Chapter 2 Llorca

CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:
Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning;

Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and
arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
Apply the Polya's four-step in problem solving.
Organize one's method and procedures for proving and solving
problems.
Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:
Articulate the importance of mathematics in one's life.

Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in
life.
Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to
various human endeavors.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
"The definition of a good mathematical problem is the
mathematics it generates rather than the problem
itself."
- Andrew Wiles
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Unit 3.1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Unit 3.2: Intuition, Proof and Certainty
Unit 3.3: Polya's Four-Steps in Problem Solving
Unit 3.4: Problem Solving Strategies
Unit 3.5: Mathematical Problems involving Patterns
Unit 3.6: Recreational Problems using Mathematics
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.1 Inductive and
Deductive Reasoning
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Is drawing a general conclusion from a repeated observation or limited
sets of observations of specific examples.
The conclusion drawn by using inductive reasoning is called

CONJECTURE.
The conjecture may be true or false depending on the truthfulness of
the argument. A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in
all cases and it only takes one example to prove the conjecture is false,
such example is called a counterexample.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
1 is an odd number.
11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Therefore, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all test are difficult.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Mark is a Science teacher.

Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teacher is bald.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Is drawing general to specific examples or simply from general case to
specific case.
Example:
All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
specific case.
Example:
Christopher is sick.
If Christopher is sick, he won't be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won't be able to go to work.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
specific case.
Example:
All Science teachers are bald.

Mark is a Science teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.
Note: Logical reasoning maybe valid but not necessarily true.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.2 INtuition, proofs
and certainty
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INTUITION, PROOFS AND CERTAINTY
In mathematical practice, intuitive can be found in all places such as
mathematical literature and in mathematical discovery.
"Mathematical
Intuition"
Srinivasa Ramanujan G. H. Hardy
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INTUITION
Is a reliable mathematical belief without being formalized and proven
directly.
It carries a heavy load of mystery and ambiguity and it is also
somewhat dangerous, illegitimate substitute for a formal proof.
Intuitive is the counterpart of rigorous. Being rigorous is not
completely clear and never gives precise meaning.
The intuitive version has a meaning, a referent in the domain of
visualized curves and surfaces, which is absent from the rigorous
formal or abstract version.
Intuitive is superior it contains a valuable quality the rigorous
version lacks.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
INTUITION
Intuitive has different meanings like plausible, or convincing in the
absence of proof, incomplete, holistic or integrative as opposed to
detailed or analytic.
Intuition is vague as it changes from one usage to another.
REALISTIC ANALYSIS OF MATHEMATICAL INTUITION SHOULD BE A CENTRAL GOAL OF

THE PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
PROOF
Is an Inferential argument for a mathematical statement.
It can use axioms which are denoted as self-evident or assumed
statements along with accepted rules of inference.
Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning.
A mathematical proof demonstrates that a certain statement is always
true in all possible cases. An unproved proposition that is believed
to be true is known as a conjecture.
The efforts to prove a conjecture, requires a good understanding of
the theory being tested.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
CERTAINTY
The need for certainty is inherited from the ancient past, and is
religiously motivated.
Its validity is independent of its history and its motivation.
When a mathematical knowledge is correctly formulated, it is forever
beyond error and correction.
Mathematics has no problem of being certain, for certainty is just an
essential defining attribute of mathematics and mathematical
knowledge.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.3 Polya’s 4 steps in
problem solving
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
POLYA’S 4 STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM.
Figure out what is being asked. What is known? What is not known? What
type of answer is required? Is the problem similar to other problems
you’ve seen? Are there any important terms for which you should look up
definitions?
Example:
There are 22 total students. There are three groups of students: Students who only play
recorder, students who only sing in choir, and students who do both. Initially, we do not
know how many students are in any of these groups, but we know the total of the three
groups adds up to 22. We also know that a total of 8 students play the recorder, and a
total of 20 students sing in the choir. We must find the number of students who do both.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
2. MAKE A PLAN
Come up with some strategies for solving the problem. Common strategies
include making a list,drawing a picture, eliminating possibilities, using
a formula, guessing and checking, and solving a simpler, related problem.
Example:
We could list out the 22 students and then assign to each either recorder,
choir, or both until we got the right totals. We could draw a Venn Diagram that
separates out the three types of groups. We could try solving a similar problem
with a class of fewer students.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3. EXECUTE THE PLAN.
Use the strategy chosen in Step 2 to solve the problem. If you encounter
difficulties using the strategy, you may want to use resources such as
the textbook to help. If the strategy itself appears not to be working,
return to Step 2 and select a different strategy.
Example:
Let’s try solving a similar problem with a class of 6 students, 5 of whom play
recorder and 3 of whom are in the choir. In this case, we know that there is only one
student who doesn’t play recorder, and so this student must sing in the choir. That
means the other two choir singers must play the recorder, so there are 2 students who
do both.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3. EXECUTE THE PLAN.
Use the strategy chosen in Step 2 to solve the problem. If you encounter
difficulties using the strategy, you may want to use resources such as
the textbook to help. If the strategy itself appears not to be working,
return to Step 2 and select a different strategy.
Example:
Now, let’s try that same method with the original problem. Since only 8 of the 22
students play recorder, the other 14 must sing in the choir and not play recorder.
But there are 20 students in the choir, so 6 of these choir students also play the
recorder. So the answer is 6.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
4. LOOK BACK AND REFLECT
Part of Step 4 is to find a way to check your answer, preferably using a

different method than what you used to solve the problem. Another part of
Step 4 is to evaluate the method you used to solve the problem. Was it
effective? Are there ways you could have made it more effective? Are
there other types of problems with which you might be able to use this
type of solution method?
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example:
Let’s check our answer with a Venn Diagram, which
was one of the other strategies we considered in
RECORDER CHOIR Step 2. We first fill in each region based on the
2 6 14
results we found in Step 3. Now we check to see if
the numbers match the original problem. Notice that
2 + 6 + 14 = 22 total students, 2 + 6 = 8 students
BOTH
playing the recorder, and 6 + 14 = 20 students in
choir. So our answer checks out!
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example:
Looking back on our answer, we now see that our
RECORDER CHOIR process of subtracting from the total can be
used in any similar situation, as long as all
2 6 14
students must be in at least one of the two groups.
In the future, we wouldn’t even have to use the
BOTH simpler related problem since we’ve found a
more general pattern!
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.4 PROBLEM SOLVING
STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
POLYA’S FOUR STEPS
Understand the problem

Devise a plan
Carry out the plan
Look back
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 1:
Suppose the NCAA Basketball

championships is decided on a
best of five series game. In
how many different ways can a
team to win the championship?
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 1:
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
The team may have won three

straight games (WWW). There
are also other possibilities
such as WWLW, WLWW or WLWLW.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 1:
STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN
Make an organized list of all

possible orders.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 1:
STEP 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN
Use a strategy to each order. One strategy is to start to write Ws,

then write L if it is not possible to write W. This strategy produces
10 different orders.
WWW WLWLW
WWLW LWWW
WWLLW LWWLW
WLWW LWLWW
WLLWW LLWWW
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 1:
STEP 4: LOOK BACK
WWW WLWLW
WWLW LWWW
WWLLW LWWLW
WLWW LWLWW
WLLWW LLWWW
The list above is organized

and contains no duplications.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 2:
Two times the sum of a number

and 3 is equal to thrice the
number plus 4. Find the number
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 2:
Read the question carefully.

We will let x be a number.

We will translate the problem
mathematically.
2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
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Problem Solving
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Example 2:
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Example 2:
We solve for the value of x,

algebraically.
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Example 2:
STEP 4: LOOK BACK
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Problem Solving
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Example 3:
Three siblings Sofia, Achaiah and
Riana. Sofia gave Achaiah and
Riana as much money as each had.
Then Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana
as much money as each had. Then
Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as
much money as each had. Then each
of the three had P128. How much
money did each have originally?
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 3:
Carefully analyze the problem.
We will be working backwards.
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Problem Solving
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Example 3:
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Problem Solving
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Example 3:
STEP 4: LOOK BACK
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 4:
If the length of the top of a

rectangle is 15 inches more than
its width and the area is 1,350
square inches. Find the
dimensions of the table.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 4:
We are looking for the length and

width of the rectangular table.
Length is 15 longer than width (l

= 15 + w).
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 4:
Apply the area of the rectangular

formula.
Area = lw
1,350 = (15 + w)w
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 4:
STEP 4: LOOK BACK
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.5 Mathematical
Problems Involving
Patterns
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS
Mathematics is useful to predict and number pattern is about

prediction. Number pattern can also be applied to problem solving whether
a pattern is present and can be used to generalize a solution to a
problem. Pattern can be in the form counting up or down and the missing
number is of the form of completing count up or down. One of the most
famous number patterns is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, … the Fibonacci
sequence. Some types of pattern are prime number pattern, imaginary
number pattern, geometric number pattern, and growing number pattern.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive
integers. The function values a₁, a₂, a₃, a₄, …, an-1, an, … are terms of
the sequence. If the domain of the function consists of the first n
positive integers only, the sequence is a finite sequence.
Example 1: Identify whether the following are finite or infinite sequence.
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Finite Sequence
b. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
c. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ….
d. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … Infinite Sequence
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
A general sequence a₁, a₂, a₃, a₄, …, an-1, an, … having a first term
a₁, the second term is a₂, the third term a₃, and the nth term, also called
the general term of the sequence, is an.
Example 2: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given
by the formula an = 3 n+1.
Solution: an = 3n+1
a1 = 3(1)+1 = 3+1 = 4 Replace n by 1.
a2 = 3(2)+1 = 6+1 = 7 Replace n by 2.
a3 = 3(3)+1 = 9+1 = 10 Replace n by 3.
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, and 10.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
A difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the

sequence. The differences in rows may be the first, second, and third
differences. In the first differences, each number in the first row of
the table is the differences between the closest numbers just above it
(subtract the upper left number to the upper right number). If the first
differences are not the same, compute the successive differences of the
first differences (called the second and third differences).
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 3: Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each
sequence.
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, … b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, … c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …
Solution:
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 4: Determine the nth term formula for the following polygonal numbers
in the nth figure: (a) triangular number; (b) square number; (c)
pentagonal number; and (d) hexagonal number.
Solution: A polygonal number is a type of figurative number represented as
dots or pebbles arranged in the shape of a regular polygon.
a. Triangular Number Observed that the number sequence is
n=1 1
n=2 1+2=3
n=3 1+2+3=6
n=4 1+2+3+4=6
n=5 1+2+3+4+5= 15
n=6 1+2+3+4+5+6=21
Which can be generalized as Tn = 1+2+3+ … +(n-1)+n=½(n²+n)
Expanding the triangular number sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, …
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Problem Solving
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b. Square Number Observed that the number sequence is
n=1 1²=1
n=2 2²=4
n=3 3²=9
n=4 4²=16
n=5 5²=25
n=6 6²=36
which can be generalized as Sn = ½(2n²- 0n) = n2
Expanding the square number sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …
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Problem Solving
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c. Pentagonal Number Observed that the number sequence is
n = 1 1
n = 2 1+4 = 5
n = 3 1+4+7 = 12
n = 4 1+4+7+10 = 22
n = 5 1 +4+ 7+10+13 = 35
n = 6 1+4+7+10+13+16 = 51
which can be generalized as Pn = ½(3n² - n) = ½(3n² - n)
Expanding the pentagonal number sequence: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 90, 117, 145, …
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
d. Hexagonal Number Observed that the number sequence is
n = 1 1
n = 2 1+5 = 6
n = 3 1+5+9 = 15
n = 4 1+5+9+13 = 28
n = 5 1+5+9+13+17 = 45
n = 6 1+5+9+13+17+21 = 66
Which can be generalized as Hn = ½(4n²- 2n) = 2n²-n
Expanding the hexagonal number sequence: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91,120, 153, 190, …
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 5: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices
(corners) of the polygon. Following are polygons: triangle,
quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexagon.
Determine the number of

diagonals in a heptagon and an
octagon.
Solution: The sequence of the diagonals is shown in the table.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Solution: Applying the difference table, we get
Thus, the pentagon has 14 diagonals, while the octagon has 20 diagonals.
Verifying the result of the sequence using the diagrams of a pentagon and an
octagon.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Example 6: Given a circle with n points on its perimeter what is the maximum
number of regions determined by the chords and the circle rim.
Solution: We will set the visual representation with the case when n=0 and
continuing the case to n=6.
We first locate a point on a circle and

connect it with other point on a circle
and we count the number of regions it
generates; we will continue this process
as we add one point at a time. Figure 3.5
shows the number of chords and regions
produced with given n points on a circle.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Solution: The result of the preceding observations is summarized in the
table.
If we were to drew out seven points on a

circle, we would be able to count and find that
the maximum number of regions is 57. If we were
to continue it to n 8, we could obtain a
maximum of 99 regions. We can observe the
pattern using a portion of Pascal’s Triangle in
Figure 3.6. If the Pascal’s triangle will be
split as shown in the diagram, then only the
numbers to the left of the portion am added.
Rows, the result gives us the pattern.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
3.6 Mathematical
Problems Involving
Patterns
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS
Magic Square of Order 3 Magic Square of Order 4
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
WHAT IS PALINDROME?
A palindrome is a number (or word, or
phrase) sequence of characters (or
symbols) which reads the same backward
as forward, for example 131, 12321,
1234, 321, etc. Palindrome maybe in the
form of palindromic number, palindromic
triangle, palindromic primes, and
others.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
9-digit palindromic primes:
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Did you know? Pascal’s Triangle
Blaise Pascal
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
One of the simple number triangles is shown below, the product of any two
consecutive number vertically is contained in the same column.
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
EXAMPLE NO. 1:
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And Reasoning
Solution:
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
Solution:
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
EXAMPLE NO. 2:
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SOLUTION:
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Problem Solving
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EXAMPLE NO. 3
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SOLUTION:
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Problem Solving
And Reasoning
WHAT IS ALPHAMETIC?
An Alphametic is a type of number puzzle containing sum (or other

arithmetic operation) in which digits (0 to 9) are replaced by letters
of the alphabet. One of the most famous alphametic puzzles is the one
introduced by HENRY DEDENEY in 1924.
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
EXAMPLE NO. 4:
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SOLUTION:
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
SOLUTION:
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning
CHAPTER 3
Problem Solving
And Reasoning

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CHAPTER 3

Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning;

Articulate the importance of mathematics in one's life.

The conclusion drawn by using inductive reasoning is called

Therefore, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.

Essay test is difficult.

Therefore, all test are difficult.

Mark is a Science teacher.

Therefore, all Science teacher is bald.

All birds have feathers.

Therefore, ducks have feathers.

Therefore, Christopher won't be able to go to work.

All Science teachers are bald.

Therefore, Mark is bald.

Note: Logical reasoning maybe valid but not necessarily true.

Srinivasa Ramanujan G. H. Hardy

REALISTIC ANALYSIS OF MATHEMATICAL INTUITION SHOULD BE A CENTRAL GOAL OF

Part of Step 4 is to find a way to check your answer, preferably using a

Understand the problem

Suppose the NCAA Basketball

The team may have won three

Make an organized list of all

Use a strategy to each order. One strategy is to start to write Ws,

The list above is organized

Two times the sum of a number

Read the question carefully.

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN

We solve for the value of x,

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

Carefully analyze the problem.

STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN

We will be working backwards.

If the length of the top of a

We are looking for the length and

Length is 15 longer than width (l

Apply the area of the rectangular

STEP 4: LOOK BACK

Mathematics is useful to predict and number pattern is about

Example 1: Identify whether the following are finite or infinite sequence.

A difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the

a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, … b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, … c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …

Determine the number of

Solution: The sequence of the diagonals is shown in the table.

We first locate a point on a circle and

If we were to drew out seven points on a

Magic Square of Order 3 Magic Square of Order 4

An Alphametic is a type of number puzzle containing sum (or other

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