in secondary school education as a time when a
large number of men entered the physical education field and introduced
competitive sport into boys’ curriculum’s in private schools across England.
It has been suggested that games requiring physical strength and skill favour
boys more than they do girls (Pearson & Webb, 2010). After the change in
physical education format, Keay (2007) suggests that female physical
education teachers, wanting to increase equality in their female programs,
30
felt it necessary to adapt to these changes as well. Keay argues that by
adapting to the male physical education model, females could be seen as
losing their independence, or on the other hand, as female physical education
claiming power. Keay states, “the change in the PE curriculum for girls
therefore became a double-edged sword, because although, in adopting the
curriculum offered to boys, women were ensuring that their provision was
valued and in a sense gained power by aligning with the dominant form of
the subject, at the same time they lost independence and therefore power”
(p.211). It can therefore be argued that in modern masculinized environment
of physical education, girls can be considered powerless. For example, in
order for girls to be seen as “good” in sports or to claim respect from their
male classmates, they need to achieve the same level of performance as the
boys (Pearson & Webb, 2010). However, according to Keay (2007), it is
essential that while achieving high levels of sporting performance, the girl
maintains her femininity and that deviation from this image can be met with
criticism from society, rendering the women or girl as powerless.
Keay (2007) argues that this masculinized sporting environment has

changed very little over the years and that teachers, both male and female
feel pressured to keep the environment the same. For example, Keay explains
that female teachers who are new to the profession may be able to identify
some gender issues in their teaching environment, however, they may not
feel they are in a position of power to promote change, as the majority of
managerial positions in physical education teaching are still held by men.
Moreover Keay suggests that, because girls have lowered levels of physical
activity during adolescence and their attitudes towards physical education
become more negative, they are often seen as the problem, not the way that
they are being taught; and that because boys are considered easier to teach in
physical education, the natural response for physical education teachers is to
look for masculinized ways of dealing with the girls. In support of this
argument a study by Rich (2007) interviewed 6 novice female physical
education teachers and found that their goals were to encourage and motivate
girls into more sports and physical education participation, therefore, in their
minds, increase gender equality in the classroom environment. In his study,
Rich states:
The stories are illustrative of a process of social reproduction and the

possible negative implications of the dominance of a position of liberal
individualism and equal opportunities – where the role is to facilitate
access and opportunity as key objectives, rather than address the nature
of gender power relations itself (p.230).
The teachers in the study believed that changing the girls’ attitudes about
sports and physical education was the key factor in the solution, not changing
the physical education environment.
31
3 Research Goal
Children need to have positive experiences of physical activity and education
to help influence their levels of physical activity throughout life. If physical
activity decreases in adolescence and girls are less active than boys overall,
then the effectiveness of physical education as well as the experience of girls
in physical education requires further investigation. By interviewing 4
physical education teachers and 4 principals at the elementary school level in
Iceland, the research goal of this paper is to explore current beliefs about the
effectiveness and value of physical education, gender issues within the
physical education system, as well as the value of coed and same sex
physical education.
33
4 Method
4.1 Qualitative Social Research

This research study investigates different school arrangements, as well as the
value of coed and single sex physical education. As such it is considered
within the category of social research. Social research is the process of study
which one undertakes to discover more, or answer questions about the social
world that we live in (Neuman, 2004). This research study can more
specifically be referred to as qualitative social research.
Qualitative research differs from quantitative research in many ways. For

example, Neuman (2004) stresses that while quantitative research follows a
linear path, qualitative research follows a non-linear path where investigation
and data collection may lead to the broadening or changing of a study.
Neuman also emphasizes that in this non-linear way there are no direct steps
followed but rather, a study may move forwards or backwards or even
cyclically and moreover, “with each cycle or repetition, a researcher collects
new data and gains new insights” (p.83). Furthermore Neuman’s work
explains that qualitative research is more inductive than quantitative research
as it falls in line with grounded theory, the building of theory through the
collection and analysis of data. For example, the research question may start
out to be very vague or broad and become more focused as the data
collection begins. According to Neuman, developing the research questions
is inherently “part of the data collection process, during which the researcher
actively reflects on and develops preliminary interpretations” (p.84). Finally,
in qualitative research empirical data are collected through direct or indirect
observation (Neuman, 2004). The collection of data involves “documenting
real events, recording what people say (with words, gestures, and tone),
observing specific behaviours, studying written documents, or examining
visual images. These are all concrete aspects of the world” (Neuman, 2004,
p. 87).
According to Bogden and Biklen (2007) there are five features of

qualitative research. The first feature referred to by Bogden and Biklen, is the
naturalistic approach; meaning that researchers will enter the environment of
those that they are studying or observing in order to better understand the
context of which the subject is a part. Furthermore Bogden and Biklen
35
emphasize that observation of the subject in their natural environment is
critical because of the assumption that human nature is influenced by its
social context. The second feature of qualitative research according to
Bogden and Biklen is descriptive data. Descriptive data are often referred to
as “soft”, or empirical, meaning, they are descriptive of “people, places and
conversations and cannot be easily handled by statistical procedures”
(Bogden & Biklen, 2007, p.2). The third feature referred to Bogden and
Biklen is concern with process, meaning the research is more concerned with
the process of study than with the outcome of the study. The fourth feature,
from Bogden and Biklen is, as mentioned above, induction. This is a
reference to the research being a “bottom up process”. The fifth feature
referred to by Bogden and Biklen is meaning, where the researcher hopes to
gain insight into how the subjects perceive their personal experiences and
produce meaning.
4.2 Reliability and Validity

In order for a study to be considered “reliable”, within some types of
research, such as quantitative research, “the expectation exists that there will
be consistency in result of observations made by different researchers or by
the same researcher over time” (Bogden & Biklen, 2007, p.39). In social
qualitative research different data recording methods are used such as video
or interview in order to make consistent observations. However according to
Neuman (2004), when the study is that of social life, qualitative researchers
must accept that the subjects and content they are studying will adapt and
change over time. Moreover, Bogden and Biklen (2007) emphasize that the
background of the researchers themselves, for example their education and
experiences, may further affect the type of data or observation that is
produced. Qualitative researchers therefore “tend to view reliability as a fit
between what they record as data and what actually occurs in the setting
under study, rather than the literal consistency across different observations”
(Bogden & Biklen, 2007, p.40). Qualitative researchers are furthermore
concerned with validity and specifically, authenticity, which according to
Neuman (2004) means, “giving a fair, honest and balanced account of social
life from the viewpoint of someone who lives it every day” (p.117).
4.3 Interview Method

A variety of different methods can be applied in order to collect data and
explore a social research topic. This study involved an in-depth, face to face
interview technique. According to Seidman (1998), the purpose of an in-
depth interview is the “interest in understanding the experience of other
36
people and the meaning they make of that experience” (p.3). If certain
guidelines are followed, there can be many advantages to using this type of
technique. For example, Neuman (2004) found that: interviews have the
highest of response rates, the interviewer can make observations of the
subject in their natural environment, and the interviewer can ask complex
and probing questions which may reveal unexpected data. Neuman
emphasizes the following guidelines for the interviewer to follow: asking the
questions and letting the subjects do the responding; keeping one’s own
feelings and opinions private; refraining from judgment and not attempting to
change the subject’s opinions or beliefs; and, controlling the topic direction
and pace in order to keep the interview on track.
The interviews themselves were conducted in a semi-structured format

using a combination of open and closed questions, which are provided in the
Appendix. Closed questions are structured and require a fixed response,
whereas open ended questions are unstructured and allow for free responses
(Neuman, 2004). Closed questions were asked in order to have a basic
outline of the roles of the interviewees, as well as the different specific
situations and programming in their schools. Open ended questions were
used in order to gain insight into the perspectives and experiences of the
interviewees at their individual schools. According to Neuman (2004)
advantages of open ended questions include: that they permit an unlimited
range of responses; responses can produce unexpected findings; they allow
for descriptive responses to complex issues; they allow for rich detail and
free self expression from the respondent; and they may reveal the
respondent’s frame of reference. Disadvantages of using open ended
questions referred to by Neuman may include: new ideas revealed in a
question may produce opinions that did not exist beforehand; responses may
be irrelevant; it is difficult to compare and code responses; and respondents
could become intimidated by questions or defensive about their responses.
4.4 Population Sample

Across a sample of 4 schools, a physical education teacher and a school
principal will be interviewed from each school. For the purpose of finding
the most variety in school program arrangements, as well as different
experiences among school principals and physical education teachers, it was
ensured that the 4 schools were not using the same arrangement of coed and
single sex education within their programs. This can be referred to as
purposive sampling, which uses “the judgment of an expert in selecting cases
or it selects cases with a specific purpose in mind” (Neuman, 2004, p.138).
37
In this study, the principals interviewed had between 2 years and 16 years
of experience in their current position. The teachers interviewed had between
9 years and 34 years of physical education teaching experience. There were 5
men and 3 women interviewed. The work experience and gender (all
interviewees are referred to in the masculine) of each individual interviewee
were not disclosed in the results, in order to protect their anonymity.
One disadvantage of this study is that it includes only local schools in

Akureyri and is a relatively small sample size. This study could therefore
overlook a variety of opinions and experiences of different subjects from
different areas. However it should be noted, “qualitative researchers focus
less on a sample’s representativeness or on detailed techniques for drawing a
probability sample. Instead they focus on how the sample of a small
collection of cases, units, or activities illuminates social life” (Neuman, 2004,
p.137).
4.5 Data Recording

The individual interviews were between 25 and 45 minutes long. The
interviews were recorded using a high quality digital voice recording device.
The interviewer also made additional hand written observations as were
necessary. For example, the interviewees occasionally made physical
gestures to better express their point of view, and these were then noted. The
interviews were conducted in Icelandic; quotations in the results section of
this paper have been translated into English.
4.6 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Bogden and Biklen (2007) offer definitions as to the meaning of data
analysis and interpretation. According to Bogden and Biklen:
Data interpretation refers to developing ideas about your findings and

relating them to the literature and to broader concerns and concepts.
Analysis involves working with the data, organizing them, breaking
them into manageable units, coding them, synthesizing them and
searching for patterns (p.159).
Bogden and Biklen suggest different techniques for making interpretation

and analysis a continual part of the data collection process, which are
appropriate to this study. They are: narrowing the focus of the study, the
development of analytical questions and taking field notes during interviews.
In addition to those considerations, coding categories will be developed
38
during the analysis and interpretation stage of this study. Bogden and Biklen
(2007) suggest developing code in several steps. The first step is to search
the materials for any patterns and different topics to be discovered. The next
step is to name these different patterns and topics and develop categories.
From this step the descriptive data can then be organized with more ease and
sequentially sorted and compared. A disadvantage to social research and the
interview technique is possible bias on the part of the researcher. For
example, the interviewer in this study has her own set of values and opinions,
which come from a unique background of education and experiences, which
could possibly influence how the data from the study are interpreted (Bogden
& Biklen, 2007).
39
5 Results
This chapter will describe findings based on the interviews with the four
school principals and four physical education teachers. In order to protect the
identity of the individual interviewees, all quotations, comments and
references in this section are described using the pronoun “he”. The first
section, Physical Education Programs, describes the data regarding the goals
and effectiveness of the school programs, as well as, what it means to be an
effective physical education teacher and to have an effective school program.
The second section describes the data regarding the health awareness and
initiatives of each school. The third section, Single Sex and Coed Physical
Education, describes the data regarding how the school programs are
organized in terms of coed and single sex groupings. It also describes the
opinions of the principals and then the teachers regarding the advantages and
disadvantages of single sex and coed physical education, as well as the
teaching environment preferences of the teachers. The fourth and final
section, Gender Issues, describes the data regarding masculine and feminine
influences in physical education, equality in physical education, and the
treatment of male and female students.
5.1 Physical Education Program
Goals and Effectiveness of Program
The school principals and school teachers were asked to describe what they
felt the goals of their physical education program were and what values,
knowledge and skills they wanted to see their students graduate with.
The teacher from School A indicated that he wanted his students to

graduate with a desire to be physically active and an understanding of why it
was important. The school principal from the same school wished that his
students would find a type of physical activity that they enjoyed and would
continue in. Both the teacher and school principal from School A were
unsure whether their school program was motivating for students to continue
to be active after graduation. The teacher felt that in previous years the
program had been poorly designed with too many children in each class.
Now that they had reduced the class size he felt that he might see a better
result after the year was finished. The principal hoped that their program was
41
reaching out to students but felt that the teacher could better answer that
question.
The teacher from School B indicated that ideally he would like to see
everyone graduate from the program with fit and healthy bodies. However,
he acknowledged that there were many outside influences that prevented this
from happening. This teacher was mostly concerned for students who were
graduating from the school and not practicing any sport. The principal from
School B stated that he would like to see his students graduate with a desire
to be physically active and an understanding that physical activity is not just
for athletes but is necessary for everyone. The teacher from School B felt that
the school’s program was indeed motivating for the students to be active
beyond school graduation. The teacher described how he began many of his
physical education lessons by reminding kids of why they need to be active
and that they should use their time well. This teacher also makes trips into
the school classroom of the oldest grades to present information on the
importance of physical activity and to really try to get their attention on the
subject. The teacher explained:
I always start by asking, have you started thinking about what you
will study in the future? I want to be a computer specialist . . . and you
. . . a nurse . . . and what happens when your health becomes poor at
the age of 50 because you have not taken care of your body? Because
you have not used the most important years to build up your fitness?
They [the students], find this motivating.
On the other hand, the principal of this school felt that while the school’s
program was motivating for some students, the school staff were not able to
reach out to all individuals at the school, some of whom did not have a
positive experience of physical education.
The teacher from School C wanted to see his students’ graduate with the
knowledge that physical activity is important, a positive experience of
physical activity, as well as having found some kind of physical activity that
they enjoy as an individual. The principal from School C was concerned that
the students graduate having experienced a variety of different activities and
finds enjoyment in some kind of physical activity. The teacher from School
C felt that the school was able to motivate students to be active beyond
graduation, because the school was concerned about this and because he
believed the non-competitive atmosphere and variety that is provided in their
program helps ensure this. Conversely, the school principal from School C
felt that although he finds many students enjoy their physical education
program, he is not sure that they are able to reach out all students. He
explained that many students come to him trying to find ways to get out of
physical education with different excuses and by providing medical notes.
42
The teacher from School D felt that the main goal of physical education
program is to let students experience a variety of different activities. He felt
this was a very strong focus at their school and that the educators emphasized
having as much variety as possible. The principal from School D wanted to
see the students increase their movement abilities and learn about their body
and nutrition. He also hoped that they had the opportunity to try as many
activities as possible and find something, which appealed to them so that they
can continue to be active when they graduate. While the teacher felt that their
physical education program was indeed motivating for students to continue
being active, he recognized that students today are becoming so diverse, with
many practicing sport intensely and many who are completely inactive,
lacking the middle group of moderately active individuals which used to
exist. The school principal was unsure whether or not the school‘s program
was motivating for students to continue to be active beyond graduation. He
was however pleased that his students seemed to be practicing a wide variety
of sports outside of school.
It seems as though all teachers and principals had very similar ideas
concerning the goals of their physical education program, including,
graduating with a positive experience of physical activity, and specifically
experiencing a wide variety of activities in order to increase the likelihood
that students will find something appealing to them. Whether or not they
believed in the effectiveness of their program showed more disparity
between where teachers and principals stood on the matter. Three out of the
four teachers answered more positively about their abilities to motivate
students towards future physical activity. At the same time, all four principals
seemed unsure about whether or not their program was able to reach out to
all individuals.
Effective Teachers and Teaching in Physical Education
Both the school principal and teacher were asked to indicate what they felt
made an effective physical education teacher. The teachers were also asked
to describe how they were able to activate all students within class time.
The principal from School A felt that an effective teacher was one who
taught a wide variety of physical activities and was able to engage the
interests of all students, not only those who show higher levels of ability. The
teacher from School A also felt that an effective physical education teacher
needed to teach a variety of activities and to reach out to all students. He
stated:
You can fall into a pattern, for example if I was interested in football I
could just teach football all the time, that’s no problem, I could do that
43
for a whole winter … But that’s not good for the kids. You have to
teach everything …You have to teach variety and reach out to the kids
with everything. Also show them it is not always the most fun things
that need to be done. Also, that the ‘boring’ things can be fun.
The teacher also felt it was important for the students to find his
classroom atmosphere to be positive. In order to ensure that all students were
active during class time, the teacher from School A felt that firstly one had to
get to know the kids. He described having to look out for the students who
were not as motivated as others and try to motivate them. The teacher also
felt that sometimes it is necessary to alter certain activities so that the
students who were behind or not as motivated could also be successful.
However, he found this type of individual teaching to be very challenging in
an environment with many students.
The principal from School B felt that concern for students well being was
the most important part of being an effective physical education teacher. He
described how concern for the individual or, meeting the student’s individual
needs, has become an important part of modern day teaching in all subjects.
The teacher from School B also felt concern for the individual was critical in
being an effective physical education teacher. He stated:
You have to be friends with your students . . . I put a lot of effort into
achieving a personal connection with my group . . . In order to be close
to your students it is most important that they understand I am trying to
give them positive advice and motivation to be active, (especially) if
they are not practicing anything . . . I always invite them to talk to me
if they want that.
The teacher also gives the students individual advice about how to be
active, and how to find something they are interested in. He stated, “this does
not happen unless they have a positive experience of me [as a teacher]”. In
order to ensure that all of his students were active, the teacher from School B
indicated different efforts that are made to motivate more individuals. For
example, he explained that in the current semester the school is undergoing
an experiment where students are working in smaller groups and going
through different activity stations. So far the teacher is finding that the size of
the groups (smaller than normal) prevents students from trying to sit out of
the activity. He furthermore creates different rules in games to ensure that all
students are involved. For example, all students on one team must touch the
ball once before a goal is scored. The teacher from School B also spends a lot
of time trying to motivate individuals on a personal level through one on one
discussion about the importance of physical activity and what is available to
them.
44
The principal from School C felt that reaching out to the kids was the
most important part of being an effective physical education teacher. He
described an effective teacher as being fair and determined while at the same
time having a sense of humour, as well as being a good listener. The teacher
from School C felt that it was important to personally enjoy physical activity
and education as well as the importance of the subject so that he could help
share that enjoyment and make it fun for the kids. In order to ensure that all
students were active the teacher from School C felt that it was critical to
organize time well and to include a variety of activities in hopes of including
more students.
The principal from School D felt that an effective physical education

teacher is one who focused on a variety of activities. He pointed out that
many physical activity teachers are also coaches and that it was critical for
them to not only focus on their own sport but to introduce them to as many
sports or physical activities as their facilities would allow. The principal from
School D also pointed out that an effective physical education teacher was
encouraging to all students, especially those who are further behind the group
and ensured that they had activities that suited their needs and abilities. The
teacher from School D felt that being positive and kind were critical
characteristics of an effective physical education teacher. He also felt that
being organized and always outlining the day’s lessons before the class
began was critical. In order to ensure that all of his students are active, the
teacher from School D felt that an effective warm up (including warm up
games) was critical in engaging all student physically. The teacher from
School D also mentioned that they tried to ensure all students were moving
during class time and if someone sat out they would be encouraged to
continue. He furthermore highlighted that he felt it more challenging to get
students moving today than it was in the past due to weight issues.
Out of the group of 8 educators (4 principals and 4 teachers), 7 described

reaching out to the students by being positive, kind or showing them
individual concern, as being effective characteristics of a physical education
teacher. Another common theme appeared to be the use of variety, teaching
different activities, as well as the altering of activities in order to meet more
individual needs, in order to be an effective teacher and/or to ensure that all
students were active during class time.
45
5.2 Health Awareness and Initiatives
Health Awareness and Initiatives
Both the school principals and school teachers were asked whether they were
aware that it has been found that two thirds of Icelandic children are not
getting the recommended guideline of 60 minutes of daily physical activity.
They were asked if any school initiatives were in place in order to encourage
students to be more active. Furthermore, the principals and teachers were
asked to discuss whether they would include daily physical education in their
education program if it was an option and if there were any possible barriers
to initiating more physical education.
The principal from School A was not aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of daily physical
activity. He was aware however that children are not moving enough in
general and felt that the school was indeed concerned about this fact. He
mentioned that the school was taking part in “Göngum í skólann”
(www.gongumiskolann.is), a walking to school initiative in which primary
schools across Iceland take part. However, he was not so sure that it was
working. He also explained that the school tried to encourage the teachers of
classroom subjects to do more lessons outside in order to help students
become more active. The principal from school A stated:
We are also trying to have the teachers use the environment more, go
outside more with the kids, even though it is not exactly physical
education, just go outside to study math and be physically active and
play games, I do not find that this is going any better either. I would
like to see much more of this. But we are trying.
The teacher from School A was aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children are not meeting daily physical activity requirements and also felt
that the school showed concern over this fact. For example, he was satisfied
in general with the school principal’s reaction to recent requests from the
physical education teachers to decrease class size and re-schedule physical
education lessons in order to better improve the quality of class time. The
teacher from School A also mentioned that they took part in “Göngum í
skólann” and recently added “Skóla-hreysti”, a school fitness competition, to
their school program. He felt it was very important for the physical education
teachers to encourage the school board and principal into different initiatives
and that it was not just the responsibility of the principal to come up with all
of the ideas. Both the principal and teacher from school A responded
positively that they would like to see daily physical education or activity in
their school.
46
Both the principal and teacher from School B were aware that two thirds
of Icelandic children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of
daily physical activity. The principal felt the school staff was conscious of
this fact and because of this took part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”,
Olympic games at the school and outside physical activity days. He was
however concerned that many kids did not enjoy physical education at the
school and that perhaps the solution was not to add more physical education
but find ways to make it more enjoyable. The teacher from School B felt that
the school was indeed concerned about lack of physical activity in students.
He did however feel that the subject of physical education was not regarded
to have the same level of importance as other subjects. Both the principal and
teacher from school B responded positively that they would like to see daily
physical education in their school.
While the teacher from School C was aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of daily physical
activity, the principal from School C had not heard the statistic but was
aware that it was quite a large number. The principal felt that the school was
concerned about level of physical activity amongst its students. He also
explained that while they took part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”,
there was no specific school program to increase physical activity. He
explained that at one time they would take the students hiking. When bus
money became an issue this activity had to be cancelled. The teacher from
School C also made similar comments that although the school showed its
awareness by taking part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”, school ski
and skating trips; that nothing extra was done to increase physical activities
levels. He explained that in previous years one teacher had offered extra
game times for the students in the gymnasium outside of teaching hours, but
that when he wanted to be paid for the overtime, the program had to be
cancelled. Both the principal and teacher from School C responded positively
that they would like to see an increase in amount of physical education
offered in their school.
Both the principal and teacher from School D were aware that two thirds
of Icelandic children are not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of
daily physical activity. The principal from school D felt that yes the school
was concerned about lack of physical activity amongst students and took part
in many health promoting initiatives. He explained that the school took part
in events such as “Göngum í skólann”, school runs and school games; and
also encouraged healthy daily eating habits. The principal also mentioned
concern for students who were practicing up to 20 hours of sport outside of
School, that adding more physical activity to those students might be too
much. He did however point out that time constraints would be the main
barrier to being able to do more physical education in school. He explained:
47
“the school has a specific number of hours that they are required to fill for
each subject, Icelandic requires this many hours, math needs this many and
so its really a competition for time.” Both the principal and teacher from
School D responded positively that they would like to see daily physical
education in their school.
It was apparent that the majority of the 8 interviewed educators were

aware that two thirds of Icelandic children are not meeting the 60 minutes of
recommended of daily physical activity. Moreover, those educators whom
had not heard the statistic before did not seem surprised that the number was
so high. All of the educators considered their school staff to be conscious of
this fact, and pointed to initiatives, such as “Göngum í skólann”, that the
schools took part in to help encourage an increase of daily physical activity.
However, no educator seemed completely satisfied with what the school was
able to offer. The educators suggested a variety of different barriers as to
why the school could not, or was not doing more, including: financial
concerns, how physical education was regarded in comparison to other
subjects, time restraints, the students’ enjoyment of physical education, as
well as concern for students who are practicing sport on an intense level
outside of school. All educators interviewed responded positively that they
would like to see an increase in physical education or activity within their
school programs.
School Programs
The educators were asked to outline their schools’ specific program in

physical education according to whether or not the classes were single sex
groups or coed groups and if relevant, at what age certain divisions began.
The educators were also asked to state who was in charge of making those
decisions.
School A’s program arrangement was described as including one physical

education class per week, which was always coed. At the school, beginning
in the 8th grade the second physical education class per week was separated
into single sex. The one swimming class per week was coed until the 6th
grade and then became single sex. The principal at School A explained that
he was in charge of making up the schedule for the physical education
classes but did this in collaboration with the physical education teachers. The
teacher at School A felt he had control over which groups were single sex
and which were coed and often worked with the homeroom teachers of the
48
different grades to decide how they would run the program (single sex or
coed) for that year or semester.
School B’s program was described as including two times per week coed
physical education in all grades (however in previous years 9th and 10th grade
had been mostly single sex). Swimming was single sex in 1st grade as well as
again in 8th through 10th grade. The school principal at this school was in
charge of making the physical education schedule. The teacher at this school
felt he had no control or say around the timing of what grades come in for
lessons at what times. He felt that this made it difficult to plan. The physical
education teachers at this school did however have the opportunity to teach
single sex or coed groupings if they chose, as two classes came together
during physical education and there was more than one teacher working with
the group, which made this possible. When the teacher was interviewed he
stated that the teachers were for the time being keeping the groups as coed.
School C’s program was described as including coed physical education

classes two times per week and swimming one time per week. However
sometimes swimming in 8th through 10th grade was single sex). At School C
the department head was in charge of making the physical education
schedule and had the final say about the schedule but worked together with
the physical education teachers in planning. Although the grades arrived at
physical education in coed groupings, the physical education teachers had the
opportunity to separate them into single sex groupings during class time and
occasionally would do so.
School D’s program was described as including slightly more physical

education in the form of one extra lesson per week in 1st through 7th grade,
while 8th to 10th grade received slightly less (however, the older students had
additional “val tímar” (extra lessons) which were mostly extra physical
activity). Swimming at School D was separated into single sex groupings in
8th through 10th grade. For physical education, all grades arrived together to
lessons in coed groupings. However, because there was more than one
teacher working with the class, they had the freedom to separate the students
into single sex groupings if they chose to do so. The teacher from School D
explained that this was done most often in the younger grades, 1st through 4th
grade, and that older students often requested this as well. At School D the
vice principal was in charge of creating the schedule but the physical
education teachers met together to plan in detail how they would separate
their classes during lesson time.
All four schools had a variety of arrangements concerning single sex and
coed groupings. However swimming was always separated into single sex for
8th through 10th grade (with the exception of one school which had this
49
separation only sometimes). In all schools the principals, vice principals or
department heads made up the schedules for physical education. All four
teachers demonstrated however that they did have some control over whether
they were teaching single sex or coed groupings. The teachers described the
control over groupings as a result of communication with other staff or the
availability of more than one teacher during physical education lessons.
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Principals
The school principals were asked for their opinions regarding single sex and
coed teaching environments in physical education and whether or not they
had read any research on the topic.
The principal from School A felt that single sex teaching in the older
grades (8th through 10th) could be appropriate because of problems such as
shyness or different interests of the genders that could be evident at that
stage. He thought that perhaps with a single sex teaching environment it
might be possible to reach out to a greater majority of the group. The
principal stated that he had not read any research on the topic of single sex
and coed teaching and admitted that his opinions on the topic had been
shaped by those of the physical education teachers he had worked with.
The principal from School B felt he would like to see a mix of both single
sex and coed teaching. He stated, “we are two different genders, we have
different needs . . . We are different and we need to sometimes meet the
needs of both”. He felt boys have interest in “rougher” sports than girls and
that there need to be activities that met the interest of girls as well. He
explained that if the boys and girls knew that they had classes coming up
which were suited to their needs (for example, “action time”, with just boys
together, or girls doing dance), they might be more patient in taking part in
other activities that they did not find as enjoyable. The principal from School
B had not read any research regarding single sex and coed teaching in
physical education but was interested in doing so in the future.
The principal from School C felt that single sex teaching could be
appropriate with some groups and not in others, that there was not one
teaching style superior to the other. He explained that it was the
responsibility of the teacher to find out what suited their current group best.
For example, he explained that:
If the girls in one group are holding back because the boys are more
dominant, than that is good reason to try separating them. That does
not need to be just in physical education, but also could be appropriate
in other classes . . . First and foremost we want the groupings, (single
50
sex or however they are split up) to improve the educational needs on
the students.
The principal from School C had not read any research regarding single
sex or coed teaching in physical education but was familiar with some
research of single sex and coed teaching in the classroom.
The principal from School D felt that the question of whether or not to
teach coed or single sex was difficult to answer because there was perhaps no
right answer. He personally would like to see the students in a coed
environment if possible. His rational for this was that the students needed to
learn to handle each other and respect each other as different genders in
school because they would continue to be together in society. However he
also mentioned that girls may have more of a “chance to shine” if they are in
a single sex environment. The principal from School D also mentioned that
in the classroom environment it may sometimes be beneficial to separate the
genders, for example when discussing subjects that may be sensitive to a
group. He found that in general team teaching environments (more than one
teacher over seeing a group) was a valuable teaching tool so that one could
separate groups as necessary. When asked whether he was familiar with any
research regarding coed and single sex teaching environments, the principal
from School D explained that he was familiar with the “Hjallastefna”
policies. Hjallastefna schools are Icelandic schools whose curriculum has
specific policy regarding gender groupings in order to ensure gender equality
and work towards breaking down traditional gender roles (Hjallastefna,
2014).
Out of the four principals interviewed, three found the idea of teaching
using both single sex environments and coed environments according to the
situation or needs of the students preferable. One principal suggested that
single sex teaching would be most valuable in the adolescent stage (grades 8
through 10). None of the principals were familiar with research regarding
single sex or coed teaching in physical education; however they were
somewhat familiar with research regarding single sex or coed groupings in
the classroom environment.
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Teachers
The physical education teachers were asked for their opinions regarding
single sex and coed teaching environments in physical education and whether
or not they had read any research on the topic. Because of their daily
experience of working hands on with students, the teachers were asked more
in depth questions concerning these teaching environments than were the
51
principals, such as questions of student activation and classroom
management.
The teacher from School A had not read any studies concerning single sex
or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal experiences,
the teacher from School A felt that he was better able to activate girls,
especially in the upper grades, in a single sex teaching environment. He
found that less athletically inclined girls, were shy or held back more in the
coed environment, whereas the boys were more dominating in activities. He
noted for example in fitness activities that the girls could be shy about having
to do push ups from their knees in front of the boys. He also found that
attendance was better among girls in the single sex teaching environment,
especially in the case of swimming. When asked whether he found the girls
to be physically self-conscious in the coed teaching environment the teacher
from School A responded:
It is much worse when the boys are there, then they [the girls] are
really conscious about themselves . . . Last year in the upper grades it
was coed in physical education. . . you could see it on some of the
girls that they did not feel good being with the boys. They are gaining
weight, they are growing, there are so many changes, they don’t know
how to perceive themselves, never mind understand how others
perceive them. It is a difficult time.
The teacher furthermore remarked that this was a sensitive time also for
the boys, and that was sometimes forgotten. He explained that the boys were
also self conscious about being with the girls and that less athletically
inclined male students would feel more embarrassed about showing any
incompetency in front of the girls. The teacher from School A found that
classroom management was more effective in a single sex teaching
environment in the upper grades (grades 8 through 10). He explained that the
boys and girls had a tendency to fool around more or “show off” when they
were in a coed environment. He found that in general the students were more
focused in a single sex teaching environment. He furthermore found that
teaching activities such as ball sports or team sports was more effective in a
single sex environment. The teacher explained that when they were together
in these types of activities there would be more complaints. For example, he
stated: “The boys complain about the girls not doing anything and the girls
complain that the boys never pass to them”.
The teacher from School B was familiar with research and had also
engaged other teachers in discussion regarding single sex and coed teaching
environments. Based on what he has learned and his personal experiences, he
finds that it is easier to activate girls in a single sex environment, especially
in the upper grades. He finds that girls who are less athletically inclined and
52
shyer are noticeably more comfortable in a single sex environment. The
teacher explained:
In the oldest grades, 8th, 9th and 10th grade, where the difference of
physical strength of the boys is so evident . . . and they have more self-
confidence . . . girls, if they are all together [coed], no matter if it is
volleyball, bandi, football, any game, they will be more passive and
hold back. If they are with other girls [single sex], they are much more
active, I am absolutely sure about this.
The teacher continued on to explain “there is more power in girls if they

are grouped on their own”. He also felt that at this age many of the girls are
very self-conscious about their bodies, especially when it came to swimming
lessons, and that attendance was improved by separating the genders. The
teacher from School B furthermore found that the coed teaching environment
also affected boys in the upper grades. He explained that in team games or
physical games, “the boys will purposely hold back also, because they do not
want to run over the girls”. The teacher also explained that less athletically
inclined boys may also be comfortable in a single sex environment because
they would not want to demonstrate any incompetence in front of the girls.
However he also mentioned that they may possibly struggle in an all boys
environment as well.
The teacher from School C had not read any studies concerning singles
sex or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal
experiences, he has found that girls have more of a tendency to pull
themselves out of physical or ball sports when groupings are coed, but that
they are more likely to participate in these activities when they are grouped
as single sex. He found this especially influential during the upper grades at
the time when boys are becoming physically stronger than the girls. He felt
therefore that when taking part in any physical sports or activities it was a
more appropriate time to have single sex groupings. Furthermore, he found
that single sex groupings were perhaps a more comfortable environment for
girls with lower confidence. Conversely, the teacher from School C found
that boys, who were more “calm” in physical education, could perhaps
benefit from being with girls who were also more “calm” and that being in
single sex environment with all boys may be challenging for them. When
asked whether he found the girls to be physically self-conscious in the coed
teaching environment the teacher from School C responded, “maybe when
they are older, when they are teenagers . . . yes probably a little bit more . . .
but it is not so prominent”. In terms of classroom management he found that
it was easier to have control in an all-girls class than in an all-boys class.
However, whether it was easier to have control over all-boys or a coed
environment he found difficult to answer; especially because when coed was
together there were more students which affected teaching practices.
53
The teacher from School D had not read any studies concerning singles
sex or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal
experiences, he has found single sex groupings in physically education
preferable in both the younger grades and the upper grades. He explained that
for example when doing station work it was better to have groups of all-boys
and all-girls. He stated that this was because: “Boys will be working at a
faster pace, it is often that they will get in more repetitions and girls want to
go slower, then it is better to separate them and we do that.” Furthermore,
when the teacher from School D used to have younger grades as coed the
girls often felt disrupted by the behaviour of the boys. He also found that
girls were more likely to hold back in coed groupings and were perhaps more
comfortable in single sex groupings in the upper grades. He found that when
given the choice of whether or not to separate genders that the students in the
upper grades would often chose to be in single sex groupings. However, he
explained that some students would also chose to be together and that some
of the girls wanted to be challenged by the boys. The teacher from School D
had not noticed girls being physically self-conscious in the coed teaching
environment as being an issue or challenge. He found that boys who are less
athletically inclined or overweight had a hard time in physical education
regardless of whether the lesson was coed or single sex.
Three out of the four teachers were not familiar with any research
regarding single sex or coed teaching environments. Based on their personal
experiences the teachers were unanimous that they found it easier to activate
girls in a single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in
activities with more physical contact in the upper grades. They were
furthermore unanimous that this especially impacted girls who displayed
more shyness or were less athletically inclined. Two of the teachers found
that physical self consciousness affected the participation level of girls in the
upper grades. The other two teachers believed that it was perhaps an issue
but that they had not observed any prominent impact on participation levels.
Concerning the participation of male students, two of the teachers found that
less athletically inclined boys benefited from being in a single sex
environment (because they would not feel as much embarrassment as they
would in coed). At the same time, one of the teachers felt that less
athletically inclined boys may feel more comfortable being with less
athletically inclined girls; while another teacher felt that they would struggle
regardless of whether the teaching environment was single sex or coed.
Teaching Environment Preferences
The teachers and principals were asked what their ideal school program
arrangement would look like in terms of the use of single sex and coed
teaching.
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The principal from School A felt that the most appropriate program
arrangement would include a mix of coed and single sex teaching
environments. He liked the idea of working with the physical education
teachers to decide when it was better to work with the different environments
depending on the nature of the classroom activity. The teacher from School
A felt that he would like to continue teaching single sex classes in grades 8
through 10, however he was open to the idea of having coed sometimes in
the upper grades as well. As for the younger grades, the teacher from School
A felt that it was appropriate to have a mix of coed and single sex teaching.
According to this teacher an influencing factor in determining how to run the
class time depended on the nature of that individual class. For example, he
felt while some classes worked very well together, other classes could benefit
from single sex teaching. The teaching environment of School A is very
flexible because they practice team teaching; which means there is always
more than one teacher available and classes can always be split into groups.
The principal from School B felt that the most appropriate program
arrangement would include a mix of both coed and single sex physical
education teaching environments. He felt that the single sex environment
could be used to meet different needs of each gender and the coed
environment to help break down social boundaries created by masculine and
feminine ideals. The teacher from School B felt it was appropriate to begin
practicing single sex teaching environments more often when the students
reach the 6th grade. He however felt that it was appropriate to mix the groups
sometimes in order to allow the genders to socialize together and to bond as a
group. This teacher was currently practicing team teaching in the upper
grades where it was possible to have a mix of coed and single sex groupings.
The principal from School C felt that single sex teaching should only be
used when the teachers felt that it was beneficial to the learning of all
students. He felt that it was important to keep the genders together because of
the social benefits of learning to be with diverse groups of individuals. The
teacher from School C felt that an emphasis on more single sex teaching
should begin in the upper grades, perhaps in the 5th and 6th grade, but that it
should begin gradually. He felt that they were fortunate at his school to have
access to quality facilities where they have a lot of room to divide the
students into groups and could split them into single sex groupings
sometimes and into coed groups at other times.
The principal from School D felt that it was appropriate to have coed
physical education unless there was a specific situation that required single
sex teaching. He added:
But I do find it very convenient to have it [the program] as we have it

where the teachers have the choice. Girls can be on one side playing
55
handball while the boys are on the other side playing handball. That is
a possibility and I am not against that either. Because we have this
system [team teaching] it is possible.
The teacher from School D felt it appropriate to have the students in a

coed class environment with the opportunity to teach single sex when
needed. He furthermore did not want an entirely single sex teaching
environment because of the positive social benefits that was a result of the
students being mixed together.
All four principals were interested in having a mix of both coed teaching
and single sex teaching, depending on the activity at hand and how the their
physical education teachers wanted to manage an activity. All four teachers
furthermore felt that having a mix of both coed and single sex teaching was
appropriate. Three out of the four teachers mentioned that single sex teaching
should be emphasized more in the upper grades while one teacher felt that it
could be appropriate in all grades. At some point during the interviews, 6 out
of the 8 educators emphasized the importance of social factors in coed
teaching. They felt that students benefited greatly from being with the other
gender because, the students could learn from each other, it was fun to have
them together, it gave the classes a chance to bound, and it helped break
down masculine and feminine social barriers. All four of the teachers often
took part in team teaching, which meant students were often grouped
together from more than one class, and two or more teachers worked as a
team. The teachers were therefore able to split the groups into the divisions
they felt were appropriate and were able to use single sex or coed groupings
where they saw it as necessary.
5.4 Gender Issues
Masculine and Feminine Influences
Principals and teachers were asked to describe what they saw as masculine
and feminine influences in physical education and whether discussion of
these influences was a part of the schools’ curriculum.
The principal from School A was not aware of any situation where
masculine and feminine stereotypes were influencing participation of
students in physical education. He did however mention that the discussion
of masculine and feminine influences in society was a part of the school’s
curriculum. The teacher from School A said he noticed masculine and
feminine stereotypes having an effect on participation in physical education.
For example, he explained:
56
I taught them yoga the other day, the boys looked at me [and said],
yoga? I said that is not more feminine than something else . . . it is so
good for them to go over the line, outside their boundaries. Everyone
had to participate, and you could see at first some lying there, [and
saying], no, I’m not going to do something like this.
He also added that once the students saw that everyone was at the same
level, that no one was the best; they were more open to participating in the
lesson. In response to the question whether physical education teachers
involved students in discussions about the creation of masculine and
feminine stereotypes, the teacher from School A felt that questions could
come up from time to time but that most of these types of discussions took
place in the classroom.
The principal from School B felt that masculine and feminine stereotypes
were influencing participation of students in physical education. However he
also felt that students could be born as more feminine or more masculine
individuals and that the social environment was not the only influencing
factor. He added:
The most important thing that we do [the school], is to raise the

children in the way that they understand that one is not better than the
other, if I am a boy and I enjoy dancing than it is my right to blossom
in that, if I am a girl that enjoys more physical sports, than it is my
right to blossom there. It should never stop me because I am a girl or I
am a boy.
In addition, the principal found that it was very important that the genders
were together in physical education so that they could see that different
activities were for everyone, not just one type for boys and one type for girls.
Furthermore, he commented that the school was conscious about discussing
the issues of masculine and feminine stereotyping with its students. The
teacher from School B felt that masculine and feminine stereotypes were
influencing participation of students in physical education. He explained that
this could come up when the students were doing station work; that there
were some activities that they were embarrassed to take part in, where
someone might laugh at them because they could not do the activity well. As
an example the teacher spoke about a class where students were required to
dance at one station. He explained that the boys were at first nervous about
this but took part eventually and enjoyed it. He also used this as an
opportunity to challenge their ideas of what is masculine and what is
feminine and discuss this during the class time. The teacher was pleased that
he was able to open the boys up to the idea that dance was not just for the
girls. The teacher from School B also suggested that the influence of
masculine and feminine stereotypes has changed greatly; pointing out that in
57
the football and handball clubs participation rates among girls and boys were
becoming progressively equal (sports which have previously favoured the
male gender).
The principal from School C was certain that in some ways masculine and
feminine stereotypes could influence participation in certain activities.
However, he also felt that this might be changing. He mentioned for
example, home economics, as one subject which used to be looked at as very
feminine. He explained that this was no longer the case, as it was a very
popular course amongst all students. The principal furthermore noted that
teachers were discussing issues of masculine and feminine stereotypes as part
of the school curriculum. The teacher from School C did not feel that
masculine and feminine stereotypes strongly influenced his students desire to
participate. He believed that what influenced their desire to participate was
more a question of whether they felt they were competent in the activity. He
explained:
For example if I have the boys in gymnastics, they do not find it

feminine, they just cannot do it, and start fooling around because of
this . . . and the opposite if we think about girls and ball sports . . . it
is not because it is too masculine that they do not want to participate,
rather they are not good at it, and have low confidence [in that activity]
. . . I have not heard that [in class], that something is ‘girly’ or
‘boyish’.
The teacher felt that although these masculine and feminine stereotypes
may influence slightly which sports the students took part in outside of
school that this was changing. He mentioned that girls were participating
more often in sports such as handball and football, while boys were more
visible in gymnastics.
The principal from School D believed that in some ways masculine and
feminine stereotypes could influence student’s participation in certain
activities especially when they reached the upper grades and became
increasingly self-aware. However he believed that students participated in
everything that was offered to them. He gave as an example a recent school
activity day where students were mixed together in all ages and the older
students had to take on the role of being the caregiver of their groups. He was
pleasantly surprised to see the male students take on the role of caregiver for
the younger children in the group with no real realization that they were
taking on that (more feminine) role. He explained that influences of
masculine and feminine stereotypes were discussed as part of the school’s
curriculum. The teacher from School D felt that overall masculine and
feminine stereotypes were not strongly influencing student’s participation in
certain activities. However he mentioned that while the girls were ready to
58
try all activities, the boy’s maybe had a harder time with activities such as
dance or yoga where they were perhaps more shy about participating. He
furthermore believed that masculine and feminine stereotypes were starting
to change and that the students found more and more that yoga and dance
were for both genders. The teacher also mentioned that the male teachers in
the school would not be likely to teach yoga or dance and that the female
teachers were more likely to take on this responsibility.
Three out of the four principals interviewed felt that masculine and
feminine stereotypes were influencing the participation of students within
certain activities in physical education. All four of the principals stated that
gender issues were discussed as part of their school curriculum. The question
of whether or not masculine and feminine stereotypes influenced the
participation of students prompted lengthy responses from the teachers. For
example, three out of the four teachers found that masculine and feminine
stereotypes somewhat influenced their students levels of participation. Those
three teachers described the resistance of their male students to take part in
activities such as yoga or dance. Two of those teachers found these incidents
to be a useful opportunity to talk to their students about stereotypes and to
encourage the male students to try something new. Both of these teachers
were pleased at the end of the activity with how their male students had
changed their attitude and participated in the activity. Alternatively, one
teacher felt that the students’ feelings of competency in activity had the
greater influence on their level of participation than feminine and masculine
stereotypes.
Equality in Physical Education
Principals and teachers were asked whether they believed girls and boys had
equal access to physical education at their school, as well as whether or not
the program was more targeted to the interests of boys.
The principal from School A felt that boys and girls had equal access to
be active in physical education and at school in general. When asked if he
felt that the physical education program favoured boys more he responded:
I don’t know, we are trying to have our physical education teachers

reach out to both genders, we are trying to think about this, but . . . I
could look at this . . . we have not looked at it like this [the program
from this angle].
The teacher from School A felt that students had equal opportunity to be
active in physical education within the single sex environment. He explained
that this environment was better for girls who were holding back when the
59
boys dominated the environment. He also felt that ability groupings could
help activate both students who were practicing sport and those who were
not. The teacher from school A felt that the physical education program was
in general more targeted towards the interests of boys, but that girls who
exhibited more masculine traits benefited from this.
The principal from School B felt that perhaps the school could be more
conscious about whether or not boys and girls had equal opportunity to be
active in physical education. He found that the program rewarded more often
the strong and active boys and sometimes a few girls. In response to the
question whether the physical education program favoured the interests of
the boys he explained: “We [the school] are not meeting the interests of the
girls enough, I think we need to handle this”. The teacher from School B on
the other hand felt that boys and girls had equal opportunity to be active in
physical education because everyone was offered the same program. He also
felt that the program at his school was not targeted more towards the interests
of boys because of the variety in activity that was offered and that all
students regardless of gender completed the same requirements.
The principal from School C felt that students had equal opportunity to be
physically active in physical education and in other areas within the school.
He felt however that the physical education environment did favour the
interests of boys more. He explained that:
there are more girls that come here to me [to the principal’s office],
because of physical education, trying to get out of physical education,
than there are boys . . . girls use often the excuse that they are on their
periods, sometimes every week [that they approach him with this] . . .
If the physical education teacher can create a program that is
interesting for the kids, than the class will be more enjoyable and more
likely that the kids will want to stay in the class.
The teacher from School C felt that at his school boys and girls had equal
opportunity to be active. He felt that the program was for everyone. He
stated: “It is not like the boys are working hard and the girls sit down after 15
minutes”. He explained that both boys and girls were more likely to avoid
participating in an activity because they had low confidence in their abilities.
He added that in games where girls have complained about not wanting to
participate, such as football, that they will separate genders and then the girls
are more likely to join in.
The principal from School D felt that boys and girls had equal opportunity
to be active in physical education and at school. He felt that this was because
of changes during the last 5-10 years in regards to the female role models in
sports and coverage of those role models in the media. The principal noted
60
that there were now many athletic role models for girls especially in football
and gymnastics, as those programs in Iceland have been successful and
receive media coverage. The principal was not sure whether or not their
physical education program favoured more the interests of boys. He felt that
it depended on the teachers and whether or not they were bringing in material
that appealed to both genders. He also felt that perhaps it was a judgment of
society to assume that girls were not receiving equal opportunity. He stated,
“We [society] have already decided that girls do not have as much
opportunity as boys, but I do not know if that is the reality”. The principal
furthermore explained that there were many girls that wanted to compete
with the boys, especially the athletic ones, and that until the 8th grade they
were not behind the boys physically in any way. The teacher from School D
felt that at his school boys and girls had equal opportunity to be active in
physical education. He furthermore did not feel that the physical education
program offered at his school favoured more the interests of boys. He
explained that they tried to create a program that appealed to both genders
and that because the most recent curriculum was very open, it included
different goals to achieve, and it encouraged the school to have variety in
their program.
Six out of the eight educators felt that both boys and girls in their school
had equal opportunity to be physically active within physical education and
within their school program. One educator felt that the school could perhaps
become more conscious about whether or not the programs available did
indeed provide equal access. Another educator pointed out that the girls had
equal access to physical education when they were provided with single sex
teaching environments. The question as to whether their physical education
program was more targeted towards the interests of boys left the educators
more divided on the issue. Two educators felt unsure whether or not their
programs were more appealing to boys. At the same time, three educators felt
that the program was appealing to both genders mostly because of the variety
that was offered. On the other hand, three educators felt that the physical
education program was not equally appealing to girls as it was to boys.
Treatment of Male and Female Students
The teachers were asked to explain how they handled teaching boys and girls
differently. The teacher from School A explained “I need to handle them
totally differently, I think it is really fun to be with the boys [teaching single
sex], because they are straight forward, girls more often have some drama”.
The teacher from School B explained that he needed to treat his male and
female students differently. He explained that he had to be really kind to the
girls, especially older students because they were at such a sensitive age,
where they do not feel good and have low confidence. Moreover, that he
61
went as far as he could to reach out to those students. The teacher from
School C explained that boys and girls were treated differently because they
are different. He explained: “Boys are more rowdy and you need to control
them more, girls hold back more and you have to try to encourage them. Of
course you have to treat them differently because they are different”. The
teacher from School D explained that perhaps he treated boys and girls
differently without realizing it. He stated; “One tries to speak with them [the
two genders] the same and we speak mostly to the group as a whole. Where
there are both boys and girls, but the girls listen better, they are quieter than
the boys. Furthermore he added, “when I first started teaching here . . . then I
taught boys only, that was wonderful . . . they [the boys] did not whine . . .
they were so positive”. Two of the teachers seemed to enjoy more teaching
all-boys single sex groupings because the boys were more “straight
forwards” and “did not whine”, while the girls were described as having
“more drama”. At the same time, two of the teachers explained having to
show concern to their female students in order to encourage them to take
part.
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6 Discussion
6.1 Effective Programs and Teaching

There was a general consensus among teachers and principals regarding the
goals of their physical education program and what makes an effective
physical education teacher. The teachers and principals all described the
goals in a similar fashion. They emphasized graduating with a positive
experience of physical activity, as well as experiencing a wide variety of
activities in order to increase the likelihood that students will find an activity
that they enjoy and therefore continue to be physically active. These goals
fall in line with international research, which examines what physical
education programs should include in order to be effective. For example,
Rink and Hall (2008) indicate that effective programs are those, which offer
a wide variety of physical activities in order to for students to acquire a
variety of motor skills and increase their opportunity to enjoy movement.
The teachers and principals in this study were furthermore similarly minded
as to what makes an effective teacher. Every interviewee, with the exception
of one, described being positive, kind, or showing the students individual
concern, as being important characteristics of a physical education teacher.
Another common theme appeared to be the use of variety, as well as the
altering of activities in order to meet more individual needs, in order to be an
effective teacher and to ensure that all students were active during class time.
Rink and Hall’s (2008) research similarly emphasized the importance of
reaching out to the individual student. They found the following to be central
to teaching individuals: the importance of the teachers’ ability to motivate
and challenge students at level-appropriate tasks; to teach the students to use
their own improvement as a measure of success, rather than comparing
themselves to others; and to provide students with quality feedback and
positive reinforcement. The importance of variety as a characteristic of
effective teaching is also reflected in the research. For example, Kirby et al.
(2011) suggested that offering girls in particular more variety of activity
choices allowed them more freedom to choose an activity or sport in which
they felt confident and would therefore increase their likelihood of
participation and level of physical activity.
While the teachers and principals had similar ideas about the goals of
their physical education program and instruction, they had different views
concerning the effectiveness of the program. Three out of the four teachers
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answered positively about their abilities to motivate students towards future
physical activity, whereas, all four principals seemed unsure about whether
or not their program was able to reach out to all individuals. While the
teachers have a more hands on classroom experience of working with their
students, the principals have a different perspective, a more general view of
the students as a whole; the different perspective could affect their opinions
as to whether or not they viewed the program as effective.
The teachers and principals all understood that Icelandic children are not
reaching the 60 minutes of recommended daily physical activity.
Furthermore, every educator interviewed agreed that an increase in the
amount of physical activity provided in the school would be beneficial.
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) argue that children would benefit from daily
physical education because it increases the likelihood that they will reach
their daily recommendations for physical activity. Moreover, Dale, Corbin
and Dale (2000), support that argument with their findings:
That third and fourth graders were significantly more active on days
when they attended physical education class compared to non-physical
education days. Furthermore, this study demonstrated how children did
not compensate after school or in the evenings when school-based
activity, such as physical education, was restricted (p.240).
Kirby et al. (2011) similarly found in their study of physical activity

levels in girls that the strongest predictor of physical activity was total
amount of time spent in physical education. Therefore, the argument that
children are more active on days when they receive physical education and
that physical education is a precursor to physical activity makes a strong case
for providing more physical education in school.

The arrangement of the physical education programs examined in this study
reflected that which Stefánsson (2010) found in his examination of Icelandic
elementary schools; that is, no two schools were alike. Within this current
study, with the exception of swimming, three schools offered coed physical
education classes only. However, within their own classes the teachers would
often divide students into single sex groupings. The age or situation in which
the teachers separated their students by gender depended on the school and
the teacher. For example, School D offered single sex physical education
once a week starting at the 8th grade. The schools in Stefánsson’s study also
demonstrated a combination of different teaching environments. He found
combinations of coed and single sex teaching, coed and occasional single sex
64
teaching and coed only teaching environments. Iceland’s current physical
education curriculum does not dictate what type of environment (coed or
single sex) is optimal for teaching (Ministry of Education, 2007). Schools
therefore have no guidelines to make decisions in this area. Within the
schools examined in this study the principals as well as the department heads
dictated the physical education schedule and classroom makeup. Although
the principals had some familiarity with research regarding coed and single
sex teaching environments, none of the principals were familiar with any
research on this topic within physical education. There is therefore a gap in
knowledge and education among principals regarding the effectiveness or
how and when to use coed and single sex teaching environments in physical
education. As they have no guidelines to work from, the principals used only
their own experience or that of their physical education teachers to make
decisions regarding the arrangement of their physical education programs.
Only one of the four teachers was familiar with research regarding single
sex and coed teaching environments. The opinions observed in this study
from the majority of teachers are therefore entirely experienced based. Based
on this experience, all four teachers found that it was easier to activate girls
in a single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in more
activities more physical in nature and in the upper grades. They were
unanimous that this was especially important for girls (rather than boys) who
displayed more shyness or were less athletically inclined. The teachers
indicated that the less athletically inclined girls were more likely to “hold
back”, display signs of physical self consciousness, or “be passive” when
taking part in physical coed activities (such as team ball sports). Stefánsson
(2010) found that the three elementary teachers interviewed in his study also
indicated that girls tended to be less active during coed experiences of sport,
which were physical in nature specifically, in the upper grades. Similarly, the
teachers interviewed in the Derry (2002) study observed that female students
(ages 12-15), specifically those that were less athletically inclined, were
more likely to display signs of shyness and intimidation and were less likely
to participate in coed groupings. Derry found that 80% of the elementary
school teachers interviewed preferred a single sex teaching environment,
specifically to allow less athletically inclined girls a greater chance to
participate. The Pearson and Web (2010) study also concurred that
elementary school teachers found single sex environments preferable for
increasing the physical activity levels among girls, especially during contact
sports such as soccer, hockey or basketball.
The teachers interviewed in this study had various opinions as to the

benefits or drawbacks that the single sex environment had on boys. One
teacher found that in the upper grades, boys could display signs of self
consciousness and feel embarrassed showing any incompetency to the girls
65
in the coed environment and so a single sex environment would be
preferable. Another teacher found the single sex environment also beneficial
for boys because of a tendency to hold back, “not want to run over girls”. He
also found that less athletically inclined boys would benefit from a single sex
environment because they would not have to display any incompetency to the
girls (in the upper grades). One teacher found that boys who were less
athletically inclined or overweight, would struggle in either environment; but
that more athletic boys would benefit from a single sex environment because
“they would be working at a faster pace”. Another teacher found that boys
who were “calm”, or less athletically inclined could benefit from being
around girls with similar attributes and could struggle in a single sex
environment. The study by Wilson (2010), found that both boys and girls
performed better on physical tests in single sex groupings and the author
theorized that feeling more comfortable in a single sex environment allowed
the students to exert themselves more fully than in the coed environment.
However, Wilson also found that the single sex environment affected the
attitudes of the students. He found that boys who participated in a coed
environment had significantly more positive attitudes towards girls’
participation in sports than did boys in the single sex environment. Pearson
and Web (2010) found overall teachers favoured a single sex environment for
boys because they would have more competition from other boys. The
teachers in the Pearson and Web study indicated that within the single sex
environment both girls and boys whom are less athletically inclined would
feel intimidated by their more dominant peers; they also indicated however
that the less athletically boys would feel incompetent compared to girls with
higher athletic ability in a coed environment. Which environment is best for
the male as compared to the female students, specifically those of lower
athletic ability, seems to be more debatable in the eyes of educators.
It was unanimous among the educators interviewed in this study that it

was useful to have a mix of both coed and single sex teaching environments.
The majority of teachers felt that the single sex teaching should be
emphasized in the upper grades. During the interviews six out of the eight
educators mentioned the importance of social factors within the coed
environment. They indicated that students benefited from being with the
opposite gender because: they could learn from each other, it was “fun” to
have them together, it gave the classes a chance to bound, and it helped break
down masculine and feminine social barriers. As mentioned above, Wilson
(2010) found that boys who participated in a coed environment had a more
positive outlook of their female peers than the boys who participated in a
single sex environment. Furthermore, Ronspies (2011) found that the
majority of students that he interviewed wanted coed physical education in
order to have social time to “show off” or make friends. All four of the
teachers in this study often took part in team teaching which enabled them to
66
split the groups into the divisions they felt were appropriate and were able to
use single sex or coed groupings where they saw it as necessary. The
Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) study argued for the use of both single sex
and coed environments based on the interests of children. Upon interviewing
750 middle school children, they found that girls and boys had dissimilar
interests, for example, boys liked wrestling and girls liked tennis and it could
be appropriate therefore to separate them. Conversely, Greenwood and
Stillwell also found that girls and boys enjoyed similar activities, such as
cycling, and it could therefore be appropriate to have them together for
activities of similar interests.
6.3 Gender Issues

Three out of the four principals interviewed felt that masculine and feminine
stereotypes were influencing the participation of students in certain activities
in physical education. All four of the principals explained that gender issues
were discussed with students as part of their school curriculum. For example,
one principal emphasized the importance of boys and girls participating in
different types of activities to learn that certain activities are not for boys or
girls, but could be participated in by everyone. Three out of the four teachers
found that masculine and feminine stereotypes somewhat influenced their
students’ levels of participation. Those three teachers described more
resistance on the part of their male students to taking part in activities such as
yoga or dance. The teachers furthermore found this to be a valuable
opportunity to discuss stereotypes during class time. The NSW Education
Department (1999-2011b) makes practical recommendations to help improve
rates of physical activity amongst girls, improve equality, and reduce sexism
within the teaching environment. Among other things, the NSW Education
Department encourages schools to discuss with students the construction of
masculinity and femininity in sport as a component of their physical
education program. It appears that the opportunity to discuss socially
constructed stereotypes during class time is critical to helping break down
social barriers (which effect choices of boys and girls) in physical education.
Six out of the eight educators interviewed found that boys and girls within
their schools were provided with equal access to physical education. One
principal responded that they should look into whether or not their program
was providing equal access and another teacher responded that he felt there
was equal access when the students were provided with single sex
environments. In Western society, single sex physical education was the
norm in schools until the late 20th century (source). Laws about education
and gender equality, for example Title IX in the United States (Title IX,
2013), and societal changes led to the physical education environment
67
becoming, for the most part, a coed one (Ronspies, 2011). Having boys and
girls take part in physical education together and completing the same
programs meant that all students had equal access to the same education. It is
therefore no surprise that the majority of the educators interviewed in this
study feel that the access to physical education is equal.
Alternatively, it has been argued that girls are disadvantaged in the coed
environment not just because of physical strength or ability but because the
physical education environment and program has been masculinized since its
beginning. Keay (2007) argues that male educators led the way to many
changes in physical education during the post world war II era, by for
example, increasing the number of competitive sports within the program.
According to Keay, female physical education teachers followed these
changes in order to increase the equality in their program by matching the
girls’ program to that which the boys were being offered. Furthermore Keay
argues that this masculinized physical education environment has changed
very little over the years because educators feel pressured to keep the
environment the same. Although the educators in this study mostly agreed
that their students had equal access to physical education, they were not of
like mind when asked whether or not the program masculinized. Two of the
educators answered that they were unsure whether their program was
targeted towards the interests of boys. Three educators found that their
program was appealing to both genders because of the high degree of variety
of activity offered. At the same time, three educators found that their
physical education was more appealing to boys. For example, one principal
explained that more girls than boys would come to his office with excuses,
trying to get out of physical education, sometimes on a weekly basis. This
gave him the idea that perhaps the physical education program was not as
interesting for girls.
Within this part of the interview and at other times, a theme that arose
from some of the educators concerned the more athletically inclined girls.
The educators indicated that these more athletic girls in particular were
rewarded for their skills in the physical education program, that the program
was perhaps more suited to them, and that the girls themselves enjoyed the
challenge of the coed environment. The Derry (2002) findings agree with the
observations of the teachers in this study. For example, in the Derry study
students were interviewed regarding which type of classroom environment
they preferred, single sex or coed, the majority of girls who responded in
favour of coed classes had rated themselves as highly capable athletes. Derry
also found that the teachers she interviewed observed their highly skilled
female students as more social and active in coed classes than their lesser
skilled peers. In addition, Pearson and Webb (2010) argue that in order for
girls to be seen as capable in sports or to claim respect from their male
68
classmates, they need to achieve the same level of performance as the boys.
This can be seen as related to Keay’s (2007) argument that last century's
adaptation to the more masculine physical education program renders girls
“powerless”. Keay (2007) argues that, it is essential while achieving high
levels of performance, that the girl must maintain her femininity or else be
met with criticism from society.
Keay (2007) suggests that because girls have lowered levels of physical
activity during adolescence and their attitudes towards physical education
become more negative, they are often seen as the problem, instead of the way
in which they are being taught. The teachers in this study were asked to
describe how they treated boys and girls differently. Three out of four were
aware that they treated their male and female students differently. Two of the
four teachers indicated that they enjoyed teaching single sex boys classes or
groupings; making comments such as the boys were more “straight forward”
and “did not whine”, and that the girls had “more drama” to deal with. Two
of the teachers also explained that they found they needed to encourage the
girls to take part or show them more individual concern. Similarly, other
research has shown that teachers in physical education often treat male and
female students differently. For example, Wright (1997) observed that in
coed classes, girls developed more inter-personal relationships with their
teachers, which often seemed to be facilitated or encouraged by the teacher.
Conversely, Wright observed that boys in the coed classes received more
simple instructions, which were task oriented, and they were also subject to
quicker and more frequent discipline. As another example, Rich (2007)
interviewed six female physical education teachers and found that the goals
of those teachers were to encourage and motivate girls into more sports and
physical education participation. The teachers in the Rich study believed that
changing the girls’ attitudes about sport and physical education was the key
factor, not changing the physical education environment. It is of course a
natural instinct on the part of the physical education teachers to want to
encourage and motivate their less active female students to increase their
levels of participation. Perhaps though, as Fairclough and Stratton (2005)
argue, there would be value in understanding the perception of the girls in
order to increase their enjoyment of physical activity during lessons and help
them understand the relevance of physical education.
69
7 Conclusion
Physical education school programs internationally and in Iceland are
designed to provide students with physical activity and give them the tools
they need to engage in lifelong physical activity. If physical activity
decreases in adolescence and girls are less active than boys overall, then the
effectiveness of physical education as well as the experience of girls requires
investigation. It was the research goal of this paper to explore current beliefs
about the effectiveness and value of physical education, gender issues within
the physical education system, as well as the value of coed and same sex
physical education in Akureyri, Iceland.
It can be considered a positive reflection on the schools that the educators

interviewed in this study all had similar, if not identical goals for their
physical education programs as well as, what it meant to be an effective
physical education teacher. There was a general emphasis that students
should have a positive experience of physical activity, experience a variety of
physical activities; and that an effective teacher pays attention to individuals
and meets individual needs. The teachers in this study found they were better
able to meet the individual needs of their students through the flexibility they
had in their teaching environment; and were unanimous that the use of both
single sex and coed environments was useful. For example, the teachers in
this study found that by using single sex groupings, they were better able to
activate less athletically inclined girls in the upper grades, specifically during
activities that were more physical in nature. The teachers were not in
complete consensus as to whether this separation was beneficial for boys;
however most felt that the boys could benefit from the opportunity to be
more active in the single sex environment.
Classroom experience is an undeniably valuable tool for helping teachers

to plan what they feel is the most effective education program or teaching
environment. However, it was surprising to learn that so few of the educators
had read literature regarding single sex and coed environments; and it
seemed that any research the educator had examined on the topic was
because of their own personal interest and not through formal education. It
can be argued that, as the use of single sex and coed teaching environments is
a relevant part of physical education, all of the educators in this study or
elsewhere would benefit from the opportunity to receive formal education
regarding the use of the single sex and coed teaching environments, in order
to learn about the most effective situations in which to implement them.
71
Although all educators had similar goals for their physical education
programs, there was no consensus as to whether or not their physical
education programs were meeting those goals. Furthermore, although the
majority of educators believed that their physical education program allowed
equal access to male and female students, many of the educators believed
that masculine and feminine stereotypes influenced the levels or participation
in students in certain activities, and some of the educators felt that their
programs may be more targeted towards male students or were unsure
whether their programs effectively met the needs of both genders. However,
on a positive note, it was obvious that many of the educators felt that the
influences of these masculine and feminine stereotypes were not as
prominent as they once were. In addition, the educators seemed to feel that
they were able to handle discussions of masculine and feminine stereotypes
when they arose. It was also positive that the teachers found overall, that the
variety of activity, the opportunity for individualized teaching, as well as the
ability to group their students as they saw appropriate, encouraged more
overall participation.
It seems that the participation of girls during physical sports can be

increased during single sex groupings; which perhaps indicates that
participation itself in more physical sports by girls is not as taboo as it once
was. Conversely, as pointed out during the study by several educators, it was
the boys who often resisted participation in more feminine activities. It
would be interesting to look at whether an increase of activities such as
dance, gymnastics or yoga during the early grades would have a positive
effect on the outlook of male students as they continue through the school
system.
Although this study was small in size, it offered many interesting insights
as to how effective educators see their programs, the different ways in which
teachers are motivating students and the many gender issues which have
improved or which still impact current teaching methods. It is the main
conclusion of this study that if the schools within this study or elsewhere
want to meet the goals of their physical education programs, and help
decrease the gender gap that is evident in physical activity during
adolescence, perhaps then they need to look at whether their programs are
truly meeting the needs of both genders. Further studies could include
reaching out to the students themselves, in order to learn about their interests,
how they feel about physical education programs, different ways to motivate
them, and subsequently implementing change.
72
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of a Gender Biased Sport Value System. Advancing Women in
Leadership. Retrieved, June 25th 2013 from:
http://www.advancingwomen.com/awl/winter2001/everhart_pe
mberton.html
Gunnarsdóttir, G. (2005). Börn og hreyfin – þáttur foreldra og skóla.

Reykjavik. Lýðheilsustöð. Retrieved, June 25th 2013 from:
http://www.landlaeknir.is/heilsa-og-
lidan/hreyfing/greinar/grein/item14788/Born-og-hreyfing---
thattur-foreldra-og-skola
ParticipACTION, (2011). Parental Influence on Children's Physical

Activity. Retrieved June 25th 2013 from:
http://www.participaction.com/pdf/November_ResearchFile_En
g.pdf
Penney, D. (2010) Recent research into the value of quality physical

education and school sport. Department of Education and Early
Childhood Development, Victoria and School Sport Victoria.
Retrieved June 27th 2013 from:
http://www.activate.vic.edu.au/__files/f/1253/Value%20of%20a
%20quality%20PE%20program.pdf
Public Health Office (Embætti landlæknis – directorate of health).

Lýðheilsutöð (n.d.). Ráðleggingar um hreyfingu. Retreived 25th
June 2013 from: http://www.landlaeknir.is/utgefid-
efni/skjal/item11179/
Right to play. (2012). Sport and gender: Empowering girls and

women. Toronto. Retrieved Semptember 1st, 2014 from:
http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/sport/shared/sport/SDP%20
IWG/Chapter4_SportandGender.pdf
The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities

(1997). The NSW Schools Fitness and Physical Activity Survery.
Retrieved June 28th 2013 from:
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/
pdhpe/assets/pdf/gipa_002.pdf
79
The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities.
(1999-2011a).   Personal Development, Health and Physical
Education (PDHPE). Retrieved June 28th 2013, from: whole
school problem. Retrieved June 28th 2013 from:
pdhpe/pdhpe7_10/physical_activity/gipa_003.htm
The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities.

(1999-2011b).   Personal Development, Health and Physical
Education (PDHPE). Retrieved June 28th 2013 from:
pdhpe/pdhpe7_10/physical_activity/gipa_009.htm
Women’s Sports Foundation. (2013). History of title IX. Retrieved.

June 25th 2013 from:
http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/home/advocate/title-ix-
and-issues
World Health Organization (2010). Global recommendations on

physical activity for health. Retrieved June 14th 2013 from
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599979_eng
.pdf
World Health Organization (2012). Childhood obesity. Retrieved June

14th 2013 from
http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/childhood/Childhood_o
besity_modified_4june_web.pdf
World Health Organization (2014). Obesity and overweight. Retrieved

September 1st 2014 from:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
80
Appendix
Appendix 1 Teachers’ Interview Template English and Icelandic ...............82
Appendix 2 Principals’ Interview Template English and Icelandic ..............89
81
Appendix 1 Teachers’ Interview Template English and Icelandic
English Template
School Program:
 Which grades are you currently teaching

 How long have you been a teacher?
 What experience do you have teaching single sex and coed physical
education?
 How many physical education classes do students receive per week
at your school?
 How are those classes split? Are boys and girls separated? Which
grades specifically does this effect?
 How is the physical education program set up/managed? Who makes
the decisions concerning the schedule?
 Why is the physical education program set up the way it is? What is
the thinking behind this?
 What would you say the goals of your physical education program
are for students? For example, what do you want them to graduate
with knowledge/experience of?
 Would you include daily physical education into your school
program if you could? What kinds of barriers prevent that from
happening?
 Do you feel that your physical education program motivates students
to be active after graduating from your school and for life? How so?
Health:
 Are you aware that 2/3‘s of children in Iceland do not meet the
recommended 60 minutes of physical activity daily?
82
 Is your school concerned about lack of physical activity and is the
school taking any initiatives to help promote physical activity or
improve this?
 Do you notice a decline in physical activities levels as students reach
adolescents? In what way does that present itself? Is there anything
the school is doing to promote physical activity in this age group
specifically?
Effective Physical Education:
 What kinds of steps are taken to ensure that all students are active?
 What do you feel makes an effective physical education teacher?
 What kind of bullying/teasing happens in physical education classes?
Are less skilled boys and girls often victims of teasing? Do you
notice these effects their level of engagement in class?
 Have you noticed that girls in general are teased more?
 Do you see more skilled children enjoying physical education classes
more?
 Do you feel that providing a greater variety of activities in physical
education is necessary in getting all students active, specifically
girls?
Gender issues:
 Do you see evidence in your classes that some children feel that it is
not appropriate for them in certain activities because they are too
“masculine” or “feminine”? What activities are they?
 Do you think ideas of masculinity and femininity in sports effects
their decision to enroll in sports associations outside of school?
 Is there anything you do to teach children the level of masculinity or
femininity in a sport is socially constructed?
83
 Do you feel you need to treat boys and girls differently in physical
education? How so?
 Do you feel that boys and girls are given equal access to be
physically active in physical education and other opportunities at
school such as recess?
 Do you feel the physical education environment in general favors
boys more? Or is more masculinized? How so?
 Do you feel that girls need to “play like boys” in order to be
considered skillful in sports?
Single sex vs. coed:
 Do you find girls physically self conscious in coed?

 Do you find less athletically inclined girls more shy in coed; do they
take less part in activities?
 Do you feel that girls are more comfortable in a single sex
environment? How so?
 Do you feel that boys are more comfortable in a single sex
environment? How so?
 Is there one type of environment that you feel requires more behavior
management?
 Are there some situations that you feel would be more appropriate
for single sex or coed teaching, what are they? Does age of the
student affect this?
 Do you think lesser skilled boys and girls have a more difficult time
in one type of environment or another?
 What do you think the social consequences are for single sex or coed
environments?
 Have you read any studies concerning the different environments
84
 Do you feel that the program could be changed to benefit all students
better, regardless of gender or level of ability?
 What would be your ideal set up of a physical education program?
Icelandic Template
School Program:
 Hvaða aldri/bekkjum kennir þú núna?

 Hvað ert þú búin/n að kenna lengi?
 Hefur þú reynslu af því að kenna bæði kynjaskiptum íþróttatímum og
blönduðum?
 Hversu margar kennslustundir í íþróttum fær hver nemandi á viku?
 Hvernig er íþróttatímunum skipt? Eru stelpur og strákar saman í
tímum eða í sitthvoru lagi?
 Hver sér um að setja upp íþróttakennsluna og hver stjórnar því
hvernig henna er háttað? Hver er það sem tekur ákvarðanir í
sambandi við stundatöfluna og skipulagið? Hvernig er þetta ferli?
 Hvers vegna er íþróttakennslan skipulögð á þennan tiltekna hátt?
Hver er hugmyndafræðin á bak við það?
 Hver eru markmið skipulagsins ykkar í íþróttakennslunni fyrir
nemendur? Hvaða þekkingu/reynslu eruð þið að vonast eftir að
nemendur ykkar hafi að loknu námi?
 Mynduð þið hafa einhverskonar íþróttakennslu á hverjum degi ef það
væri mögulegt? Hvaða hindranir eru til staðar sem koma í veg fyrir
það?
 Finnst þér að íþróttakennslan ykkar stuðli/hvetji nemendur ykkar til
að hreyfa sig þegar út lífið er komið? Ef svo er þá hvernig?
Health:
85
 Eru kennarar skólans þíns meðvitaðir um að 2/3 af íslenskum
börnum ná ekki 60 mínútum af ráðlagði daglegri hreyfingu?
 Er __________ skóli með áhyggjur af þessu? Er skólinn að gera
eitthvað (prógram eða frumkvæði) til að hvetja nemendur til að vera
meira líkamlega virkir?
 Tekur þú eftir því að nemendur eru minna líkamlega virkir á
unglingsaldri. Hvernig er það sýnilegt? Er eitthvað gert í þínum skóla
sérstaklega fyrir þennan aldurshóp?
Effective PE:
 Hvaða skref eru tekin í íþróttatíma til að tryggja að allir nemendur

hreyfi sig eitthvað?
 Hvað finnst þér að geri íþróttakennara að góðum íþróttakennara
(aðalatriði)?
 Er einelti til staðar í íþróttatímum? Ef svo er hvernig birtist það? Eru
þeir sem hafa minni hæfileika í íþróttum oftar fórnarlömb eineltis
eða strítt oftar? Finnst þér það trufla þátttöku þeirra í
íþróttatímunum?
 Hefur þú tekið eftir því að stelpum sé strítt meira en strákum?
 Finnst þér að nemendur sem hafa meiri íþróttahæfileika njóti sín
betur í íþróttatímum?
 Telur þú að aukin fjölbreyttni í íþróttatímum sé nauðsynleg til að fá
alla nemendur til að taka þátt og þá sérstaklega stelpur?
Gender issues:
 Tekur þú eftir því í íþróttatímum hjá þér að nemendur telji að

tilteknar æfingar séu ekki við hæfi vegan þess að þær séu of
"karlmannlegar" eða "kvenlegar"? Hvaða æfingar gætu það verið?
 Heldur þú að hugmyndir um karlmennsku og kvenleika í íþróttum
hafa áhrif á ákvörðun nemenda að skrá sig í íþróttafélög utan skóla?
86
 Er eitthvað sem þú gerir til að kenna börnum hvernig hugmyndir um
karlmennsku eða kvenleika íþróttum eru félagslega smíðaðar (til
dæmis með umræðum)?
 Finnst þér að þú þurfir að koma öðruvísi fram við stráka og stelpur í
íþróttatímum?
 Finnst þér að strákum og stelpum séu gefin jöfn tækifæri til að vera
líkamlega virk í íþróttum og í öðrum tímum í skólanum, eins og í
frímínútum?
 Heldur þú að íþróttkennsla höfði meira til stráka? Eða sé
“karlmannlegri”? Ef svo er, þá hvernig?
 Finnst þér að stelpur þurfi að “spila eins og strákar” til að ná góðum
árangri í íþróttum?
Single sex vs. coed:
 Finnst þér stelpur vera meðvitaðari um líkama sinn blönduðum

íþróttatímum?
 Finnst þér að stelpur með minni íþróttahæfileika vera feimnari í
blönduðum tímum? Er þátttaka þeirra minni?
 Finnst þér að stelpur séu öruggari í kynjaskiptum íþróttatímum? Ef
svo er hvernig þá?
 Finnst þér að strákar séu öruggari í kynjaskiptum tímum? Ef svo er
hvernig þá?
 Þarf meiri agastjórnun í kynjaskiptum tímum eða blönduðum tímum?
 Eru sumar æfingar eða tímar sem þér finnst að henti betur að hafa
kynjaskipta eða blandaða kennslu? Getur aldur skipt máli hvort henti
betur?
 Eiga strákar eða stelpur sem hafa minni íþróttahæfileika erfiðara með
að vera í kynjaskiptum tímum eða blönduðum tímum?
87
 Hvaða félagsleg áhrif heldur þú að kynjaskiptir eða blandaðir tímar
hafi?
 Hefur þú lesið einhverjar rannsóknir um mismunandi umhverfi í
íþróttakennslunni (kynjaskipt/blandað)? Ef svo er hvað finnst þér?
 Telur þú hægt sé að breyta íþróttatímum/kennslunni til að gagnast
öllum nemendum betur, óháð kyni eða hversu hæfir þeir eru?
 Hvernig myndi draumauppsetningin þín líta út?
88
Appendix 2 Principals’ Interview Template English and Icelandic
English Template
School Program:
 How long have you been school principal? What is your previous
teaching experience?
 How many physical education classes do students receive per week?
 How are those classes split? Are boys and girls separated? Which
grades specifically does this effect?
 How is the physical education program set up/managed? Who makes
the decisions concerning the schedule?
 Why is the physical education program set up the way it is? What is
the thinking behind this?
 What would you say the goals of your physical education program
are for students? What do you want them to graduate with
knowledge/experience of?
 Would you include daily physical education into your school
program if you could? What kinds of barriers prevent that from
happening?
 Do you feel that your physical education program motivates students
to be active after graduating from your school and for life? How so?
 Do you feel that physical education is critical part of the school
program because it can have positive academic benefits? What
would you say those benefits are?
 What do you feel makes an effective physical education teacher?
Health:
 Are you aware that 2/3‘s of children in Iceland do not meet the
recommended 60 minutes of physical activity daily?
89
 Is your school concerned about lack of physical activity and is the
school taking any initiatives to help promote physical activity or
improve this?
 Do you notice a decline in physical activities levels as students reach
adolescents? In what way does that present itself? Is there anything
the school is doing to promote physical activity in this age group
specifically?
Gender Issues:
 Are you aware of the potential benefits of single sex vs. coed
teaching environments?
 Have you read any studies concerning the different environments
 Do you see evidence in your students that some children feel that it is
not appropriate for them in certain activities because they are too
“masculine” or “feminine”? What activities are they?
 Do you think ideas of masculinity and femininity in sports effects
their decision to enroll in sports associations outside of school?
 Is there anything you do to teach children about construction of
masculinities and feminities?
 Do you feel that boys and girls are given equal access to be
physically active in physical education and other opportunities at
school such as recess?
 Do you feel the physical education environment in general favors
boys more? Or is more masculinized? How so?
 What do you feel would be the idealized set up your physical
education program concerning single sex vs. coed teaching
environments?
90
Icelandic Template
School Program:
 Hvað ert þú búin(n) að vera skólastjóri lengi? Hvaða fag kenndir þú

áður?
 Hversu margar kennslustundir í íþróttum fær hver nemandi á viku?
 Hvernig er íþróttatímunum skipt? Eru stelpur og strákar saman í
tímum eða í sitthvoru lagi?
 Hver sér um að setja upp íþróttakennsluna og hver stjórnar því? Hver
er það sem tekur ákvarðanir í sambandi við stundatöfluna og
skipulagið? Hvernig er þetta ferli?
 Hvers vegna er íþróttakennslan skipulögð á þennan tiltekna hátt?
Hver er hugmyndafræðin á bak við það?
 Hver eru markmið skipulagsins ykkar í íþróttakennslunni fyrir
nemendur? Hvaða þekkingu/reynslu eruð þið að vonast eftir að
nemendur ykkar hafi að loknu námi?
 Mynduð þið hafa einhverskonar íþróttakennslu á hverjum degi ef það
væri mögulegt? Hvaða hindranir eru til staðar sem koma í veg fyrir
það?
 Finnst þér að íþróttakennslan ykkar stuðli/hvetji nemendur ykkar til
að hreyfa sig þegar út lífið er komið? Ef svo er þá hvernig?
 Finnst þér íþróttakennsla vera nausynleg fyrir nemendur í skólanum?
Telur þú að íþróttir geti haft jákvæð áhrif á menntun? Með hvaða
hætti?
 Hvað finnst þér að geri íþróttakennara að góðum íþróttakennara
(aðalatriði)?
Health:
 Eru kennarar skólans þíns meðvitaðir um að 2/3 af íslenskum

börnum ná ekki 60 mínútum af ráðlagði daglegri hreyfingu?
91
 Er __________ skóli með áhyggjur af þessu? Er skólinn að gera
eitthvað (prógram eða frumkvæði) til að hvetja nemendur til að vera
meira líkamlega virkir?
 Tekur þú eftir því að nemendur eru minna líkamlega virkir á
unglingsaldri. Hvernig er það sýnilegt? Er eitthvað gert í þínum skóla
sérstaklega fyrir þetta aldursstig?
Gender Issues:
 Finnst þér vera hugsanlegur ávinningur af því að kenna íþróttir

kynjaskipt? En bæði kyn saman?
 Hefur þú lesið einhverjar rannsóknir um mismunandi umhverfi í
íþróttakennslunni (kynjaskipt/blandað)? Ef svo er hvað finnst þér?
 Tekur þú eftir því að nemendur telji að tiltekin verkefni í almennum
kennslustundum séu ekki við hæfi vegna þess að þau séu of
"karlmannleg" eða "kvenleg"?
 Finnst þér hugmyndir um karlmennsku og kvenleika í íþróttum hafa
áhrif á ákvörðun nemenda að skrá sig í íþróttafélög utan skóla?
 Er eitthvað sem skólinn gerir til að kenna börnum hvernig
hugmyndir um karlmennska eða kvenleika íþróttum eru félagslega
smíðaðar (til dæmis með umræðum)?
 Finnst þér að strákum og stelpum séu gefin jöfn tækifæri til að vera
líkamlega virk í íþróttum og í öðrum tímum í skólanum eins og í
frímínútum?
 Finnst þér að íþróttkennsla höfði meira til stráka? Eða séu
“karlmannlegri”? Ef svo er þá hvernig?
 Hvernig myndi draumauppsetningin þín líta út?
92
Volleyball
Workouts To
Try at Home
PHYSED 4:
Team Sports
Module 3 (Additional Inputs)

Prepared By: Ma. Fe F. Agot
Lesson Objectives:
1. recall the different volleyball skills and official’s hand signals,

2. familiarize the different Volleyball workouts,
3. appreciate the benefits of Volleyball workouts at home; and
4. execute properly the different workout drills in Volleyball.
Let’s Recall! ☺
How about the different
skills and officiating hand
signals in Volleyball, can
you still remember ? ☺
SPIKING/ATTACKING AND DIGGING
For more reviews just follow this link:
https://prezi.com/p/qcfsiejnvqh7/volleyball-skills/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=33sWyhjhacM
Volleyball Drills to Do at Home In sports like volleyball, it can
Without a Net or Court be difficult to keep up with
your practice when you don't
have immediate access to a
court. Whether you play for a
school and don't want your
skills to atrophy over summer
break or you joined a new
gym that doesn't have a
volleyball court, you may be in
need of some drills you can
run at home or outdoors
without a net.
6 At-Home Volleyball Practice
Techniques:
https://youtu.be/mpH_uZiQZF8
https://youtu.be/ZHehqp5HYS4
https://youtu.be/qWwGYtrEXqk
https://youtu.be/5z1gX9BfsEw
https://youtu.be/dScC-BAYBnI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBjR96TidOw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w8juY-jSJXk
4-day plan: Volleyball
workouts at home -
The Art of Coaching
Volleyball
Author: Marie Zideck

Head Coach of DePaul University
Source:
https://www.theartofcoachingvolleyball
.com/volleyball-home-workouts/
Day 1:
Bodyweight Strength
& Conditioning
Day 2:
Jumping, Stability &
Agility
Day 3:
Full Body Strength
Day 4:
Agility and
Conditioning
“Having great skills is awesome, but when
you are always striving to learn new
strategies and even come up with your
own, you can really grow in the sport and
can become a top athlete in your school,
your league, or your nation.”
—whitney_185
References:
https://prezi.com/p/qcfsiejnvqh7/volleyball-skills/
https://www.theartofcoachingvolleyball.com/volleyball-home-workouts/
https://howtheyplay.com/team-sports/Volleyball-Drills-to-do-at-Home
http://www.fivb.org/en/refereeing-rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf
https://www.slidesgo.com
Photo Credits:
http://www.suvolleyball.com/news/1608/volleyball-skills-model-provided-by-volleyball-australia/
https://southernconf_ftp.sidearmsports.com/custompages/socon/members_only/Rules/2013-
14/Volleyball_Signals.pdf
https://depaulbluedemons.com/sports/womens-volleyball/roster/coaches/marie-zidek/344
https://www.giphy.com
https://www.pinterest.com

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TEAM SPORTS

TEAM SPORTS AND GAMES

MILA ETHEL B. DE LOS REYES, MAEd

Lesson 1: Introduction of Volleyball and Basic Concepts

Lesson 1: Brief History, Basic Concepts of the Game, Facility

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

Volleyball service team-sports six players

1. Who invented the Volleyball?

July 7, 1896 – Volleyball was first played at Springfield, Massachusetts, USA.

II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE GAME:

The Ball is “OUT” when:

III. FACILITY AND EQUIPMENT

Free Playing Space – 12.5 m in height from the playing surface.

Lines on the Court:

Zones and Areas:

Substitution Zone – is limited by the extension of both attack lines up to

Warm-up Area – sized approximately 3 x 3m are located in both of the

Diagram1. Playing Area

a. Ball – Shall be spherical

Material – Flexible Rod, 1.80m long and 10mm in diameter; made of

Your work will be graded according to these criteria:

Your work will be graded according to these criteria:

Lesson 2: Playing Format, Rules of the Game, Violations,

Lesson 2: Playing Format, Rules of the Game,

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the important rules to be remembered in playing volleyball;

photo source: Western New England Board of Volleyball Officials

source:volleywood.net source:sport.stackexchange.com source:betteratvolleyball.com

and winning a match the sport volleyball:

B. Rules for Playing the Game

The following are some basic volleyball rules for violations.

II. PLAYER SPECIALIZATION & THEIR POSITIONS:

For additional reading and analysis:

For more info refer to this link:

Lesson 1: Pass, Set/Toss, Types of Service, Attack,

Lesson 1: Pass, Set/Toss, Types of Service, Attack,

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. After watching, answer the questions to explore the

3. Underhand & Overhand Serve

Photo source: Volleyball-basics.weebly.com

Photo source: Volleyball-basics.weebly.com

*Instructional video for Underhand Serve:

Photo source: Volleyball-basics.weebly.com

*Instructional video for over serves:

2.Serve Tips – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyR2IqKQt_o

Blocking an opponent’s serve is forbidden.

Photo source: Leake, Jon (History of Volleyball)

Photo source: Volleyball-court-central.com

Elaborate: *see appendices for the rubric on volleyball on scoring

Instructions: Using the insights you have gained from the

____3. This skill is also called reception.

Approved by the 35th FIVB Congress 2016

Published by FIVB in 2016 – www.fivb.com

Design and layout: Samuel Chesaux

Illustrations: © FIVB 2014

Approved by the 35th FIVB Congress 2016

To be implemented in all competitions beginning after 1st January 2017

OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES 2017-2020 1

PART 1: PHILOSOPHY OF RULES AND REFEREEING 8

PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME 11

CHAPTER 1: FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 12

6 TO SCORE A POINT, TO WIN A SET AND THE MATCH...........................................................22

CHAPTER 4: PLAYING ACTIONS 27

OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES 2017-2020 3